Lesson 10: Reason and Impartiality as Requirements for Ethics

Lesson Content

You might be wondering, “Why should human beings be moral? Why should I do what is right?

Here are some compelling reasons:

a. It is enlightened self-interest- “I will be better off”

b. It is the traditional law- “Because some authority says so”
c. It is responsibility—It is expected from me”
d. It is what is fair and equitable—“it is about fairness and justice”

But most of all,

e. People have shared human needs, goals, desires, and/or objectives; and these are better
met when people treat each other in a manner that promotes what is right and good.

Is reason a requirement for morality?

A relevant definition of reason to our topic is “the power of the mind to think,
understand, and form judgments by a process of logic” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). However,
one of the most influential philosophers in the history of Western Philosophy, Immanuel Kant,
argued that reason alone is the basis for morality, and once the person understood this basic
requirement for morality, he or she would see that acting morally is the same as acting
rationally (Beck, 1960). In Kant’s view, the definition of morality alone shows that a person
must decide what to do. You, as a person, are able to think and reflect on different actions and
then choose what action to take. That a moral decision means mere desires did not force you
to act in a particular manner. You acted by the power of your will.

As a student, you are constantly in turmoil on whether to study or not to study. You
know the importance of studying and the consequence of not studying. However, you also
know the importance of taking a break from a daily grind. So when exams are coming and you
feel so stressed from fulfilling all school requirements and you feel the need to take a break-in
Kant’s argument that morality is based on reason, what is the moral choice?

Is impartiality a requirement for morality?

Before discussing how impartiality is related to morality, it is important to understand

what impartiality is. It is a broad concept, but it is also identified as a core value in professional
codes of ethics. Impartiality is commonly understood as a principle of justice. It denotes that
decisions should be “based on objective criteria rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or
preferring to benefit one person over another for improper reasons” (Jollimore, 2011);
impartiality stresses everyone ought to be given equal importance and not favour one class
(people, animals, or things) in a capricious way.

How is impartiality a requirement for morality? For example, during an exam you saw
your friend (who is sitting next to you) secretly open her notebook to look for an answer on one
of the test questions. Your teacher noticed that your classmate was doing something
suspicious. He called your classmate and asked if she was cheating. She surreptitiously closed
her notebook and answered, “No”. Your teacher did not trust your classmate’s answer so he
asked you. What will you say? According to philosopher and Professor Dr. James Rachels, for
your decision to be moral, you should think how your answer will affect your friend, your
teacher, the rest of your classmates, and how it will affect you as a person. An impartial choice
involves basing your decision on how all the persons in the situation will be affected, and not to
the advantage of a particular party you favour.

Thus for the question, “are reason and impartiality a requirement for morality?” let us
go back to what Dr. Rachels (2004) said: morality “at the very least is the effort to guide one’s
action based on the most logical choice (reason) while giving equal importance to the interests
of each person affected by your decisions (impartiality)” .

A key distinguishing feature of a moral dilemma is that it typically arises when

individuals or groups might be harmed, disrespected, or unfairly disadvantage (Beall, 2017).
Most ethical decisions lie in a gray area. Often times you are faced with a situation where there
are no clear-cut or obvious choices; the situation cannot be determined by simple quantitative
analysis of data. Ethical decision-making requires interpretation of the situation, application of
your values, and estimating the consequences of your action. In real life, our situations do not
only involve between right and wrong; good or bad. Oftentimes, it is about choosing between
good and better or bad and worse.

Knowing this, you would ask, how do you make ethical decisions? Here is a 7-step
model for ethical decision-making. Ethical decision-making is a process of evaluating and
choosing among alternatives in a manner that is consistent with moral principles (University of
California, 2004).

Making ethical choices requires the ability to make distinctions between competing options.
Here are seven steps to help you make better decisions.

The 7-step model for ethical decision-making

Adapted from 2nd gen. CHED-GET, XU Training

 1. Gather the facts
2. Identify the stakeholders
3. Articulate the dilemma
4. List the alternatives
5. Compare the alternatives with the principles
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision

Gather the Facts

Do not jump to conclusions. Ask questions (who, what, where, when, how, and why).
There may be instances when facts are hard to find or are not available because of the
uncertainty that surround ethical issues. Nevertheless, gather as many facts as you can. Clarify
what assumptions you are taking.

Identify the stakeholders

Identify all the persons involved and will be affected in an ethical situation. Who are the
primary stakeholders? Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why are they stakeholders in the
issue? Get the proper perspective. Try to see the situation through the eyes of the people
affected.

Articulate the Dilemma

Once you have gathered the facts and identified the stakeholders, it is important that
you express the ethical dilemma. What are the competing values? The purpose of articulating
the dilemma is to make sure that you understand the situation and the moral conflict you are
facing. Awareness and comprehension are important in making the right decision, especially
when there are lives that will be affected.

List the Alternatives

Think creatively about potential actions, as there may be choices you neglected. This
will help ensure that you have not been pushed back into a corner. For example, you may
already have solution A and solution B. Try to brainstorm and come up with solution C that
might satisfy the interest of the primary parties involved.

Compare the Alternatives with the Principles

In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you want to uphold in making your
decision. Then compare whether your alternative actions are in line with your values.
Identifying the values and comparing your action with these values are important because it
will help identify if your alternative action is illegal or unethical, thus making this action easy to
discard.

Remember the scenario we presented early in our discussion where you were a junior
executive, and you accidentally found out that your officemate was making anomalous
transactions at the expense of your company? (Introduction, topic 1, When do you say a
situation is a moral experience). You were in a dilemma on whether or not to divulge what you
knew because you found out about the anomaly by illegally logging in to your officemate’s
computer. Your possible actions were to keep quiet, confront your officemate, or report him to
the administration. In this situation, what are the values that need to be upheld? Let us say, the
value is honesty. Now, compare the alternatives with the value of honesty. Does keeping quiet
uphold honesty? No. Does confronting your officemate uphold honesty? No. Does reporting
your officemate to the administration (even if you had to admit that you illegally used his
computer) uphold honesty? Yes. Thus, based on this list, you now know which among the
three possible actions the moral decision is.

Why is it important to have a system in making decisions? In systematically considering

your set of values, the risk of overlooking important principles and considerations are reduced.
Hence, the chance of doing something you will regret in the future is also reduced.

Weight the Consequences

When considering the effects of your actions, filter your choices to determine if your
options will violate ethical values. Determine how all the stakeholders will be affected by your
decision.

Make a decision

Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must avoid “paralysis by analysis”

or the state of over-analysing (over- thinking) a situation so that a decision or action is never
taken, in effect paralyzing the outcome. There is no easy, painless decision to a moral
dilemma. However, it is also important that the decision you make reflects the value you want
to uphold.

Learning Activities of Lesson 10

Directions: answer the following below, 10 points each. Submit your answer on or before
Tuesday (June 8,) through email (kennmark.edulan@jhncsc.edu.ph) or messenger (Kenn Mark
Josh Edulan II).

1. When can we say that we are impartial in our decision?

 2. When can we say that we are rational in our choices, which of the two elements
influence you the most in decision making, reason or emotion/feelings?

Ps. highly suggested to use MS-Word (encoded) for easy downloading in my part. And
don’t forget to write your name in the file and above your answer

Lesson 11: Moral Courage

Lesson Content

Moral courage is the courage to put your moral principles into action even though you
may be in doubt, are afraid, or face adverse consequences. Moral courage involves careful
deliberation and mastery of the self. Moral courage is essential not for only a virtuous life, but
also a happy one because integrity is essential to self-esteem.

However, according to philosopher Mark Johnson, acting morally often requires more
than just strength of character (Drumwright and Murphy, 2004). Johnson added it is important
to have “an ability to imaginatively discern various possibilities for acting within a given situation
to envision the potential help and harm are likely to result from a given action (Johnson, 1994).”
This ability is called moral imagination.

Moral imagination is “ability in particular circumstances to discover and evaluate

possibilities not merely determined by that circumstance, or limited by its operative mental mode
or merely framed by a set of rules or rule-governed concerns (Werhane, 1999).” Although it is
necessary component, moral imagination is not sufficient alone for moral decision-making.
Moral reasoning still needed.

How can one practice moral courage? This is where the “will” comes into play. It takes
determination and willpower to act on and stand by your moral principles.

What is will?

Generally, “will” is the mental capacity to act decisively on one’s desire. It is the faculty
of the mind to initiate action after coming to a resolution following careful deliberation
(Joachim, 1952). Within ethics, “Will is an important topic along with reason because of its role
in enabling a person to act deliberately.

On the concept of “will” in classical Philosophy, Aristotle said: “the soul in the living
creatures is distinguished by two functions, the judging capacity which is a function of the
intellect and of sensation combined, and the capacity for exciting movement in space” (Hett,
1964).

Why is the “Will” as important as reason?

Aristotle believed that “will “is the product of intellect and sensation; and that “will”
gave the person the capacity for “exciting movement in space”. For example, Riza is torn
between buying a new smart phone or save up a trip outside the country. On one hand, she can
afford the smart phone now. On the other hand, she would be nowhere near her target travel
date because her savings is still far from enough. Riza weighed the pros and cons between
buying a new phone and saving up for her trip. Eventually, she decided to walk away from the
store and go to the bank to deposit her money. It was Riza’s will that enabled her to walk out of
the store without buying the phone she liked.

Developing the “Will”

Aristotle discussed the difference between what people decide to do and what they
actually do. In Aristotle’s philosophy, using the intellect to decide is just one part of the moral
decision. The resolve to put the decision into action is the role of the “will”. He said since vice
and virtues are up to us, “we become just by the practice of just actions; self-control by
exercising self-control; and courageous by practicing acts of courage (as translated by Baird,
2016).

Self-mastery therefore is the product of the “will” that is achieved by actually putting
rational, moral choice into action.

Learning Activity of Lesson 11

Directions: answer the question below, 10 points. Submit your answer on or before Tuesday
(June 8,) through email (kennmark.edulan@jhncsc.edu.ph) or messenger (Kenn Mark Josh
Edulan II).

1. How important is moral courage for a person to be moral?

Ps. highly suggested to use MS-Word (encoded) for easy downloading in my part. And
don’t forget to write your name in the file and above your answer