Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.

)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY
FACULTY OF BASIC MEDICAL SCIENCES
COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES
BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO
1 SEMESTER 2020/2021 ACADEMIC SESSION (200 LEVEL)
st

GENERAL HISTOLOGY (ANA2142) FOR ALLIED HEALTH SCIENCES

(NURSING, MEDICAL LAB, OPTOMETRY, RADIOGRAPHY, AND PHYSIOTHERAPY)

TISSUE PROCESSING
Tissue processing may be performed manually or with the help of automated tissue
processor.
Manual
In this process the tissue is changed from one container of reagent to another by hand.
Advantages
➢ Can be used when the number of tissue blocks is limited
➢ Non-availability of automated tissue processor
Disadvantages
➢ Difficult to use when large number of tissue blocks are to be processed
➢ Proper agitation of reagent not achieved
➢ More evaporation of reagents
➢ Process is tedious and requires constant attention
Automated
The device can handle larger number of tissues, process more quickly and produces better
quality outcome.
Advantages of automated tissue processor - Saves time, decreases human error, effective
fluid circulation, Temperature can be adjusted and vacuum/pressure can also be
incorporated
STAGES INVOLVED IN TISSUE PREPARATION
The following are the stages involved in preparing a tissue:
1. Sample collection
2. Fixation
3. Dehydration
4. Clearing
5. Embedding
6. Sectioning
7. Staining
8. Mounting reagent
9. Cover slipping

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

1. SAMPLE COLLECTION:
➢ Biopsy samples are samples collected from a living body
➢ Autopsy (necropsy) samples are samples collected from a dead individual.

2. FIXATION: The specimen is delivered to the laboratory immediately after the sample
collection, the tissue is labeled and placed in a 10% formalin fixative solution. This fix or
preserves the tissue to prevent decomposition.

3. DEHYDRATION: It is the process of removing water from tissues. It is important because

paraffin is not miscible with water. Dehydration is usually complete when less than 3-4%
of water remains in the tissues.

Dehydrants: Ethyl alcohol, Methyl alcohol, Butyl alcohol and Isopropyl alcohol.

The most commonly used dehydrant is ethyl alcohol.

Alcohol Method: The tissues are passed through a series of progressively more concentrated
alcohol baths. Concentration of first alcohol bath depends on the fixative and size and type of
the tissue, e.g. delicate tissue needs lower concentration of alcohol and smaller interval
between two strengths of alcohol.

Usually 70% alcohol is employed as the first solution and100% as the last solution. After about
40 tissues have passed through the first change of alcohol, it is discarded and all the other
changes are brought one step lower. Absolute alcohol at the end is always fresh.

Usually tissues are kept in each solution for 40 to 60 minutes.

Acetone - Acetone is clear colourless inflammable fluid which is miscible with water,
ethanol. It is used for complete dehydration. Four changes of acetone of half an hour or
two changes of one hour are given to achieve complete dehydration of tissues.
Advantages
➢ Rapid action
➢ Easily removed by most clearing agents
➢ Less expensive
Disadvantages
➢ Highly volatile
➢ Causes shrinkage and brittleness of tissues
➢ Dissolves lipid more than ethanol

4. CLEARING: Clearing is a process which leaves the tissues clear and transparent. This term
relates to the appearance of the tissues after the dehydrating agent has been removed. If
the refractive index of the clearing agent is similar to the protein of tissue the tissue
becomes transparent. The end point of clearing can be noted by the transparent
appearance of the tissue. Thus, clearing serves two purposes
1. Removes alcohol to make paraffin impregnation complete

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

2. Acts as solvent for the mounting media which renders the tissues transparent and
improves the refractive index, making microscopic examination easier.
Clearing Agents
Xylene - It is colourless and most commonly used. Two changes of one hour each are
given to get the end point. Prolonged treatment hardens the tissues. It is not preferred
for brain tissue.
Other Clearing Agents
➢ Toluene
➢ Dioxane
➢ Cedarwood oil
➢ Cloroform
➢ Benzene
➢ Carbol-xylene - clears rapidly, it is kept reserved for material difficult to clear.

5. EMBEDDING: Paraffin is used to embed tissue because it is capable to convert from liquid
to solid form. In addition, paraffin wax supports the enclosed tissue. After clearing, tissues
are transferred to molten paraffin wax for filtration and impregnation. During this process
clearing agent diffuses out and molten wax is infiltrated. The wax which has infiltrated in
the tissue is allowed to cool and the specimen is embedded into molds. This process is
called impregnation. After embedding is complete, the paraffin block is ready for
sectioning.

6. SECTIONING (microtomy): The paraffin blocks are cut using a microtome. The blocks are
chilled using a tray because the cold wax makes a clean cut compared to wax cut at room
temperature. A microtome cuts very thin slices of specimen for microscopy. A single slice
is known as a coupe, and it needs to be 1-7 µm thick if it is an animal tissue and 10-15 µm
thick if it is a plant tissue. The cut section form paraffin ribbons and is placed on a hot
water bath. After drying the wet slides, they are ready to satin. There are different types
of microtome, namely:
➢ Vibrating microtome
➢ Freezing (cryostat) microtome
➢ Rotational microtome
➢ Ultramicrotome
➢ Sledge microtome
➢ Hand microtome

7. STAINING: Simply put the nucleus and cytoplasm as the two major components. The
purpose of staining is to identify different tissues components through the color reactions
A routine stain (Hematoxylin stains) is one that stains the various tissue elements with
little differentiation except between nucleus and cytoplasm. Hematoxylin stains the
nucleus blue whereas eosin stains the cytoplasm pink

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

Special staining (Iron stain) can be used for specific purposes. Special stains are used to
determine bacteria, virus, fungi, and intercellular structures. Iron stain helps to determine
if recent or remote hemorrhage is present
8. MOUNTING REAGENT: Is a substance that penetrates through the stained tissue, and has
a purpose to refract light under the microscope.

9. COVERSLIPPING: The purpose of a cover slip or top glass cover that sandwiches the
tissue and glass slide is both for protection and for microscopic examination of the
enclosed tissue.

Microscopy
Microscopes allow us to see organisms and objects that we cannot see with our
naked/unaided eye. Microscopes help us to see small objects and organisms by making them
appear bigger, called magnification. However, this is not entirely useful to us. Think about
a time you have tried to make a picture bigger on your computer. It became bigger but also
became blurry. This is because the resolution is not increased.
Microscopes also increase resolution. Resolution is defined as the minimum distance two
points can be apart and still be distinguished as two separate points. Microscopes make it
easier to see two very close points.

Because objects in the microscopic world are so small, we must use a small unit to measure
them. To measure small objects, we use a unit called the micron (μm or um), also called a
micrometer. There are 1,000 microns in a millimeter and 1,000,000 in meter. The human eye
is unable to distinguish points that are less than 100μm (0.01mm) apart. Anything less than
100μm is too small for a human to distinguish.

To increase resolution, microscopes use lenses. Different microscopes use different numbers
of lenses. For example, a simple microscope uses one lens. A compound microscope uses
two or more lenses. When there is more than one lens, each lens helps focus the image onto
the next lens. In a compound microscope, the first lens focuses the image on the second lens,
the second lens focuses on the third and so on until the image reaches your eye. By using
multiple lenses, microscopes can resolve points that are separated by more than 200
nanometers1 (nm).

Lenses come in a variety of shapes and sizes. This affects how well an image will be magnified
and resolved. The magnification and resolution of lenses are measured in powers. A power
is how many times bigger the lens makes an object appear. A 5-power lens magnifies an
image five times it actual size. This would be written as 5X; the X stands for times. The power
of a single lens is called the magnification power.

If there are two lenses, you multiply the powers of each lens together to determine the total
power. For example, you have a microscope with two lenses. The first lens has a

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

magnification power of 4X and the second has a magnification power of 10X. The total power,
or what you would see in the end, is 40X. The total power of two or more lenses combined
together is called the power of magnification.

There are a variety of microscopes

There are many types of microscopes in use today. These microscopes can be classified into
two:

1. Light microscope
2. Electron microscope

Light microscope

This is the most common type of microscope. The light microscope uses light and lenses to
magnify, resolve, and view a specimen. Light microscopes are great for magnifying and
resolving certain objects and specimens. However, they can only magnify to certain point.
Beyond this point, the image will always be blurry and the resolution will be poor. We can’t
fix this even if we add more lenses. This is the result of how light works. In order to see the
structures inside a cell we need to use an electron microscope. A normal compound light
microscope has two lenses situated in it, objective and eyepiece.

The maximum magnification an objective lens has is 100X and eyepiece lens posses a
maximum magnification of 10X giving total maximum magnification of a light microscope to
be 1000X

There are several types of light microscopes, a few of which are mentioned below.

1. Bright-Field Microscope. The type we us in our classroom is called a bright-field

microscope. A bright-field microscope shines light from below the specimen. The light
passes through the specimen and to the objective lenses.
2. Dark-Field Microscope. The opposite of a bright-field microscope is called the dark-
field microscope. A dark-field microscope shines light at an angle to the specimen
instead of below it. The result is a very dark background and a much lighter colored
specimen.
3. Fluorescence Microscope. A third type of light microscope is the fluorescence
microscope. This requires a special type of microscope with lenses that only allow
fluorescent light to pass through. This also requires a special chemical that will dye a
specimen.

Electron microscopes

Electron microscopes use electrons instead of light to see a specimen. Electron microscope
work by shooting electrons from an electron gun at the specimen. Electron microscopes do
not use glass lenses but rather electromagnetic lenses. Electrons have mass which means

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

they cannot pass through glass. It is similar to trying to through a tennis ball through a
window. Electron microscopes use magnets to direct the electrons to the specimen. The
result is a very detailed image of the specimen. There are two kinds of electron microscopes.

1. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a

type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning the surface
with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with the sample, producing
various signals that contain information about the surface topography and composition
of the sample.
➢ SEMs usually use acceleration voltages up to 30 kV
➢ SEM has a magnification limited of 1–2 million times.

2. Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM). A beam of electrons is passed through

the specimen. Electrons that make it through the specimen make the image. TEM permits
higher magnifications than SEM because it uses a high voltage electron beam. This does
not allow us to use living specimens. The result is a black and white image that is two-
dimensional.
➢ TEM acceleration voltages can range from 60–300 kV
➢ TEM has a magnification of more than 50 million times

Microscopes have many parts

The following are parts of a microscope and their functions:
1. Eyepiece (ocular). This is where you look into the microscope to see the image of the
specimen. It magnifies the image one last time (10X) before focusing it to your eye. Inside
the eyepiece you may see an arrow. This is called the pointer. It allows you to share what
you see with another person.
2. Body Tube. This allows light to travel from the objective lens to the eyepiece. It also
supports the eyepiece.
3. Nosepiece. The nosepiece holds and rotates the three objective lenses.
4. Objective Lenses. A typical microscope has three to four objective lenses with
different magnification, they are colour coded for easy identification. These lenses are
attached to the nosepiece and vary in size. They are:
➢ Scanning objective lens (4X): this is the least powerful lens and has a red band
colour
➢ Lower power objective lens (10X): has more magnification power than 4X and
has a yellow band colour
➢ High power objective lens (40X): this is also referred to as the high dry lens and
has a blue band colour
➢ Oil Immersion (100X): Provides the most powerful magnification and has a
white band colour
5. Arm. The arm holds the upper portion of the microscope. It is also one of the safe
carrying spots on the microscope.
6. Coarse Adjustment Knob. This is a large knob found on the side of the microscope.
The knob allows you to move the stage of the microscope so you can focus the specimen.
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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

You must be careful when using the coarse adjustment knob; it moves the stage and
unfocuses specimens quickly.
7. Fine Adjustment Knob. This small knob is found under the coarse adjustment knob.
It helps you make smaller adjustments to focusing your image.
8. Slide. This is not part of the microscope. However, it is required to use the
microscope. The slide is a thin piece of glass used to hold the specimen.
9. Stage. The stage is the large black square found under the objective lenses. Its
purpose is to hold the slide. In the middle of the stage you will see the aperture and below
it is the diaphragm. You will also have two stage clips on the stage.
10. Stageclips. These hold the slide in place.
11. Aperture. The aperture is a small, glass opening in the center of the stage. It allows
light to pass from the lamp, through the stage, and to the objective lens.
12. Diaphragm. This is a round disk found under the stage. There are five holes different-
sized holes in the disk. It controls how much light passes through the aperture.
13. Lamp. It generates light.
14. Base. It holds up the microscope. It is the second safe carrying spot.

Follow the rules of microscope use

Microscopes are expensive tools. They have a high initial cost, maintenance can be expensive,
and replacing parts can also be expensive. Therefore, it is important to follow the rules of
microscope care.
1. Never touch any lens. The lenses need to be kept as clean as possible. Putting your
finger on them will leave oils and other residues that will make it difficult to focus. If your
lens is dirty you need to use special paper to clean it. This prevents the lens from being
scratched.
2. Always start and finish on the lowest objective lens (4X). There are several
reasons why you should start and finish on the lowest objective lens. First, starting there
ensure you will have an easier time focusing. Second, finishing on the low objective
prepares you to shut down the microscope. Third, finishing on the low objective makes
it easier and safer (for the microscope) to remove the slide.
3. Always carry the microscope by the arm AND base. Image the microscope as a
baby: it’s delicate, fragile, cute, but it doesn’t make unusual smells. It is important to carry
it correctly to prevent dropping it or damaging any of its parts.
4. Clean the microscope when you are done with appropriate materials. It’s
inevitable: the microscope will get dirty. Cleaning up any messes promptly will keep the
microscope in better shape, reduce the wear and tear on the parts, and make it easier to
operate. (Imagine minerals crystallizing in the diaphragm: it’s happened and it’s hard to
clean!) Only use approved materials to clean the microscope.
5. Always keep the microscope away from the edge of any surface. Gravity is mean
to microscopes. Keeping a microscope near the edge is a chance for it to fall off and break.
6. Only use the coarse adjustment knob on the low power objective lens (4X).
Remember: the coarse adjustment knob moves the stage quickly. Using this on low power
is fine because the stage will never hit the objective lens. However, the use of the coarse

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

knob on medium and high power can result in the lens hitting the slide and causing
damage. Plus, the fine adjustment knob is much easier to use on higher powers!
7. Keep both eyes open when looking in the microscope. Keeping both eyes open
prevents fatigue and is easier to do. If you have trouble seeing in the microscope with
both eyes open, cover one eye with a hand. It feels awkward, but it is worth it!

Proper microscope use requires following the correct procedure

The following procedure is the best way to prevent any accidents with a microscope. The
following five procedures are what we do most commonly with the microscopes.

Getting your microscope ready

1. Remove the dust cover first and plug it in second.
2. Set the nosepiece to the lowest objective.
3. Lower the stage as far as it can go.
4. Set the diaphragm to the lowest (1) setting.
5. Turn on the light.

Placing the slide on the microscope

1. Rotate the stage clips to the side of the stage.
2. Pick up the slide without touching the cover slip (hold the slide by its edges).
3. Place the slide with specimen directly over the aperture.
4. Secure the slide with the stage clips.
Focusing
1. Look into the eyepiece.
2. Rotate the coarse objective knob until the specimen comes into focus.
3. Use the fine adjustment knob to further focus the specimen. Adjust the diaphragm as
needed.
4. Place yourself at eye-level with the slide, stage, and objective lenses.
5. Rotate the nosepiece so that the middle objective lens is used.
6. Focus the specimen using only the adjustment knob. Make adjustments as necessary.
7. Repeat steps 4-6 for going to the high power. You must have permission to go to high
power.

Removing a slide
1. Return the nosepiece to the lowest objective lens. If you are on high power you must
go to medium power and then low power.
2. Lower the stage as far as it can go.
3. Set the diaphragm to the lowest setting (1).
4. Remove the stage clips from the slide and rotate them to the side of the stage.
5. Remove the slide.

Shutting down the microscope

1. Set the nosepiece to the lowest objective lens.

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

2. Lower the stage as far as it can go using the coarse adjustment knob.
3. Set the diaphragm to the lowest setting (1).
4. Turn off the light.
5. Place the dustcover over the microscope.

A Light Microscope

CYTOLOGY
The Cell Theory can be summarized as:
1. All living organisms are made up of one or more cells
2. The cell is the basic unit of life
3. All cells come from the division of pre-existing cells
cells come in many shapes and sizes, although most are microscopic:
• most cells are small, about 0.001 cm in length (1/100 of a mm, or 10 μm).
• the smallest cells of the microorganism mycoplasma are 0.3 μm in size
• Some cells are large. e.g. some giant algal cells may be several centimeters long. A chicken's egg is a
single cell.
• The human body produces about 2.5 million new red blood cells every second
• Human beings are composed of about 50 to 100 trillion cells.
At the most basic Level, the cell's overall structure can be viewed as:
1. Cell Membrane
2. Nucleus
3. Organelles cell's overall structure
4. Cytoplasm

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

1. Cell Membrane: the thin layer which separates the cell contents from it's environment.
2. Nucleus: specialized structure within the cell which contains DNA and controls cell functioning
and reproduction.
3. Organelles: small bodies with specific structures and functions within the cell.
4. Cytoplasm: the liquid substance between the nucleus and the cell membrane, in which the
organelles are located.

Two classes of cells exist: the PROKARYOTES and the EUKARYOTES.

Prokaryotes
They include the bacteria and the blue-green algae (the Monera kingdom). These are all single-
celled organisms that lack both a true nucleus and other membrane-bounded cellular substructures
(organelles). Prokaryotic DNA is usually circular.
Eukaryotes
The Eukaryotes include plants, animals, protozoa, and fungi. These cells contain nuclei and other
membrane-bound organelles. The genetic material is organized into chromosomes.

Eukaryotic
Structure Prokaryotic Animal Plant
Cell Membrane YES YES YES
Cell Wall YES NO YES
Nucleus NO YES YES
Mitochondria NO YES YES
Chloroplasts NO NO YES
ER NO YES YES
Ribosomes YES, (small) YES, large YES, large
Vacuoles NO YES, small YES
Lysosomes NO YES, usually NO, usually
Cytoskeleton NO YES YES
Centrioles NO YES NO

CELL MEMBRANE
The Cell Membrane and the “Fluid Mosaic” Model
• the cell membrane functions in transport of materials in and out of cell, recognition, communication,
and homeostasis.
Cells are surrounded by a thin membrane of lipid, cholesterol and protein,
• scientists today agree upon The Fluid Mosaic Model of membrane structure. The cell membrane is
a remarkable structure that has properties of a solid and a liquid.
• It forms a "fluid sea" in which proteins and other molecules like lipids or carbohydrates are
suspended (like icebergs) or anchored at various points on its surface.
the “sea” or “fluid” part is composed of side by side phospholipids arranged in a bilayer (called a
lipid bilayer).
• The solid part (the “mosaic”) is the variety of proteins etc. embedded in the bilayer.
• each phospholipid has a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophylic head.

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

• the membrane is SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE (will let some substances in but not others of the
same size).

Cell Membrane

THE NUCLEUS (the Cell’s CPU)

NUCLEUS
The nucleus is a large, centrally located organelle surrounded by nuclear envelope. The nuclear
envelope is a double membrane (2 phospholipid bilayers thick) that has pores in it for molecules to
enter and exit). The envelope is very porous and is a continuation of the membranes of the
endoplasmic reticulum. The pores, called nuclear pores, allow selected molecules into and out of
the nucleus. It is also believed that these pores are the routes by which genetic messages (RNA)
pass into the cytoplasm.
Is the control center or "brain" of cell. Contains the DNA and is site of manufacture of RNA. The
DNA is contained by a number of chromosomes, which consist of long strands of DNA tightly wound
into coils with proteins called histones. The combination of DNA and histone proteins is known as
CHROMATIN. Chromosomes function in packaging of DNA during nuclear division and control of
gene expression
The nucleus, therefore, determines the metabolism, growth, differentiation, structure, and
reproduction of cell.
• The nucleus contains one or more DARK-STAINING discrete structures, known as NUCLEOLI,
which are sites of RIBOSOMAL RIBONUCLEIC ACID (rRNA) SYNTHESIS

Cell Nucleus

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

Some of the cell organelles are:

1. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
2. Ribosomes
3. Polysomes
4. Golgi Apparatus
5. Vacuoles and Vesicles
6. Lysosomes
7. Mitochondria
8. Centrioles
9. Cytoskeleton
10. Microtubules & Microfilaments

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

• the ER is a system of MEMBRANOUS TUBULAR CANALS that begins just outside the nucleus and
branches throughout the cytoplasm.
• if ribosomes are attached to the ER, it is called ROUGH Endoplasmic Reticulum. The function of
rough ER is protein synthesis.
• if no ribosomes are attached to the ER, it is called SMOOTH Endoplasmic Reticulum. The function
of smooth ER is synthesis of lipids (Lipids are required for the growth of the cell membrane and for
the membranes of the organelles within the cell and are often used to make hormones) and also to
detoxify drugs and chemicals in the cell (takes place in peroxisome vesicles which are often
attached to smooth ER).
The endoplasmic reticulum membranes provide an increase in surface area where chemical
reactions can occur.
The channels of the reticulum provide both storage space for products synthesized by the cell and
transportation routes through which material can travel through other parts of the cell. The
endoplasmic reticulum is also the cell's membrane factory. Phospholipids and cholesterol, the
main components of membranes throughout the cell, are synthesized in the smooth ER.
•Most of the proteins leaving the endoplasmic reticulum are still not mature. They must undergo
further processing in another organelle, the Golgi apparatus, before they are ready to perform
their functions within or outside the cell.

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

Endoplasmic Reticulum

RIBOSOMES
• consist of rRNA and proteins ribosome
• each ribosome is made of 2 non-identical subunits
• rRNA is produced in the nucleolus and joined with proteins -- then migrate through the nuclear
pore to the cytoplasm for final assembly
• ribosomes attach themselves to the endoplasmic reticulum
• function is site for PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Ribosomes

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

POLYSOMES
• free-floating structures within the cytoplasm
• generally produce proteins the will be used inside the cell
• consist of clusters of ribosomes bunched together, each of which is transcribing the same type of
protein

GOLGI APPARATUS
The Golgi Apparatus (“X” in diagram), named after an Italian anatomist of the nineteenth century, are
stacks of flattened, hollow cavities enclosed by membranes, which are often continuous with the
membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum.
• located near to the nucleus and ER.
• The stack is made of a half-dozen or more saccuoles. Looks like a flattened stack of hollow tubes.
Each sac in the organelle contains enzymes that modify proteins as they pass through.
• Thus, the Golgi apparatus functions in modification, assembly, packaging, storage and secretion of
substances.
• it receives newly manufactured protein (from the ER) on it's inner surface. Within the Golgi
apparatus, the proteins are sorted out, labeled, and packaged into vesicles that "pinch off" the outer
surface of the saccuoles. These vesicles can then be transported to where they are needed within the
cell, or can move to the cell membrane for export to the outside of the cell by exocytosis.

Golgi apparatus

VESICLES (Storage Depots)

• A VESICLE is a small vacuole
• vacuoles and vesicles are formed by: 1) pinching off from the Golgi apparatus 2) endocytosis of the
cell membrane
• are used for transport and storage of materials

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

LYSOSOMES (Cellular “Stomachs”)

• special vesicles which are formed by the Golgi apparatus.
• contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes
• functions in 1) cellular digestion 2) autodigestion or disposal of damaged cell components like
mitochondria 3) breakdown of a whole cell (by releasing their contents into the cell cytoplasm). For
this reason, they are sometimes called “suicide sacs.”
• Lysosomes are known to contain over 40 different enzymes that can digest almost anything in the
cell, including proteins, RNA, DNA, and carbohydrates.
• Lysosomes also appear to perform other digestive processes, such as those connected with
phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
• Lysosomes help destroy invading bacteria.

Lysosomes

PEROXISOMES are also single-membrane organelles. Peroxisomal enzymes remove hydrogen atoms
from small molecules and join the hydrogen atoms to oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide, and then
break it down into water and oxygen

MITOCHONDRIA (the Cell’s Powerhouse)

•Mitochondria are the largest organelles in an animal cell, after the nucleus.

•Are sausage-shaped or filamentous structures surrounded by a double-layered membrane.

Mitochondria vary in diameter from 0.5 to 1 micrometer and in length up to 7 micrometers. (about
the size of bacteria).

•The mitochondrion has two membranes: an outer and an inner. The inner is convoluted into shelf-
like folds called cristae. The enzymes responsible for cellular respiration are arranged, in assembly-
line fashion, on the cristae. This is where energy is produced.

•function is AEROBIC ENERGY METABOLISM (also called CELLULAR RESPIRATION). Converts

glucose and fatty acids to ATP, the cell's primary energy molecule, as well as lesser amounts of other
energy rich molecules. The overall formula for cellular respiration is:

Carbohydrate + O2 CO2 + H2O + ENERGY (i.e. ATP)

In the end, 38 molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) are formed for every molecule of sugar
that is used up in respiration.

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

• Besides supplying energy, mitochondria also help control the concentration of water, calcium, and
other charged particles (ions) in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria have some of their own DNA molecules and ribosomes that resemble those of
procaryotic cells.
• Human mitochondrial DNA is a closed, circular molecule 16,569 nucleotide pairs long.
• Mitochondria are also self-replicating. They "reproduce" by splitting in half.
• mitochondria may have evolved from bacteria that once developed a close relationship with
primitive eucaryotic cells, and then lost the capacity to live outside the cell.
• Another interesting characteristic of human

Mitochondria

CENTRIOLES
• Animal cells have two cylindrical bodies, called centrioles, located near the nucleus. The centrioles
appear as sets of triple tubules. Centrioles play a part in cell division.
• Centrioles are short cylinders with a 9+0 pattern of microtubular triplets.
• each animal cell has one pair of centrioles lying at right angles to each other next to the nucleus
• centrioles give rise to basal bodies. Basal bodies direct the formation of cilia and flagella
• assist in the formation of the spindle apparatus in cell division.

Centrioles

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 Lecture note compiled by S.M. Atabo (DVM., MSc., Ph.D.)
Email: smatabo.van@buk.edu.ng

CYTOSKELETON
• The network of filamentous proteins structures within the cell that help it maintain shape, anchor
organelles, or help the organelles move as necessary. The primary constituents of the cytoskeleton
are microtubules and microfilaments.

MICROTUBULES & MICROFILAMENTS

•Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical aggregates of tube-like structure that help give the cell shape
and form; they are also involved in other cell processes.
•made up of 13 rows of globular proteins arranged to form a hollow tube
serve in moving materials within the cell, cell movement, cytoskeleton structure.
•Microfilaments are long, thin, contractile rods that appear to be responsible for the movement of
cells (both external and internal movement).
•made up of double filaments arranged in a helical pattern, with each filament consisting of
numerous globular proteins joined together.
•serve in anchoring organelles and moving them within the cell, cell movement, cytoskeleton
structure.

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