Name: Matthew Ramlochan

Class: Grade 11 NS

School: JC Chandisingh Secondary

Teacher: Miss Kimberly Permaul

Subject: Human and Social Biology

Topic: Types of Pathogens

1. Viruses
Viruses are infectious agents of small size and simple composition that can multiply only in living cells
of animals, plants, or bacteria, examples include dengue virus, hepatitis c virus and corona virus. The
name is from a Latin word meaning “slimy liquid” or “poison.”
Viruses rely on the cells of other organisms to survive and reproduce, because they can’t capture or
store energy themselves. In other words they cannot function outside a host organism, which is why
they are often regarded as ‘non-living’. Outside a cell, a virus wraps itself up into an independent
particle called a virion. The virion can “survive” in the environment for a certain period of time, which
means it remains structurally intact and is capable of infecting a suitable organism if one comes into
contact. When a virion attaches to a suitable host cell – this depends on the protein molecules on the
surfaces of the virion and the cell – it is able to penetrate the cell. Once inside, the virus “hacks” the
cell to produce more virions. The virions make their way out of the cell, usually destroying it in the
process, and then head off to infect more cells.
Once a person is infected with a virus, their body becomes a reservoir of virus particles which can be
released in bodily fluids – such as by coughing and sneezing – or by shedding skin or in some cases
even touching surfaces. The virus particles may then either end up on a new potential host or an
inanimate object. These contaminated objects are known as fomites, and can play an important role in
the spread of disease.
Example
Influenza Virus (Flu)
-Symptoms

 Fever
 Aching muscles
 Chills and sweats
 Headache
 Dry, persistent cough
 Shortness of breath
 Tiredness and weakness
 Runny or stuffy nose
 Sore throat
 Eye pain
 Vomiting and diarrhea, but this is more common in children than adults
-Causes
Age (very young or very old)
A weakened immune system leads to greater risk
Chronic illnesses increases risk
 Living conditions such as working in nursing homes or even hospitals
-Control/Treatment
 Wash your hands regularly and avoid touching your face
 Cover your coughs and sneezes to prevent more spread
 Clean surfaces regularly
 Avoid too much crowds

2. Bacteria
Bacteria, also called germs, are microscopic organisms not visible with the naked eye. Bacteria are
everywhere, both inside and outside of your body. Bacteria can live in a variety of environments, from
hot water to ice. Some bacteria are good for you, while others can make you sick. Bacteria are single-
celled, or simple, organisms. Though small, bacteria are powerful and complex, and they can survive
in extreme conditions. Bacteria have a tough protective coating that boosts their resistance to white
blood cells in the body.
Some bacteria have a tail, called a flagellum. The flagellum helps a bacterium to move around. Other
bacteria have sticky hair-like appendages that help bacteria them stick to one other, hard surfaces, and
human body cells. There are many bacteria in the human body, especially in the stomach and mouth.
Bacteria are found on surfaces and in substances such as water, soil, and food.
Though there are many more good bacteria than bad, some bacteria are harmful. If you consume or
come in contact with harmful bacteria, they may reproduce in your body and release toxins that can
damage your body’s tissues and make you feel ill. Harmful bacteria are called pathogenic bacteria
because they cause disease and illnesses like strep throat, staph infections, cholera, tuberculosis, and
food poisoning
Examples
Diseases Symptoms Causes Control\
Treatment

 Diarrhoea Infection of the  Oral or intravenous

 Nausea and intestine with hydration
Cholera Vibrio cholerae  Use of antibiotics
vomiting
 Dehydration bacteria by namely,
 Muscle Cramps swallowing food furazolidone,
 Shocks or water doxycycline,
contaminated with azithromycin and
this bacterium. ciprofloxacin
Vegetables grown
with water
containing human
wastes
Raw or
undercooked fish
and seafood
caught in waters
polluted with
sewage

 Weakness Consuming food  Use of antibiotics

 Abdominal pain and water that are ciprofloxacin (for
Typhoid contaminated with non-pregnant adults)
 Constipation
 Headaches infected fecal and ceftriaxone
 Rarely diarrhoea matter
It is caused by a
and vomiting
bacterium
called Salmonella
typhi
 pain when Unprotected sex  Use of antibiotics
urinating because it can be namely,
Gonorrhoea transmitted during azithromycin and
 a green, white, or
yellow discharge this time from doxycycline.
from the penis or infected person  Abstaining from sex
vagina It is caused by as much as possible
 swollen or painful the bacterium
testicles Neisseria
 painful joints gonorrhoeae
 rash
 fever

 Coughing for three Tuberculosis (TB)  Be clean and healthy

 or more weeks is caused by a with whatever you
Tuberculosis  Coughing up blood bacterium called do and wear a mask
or mucus Mycobacterium  Finish your
 Chest pain, or pain tuberculosis. medications for TB
with breathing or HIV, which or it might get worse
coughing suppresses the  Use of vaccines,
 Unintentional immune system e.g., infants often
weight loss and lead to the are vaccinated with
 Fatigue spread of TB bacille Calmette-
 Fever Having a Guerin (BCG)
 Night sweats weakened immune vaccine
system by not
 Chills
eating and/or
 Loss of appetite
working healthy

Role of antibiotics in treating bacteria

A product made by one microorganism to kill off another microorganism is called an antibiotic.
The first antibiotic to be discovered was called Penicillin after the organism Pencillium that produced
it. Antibiotics used in medicine work in various ways to inhibit the development of bacterial infections,
without harming human cells. Antibiotics only affect bacterial cells - there is no benefit in taking
antibiotics to treat viral or fungal diseases.
Bacterial antibiotics kill the pathogen directly, whereas bacteriostatic ones prevent it reproducing, leaving the
host’s defenses to kill the existing pathogens. Antibiotics are a powerful germ-fighting tool when used carefully
and safely. But up to one-half of all antibiotic use isn’t necessary. Overuse has led to antibacterial resistance.
Bacteria adapt over time and become “super bacteria” or “superbugs.” They change so that antibiotics no
longer work on them. They pose a big threat, because there aren’t any medicines to kill them.

These are the types of infections that can be treated with antibiotics; Some ear and sinus infections,
Dental infections, Skin infections, Meningitis (swelling of the brain and spinal cord), Strep throat,
Bladder and kidney infections, Bacterial pneumonias, Whooping cough, Clostridioides difficile. Side
effects of antibiotics may include; Vomiting, Nausea, Diarrhoea, Bloating or indigestion, Abdominal
pain, and loss of appetite.

3. Protoctists
Protoctists is a kingdom consisting of unicellular or simple multicellular organisms that possess nuclei
and cannot be classified as animals, plants, or fungi. Some protoctists, such as Amoeba, have features
like an animal cell. Others, such as Chlorella, have chloroplasts and are more like plants. Some
protoctists are pathogens.

Most protist diseases in humans are caused by animal-like protists, or protozoa. Protozoa make us sick
when they become human parasites. Protozoan infections can have a wide range of effects on the body
depending on the type of single-celled parasite, or protozoa, involved. Protozoa that spread through
unclean food or water usually affect the digestive system by living and multiplying in the intestines.
Other organs can be affected as well as the parasite spreads. Protozoa that are transmitted through an
insect bite usually cause a fever and inflammation among other physical problems. Symptoms of
parasitic infections can include digestive problems, irritability, chronic fatigue, acne, rashes, sleep
problems, anemia, muscle cramps, allergies and headaches.

Example

Malaria

-Symptoms

 shaking chills that can range from moderate to severe

 high fever
 profuse sweating
 headache
 nausea
 vomiting
 abdominal pain
 diarrhea
 anemia
 muscle pain
 coma

-Causes

Malaria is caused by the Plasmodium parasite. The parasite can be spread to humans through the bites of
infected mosquitoes
It can also be transmitted by blood through an organ transplant, a blood transfusion or even uses of shared
needles or syringes

-Control/Treatment

 Using certain medications to stop the growth and spread of the disease
 Sleeping under a mosquito net may help prevent being bitten by an infected mosquito.
 Covering your skin or using bug sprays against mosquitos may also help prevent infection

4. Fungus
Fungus is any of a group of spore-producing organisms feeding on organic matter, including moulds,
yeast, mushrooms, and toadstools. Fungal infections are common throughout much of the natural
world. In humans, fungal infections occur when an invading fungus takes over an area of the body and
is too much for the immune system to handle. Fungi can live in the air, soil, water, and plants.
Fungi cause human illness in three different ways: poisonings, parasitic infections, and allergic
reactions.
Many fungi protect themselves from parasites and predators by producing toxic chemicals. If people
eat toxic fungi, they may experience digestive problems, hallucinations, organ failure, and even death.
Most cases of mushroom poisoning are due to mistaken identity. That’s because many toxic
mushrooms look very similar to safe, edible mushrooms.
Some fungi cause disease when they become human parasites. Two examples are fungi in the
genera Candida and Trichophyton; which can lead to yeast infection in the blood and the latter can lead
to skin infection.
Mold allergies are very common. They are caused by airborne mold spores. When the spores enter the
respiratory tract, the immune system responds to them as though they were harmful microbes.
Symptoms may include sneezing, coughing, and difficulty breathing. 
Example
Athlete’s foot
-Symptoms

 Scaly, peeling or cracked skin between the toes

 Itchiness, especially right after taking off shoes and socks
 Inflamed skin that might appear reddish, purplish or grayish, depending on your skin color
 Burning or stinging
 Blisters
 Dry, scaly skin on the bottom of the foot that extends up the side

-Causes
Frequently wear enclosed footwear
Sweat heavily
Share mats, rugs, bed linens, clothes or shoes with someone who has a fungal infection
 Walk barefoot in public areas where the infection can spread, such as locker rooms, saunas,
swimming pools, communal baths and showers
-Control/Treatment
 Antifungal creams and sprays are effective at managing the infection.
 Let your feet air out
 Wash your feet regularly
 Change socks regularly
 Sprinkle antifungal powder on feet and in your shoes daily
 Protect your feet in public places

5. Worms
Intestinal worms, or parasitic worms, are simple organisms that feed off the human body. Many people
recognize the more common varieties, such as tapeworms and hookworms, but may be less aware of
the others.
Intestinal worms can cause many symptoms in the body, some of which are similar to the symptoms of
other gut disorders. Many times people get worms by accidentally swallowing them or their eggs.
Some worms can go through your skin when they are young and small. Sometimes you get worms
when an infected insect bites you or when you eat meat from an infected animal. Many times people
get worms by accidentally swallowing them or their eggs. Some worms can go through your skin when
they are young and small. Sometimes you get worms when an infected insect bites you or when you
eat meat from an infected animal.
A person with intestinal worms may also experience dysentery. Dysentery is when an intestinal
infection causes diarrhea with blood and mucus in the stool. Intestinal worms can also cause a rash or
itching around the rectum or vulva. In some cases, you will pass a worm in your stool during a bowel
movement. Some people may have intestinal worms for years without experiencing any symptoms.
Examples
Tapeworms
-Symptoms

 Nausea
 Weakness
 Diarrhea
 Abdominal pain
 Hunger or loss of appetite
 Fatigue
 Weight loss
 Vitamin and mineral deficiencies

-Causes
Eating food especially uncooked that is infected with the eggs
Ingesting water contaminated with tapeworm eggs or larvae
Preparing food after using the toilet and not washing hands thoroughly before
-Control/Treatment
 Medications to paralyze tapeworms which are then passed out and egested
 Severe cases may include medical procedures
 Avoid raw fish and meat.
 Thoroughly cook meat and fish to temperatures high enough to remove any danger
 Freezing meat to -4 degrees F for at least 24 hours also kills tapeworm eggs.
 When traveling in undeveloped countries, cook fruits and vegetables with boiled or chemically
treated water before eating.
 Wash hands with soap and hot water before preparing or eating foods.
Threadworms (pinworm)
-Symptoms

 disturbed sleep
 itching of the anal area, which may sometimes be intense, especially at night when the female
worms are laying eggs
 mild nausea
 loss of appetite
 severe irritability
 intermittent abdominal pain
 weight loss

-Causes
Swallowing the eggs from infected food
Breathing in the eggs
Poor hygiene and lack of pet hygiene
Overcrowding in places where worms are present
-Control/Treatment
 Use of medications like ‘mebendazole’ to kill the worms
 Making sure surfaces and rooms are cleaned and disinfected
 Making sure nails are short and to always wash hands after handling anything dirty