SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY GRADE 9

TEACHER: SAVITREE NANDLALL-JAGDHARRY June 3, 2020

TOPIC: LIMESTONE

What is Limestone?

Limestone is a common, chemical sedimentary rock formed primarily from calcium carbonate.

It is generally light-colored and can also include fossils of calcium carbonate-containing

organisms, like corals. Limestone can be found all over the world and is the major type of rock

found in karst features (crystal cave systems found in bedrock).

How is it formed?

Limestone is a sedimentary rock. It forms predominantly on the sea floor where material rich in

calcium carbonate ('calcareous' material) accumulates. This calcareous material may

be organic, chemical or detrital in origin.

The sediment that goes to make up limestone may have been derived from the dead remains of

marine organisms such as:

 bryozoa

 corals

 crinoids

 microscopic algae

 shells

These organisms remove calcium carbonate (CaCO3) from the sea water to construct shells or

skeletons.
CaCo3 cement, which may be fine grained (called micrite) or coarse grained (called sparite),

holds the fossils (such as coccoliths and foraminifera) together to form a limestone.

Of all the sedimentary rocks found on Earth, almost ten percent of them are some form of

limestone. Because it is widely available, it has been used throughout the centuries for many

uses, from building materials to chemical additives. Two of the most famous limestone deposits

are the islands of the Florida Keys and Niagara Falls.

PROPERTIES OF LIMESTONE

There are two types of sedimentary rocks: chemical and clastic. Limestone is a chemical

sedimentary rock, which forms from the solidification of minerals out of solution into rock

form. Because the chemicals in limestone can be readily dissolved by acidic solutions and water,

they are able to form karst topography.

Karst topography forms when limestone bedrock chemically reacts with liquids to form unusual

features, like stalactites and stalagmites, which are the strange pointy features found in crystal

caves around the world and sinkholes. When calcium-rich minerals in limestone are dissolved

into groundwater, it forms what is referred to as hard water or water that has higher than normal

pH and mineral content.

Depending on the conditions under which they formed, limestone can take on a number of

structural shapes, including granular (looking like mineral grains), massive (looking like an

irregular blob), crystalline (looking like individual, well-formed crystals), or clastic (looking like

fragments of rock). When limestones of any type undergo metamorphism, they re-crystallize as

marble. Because all limestone contains calcium carbonate, which reacts with hydrochloric acid to
produce bubbles, acid testing is considered one of the most reliable field tests for limestone and

calcite mineral identification.

TYPES OF LIMESTONE

There are several different types of limestone, including travertine, oolitic, and fossiliferous. All

types of limestone form from a combination of calcium carbonate-containing minerals, primarily

calcite and aragonite:

 Travertine is a banded, rocky-looking form of limestone, typically forming near water

bodies like streams or springs.

 Oolitic limestone is an oozy-looking form of limestone in which individual grains of

calcite or aragonite form rounded blob-like masses.

 While all types of limestone contain some amount of fossilized marine organisms,

fossiliferous limestone is the variety that contains obviously visible fossil fragments.

These fragments are primarily corals and foraminifera (a type of aquatic amoeba).

In any type of limestone, any variations in the color from the typical light white to pale yellow

are a result of impurities, such as clay or sand grains, non-calcium organic remains, and irons.

LIMESTONE FEATURES

Limestone is the name given to rock which is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. Calcium

carbonate is a chemical compound of calcium, carbon and oxygen. The chemical formula for

calcium carbonate is CaCO3. Limestone is a sedimentary rock which is formed underwater. Some

limestone consists mainly of coral or the shells of other small marine creatures. Limestone may

also be precipitated from seawater.

Limestone is a permeable rock. This means that water can enter limestone through pores, joints

or cracks in the rock. Another characteristic of limestone is that it can be slowly dissolved by

water. When groundwater or rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide, it becomes a weak acidic

solution which is especially effective at dissolving limestone. Because of these simple facts,

wherever limestone is in contact with rainwater or groundwater, some interesting limestone

features tend to develop.

COMMON LIMESTONE FEATURES

Sink holes: A sink hole (or swallow hole) is a natural depression or hole in the Earth’s surface

commonly found in limestone areas. They are formed when joints or fissures in the rock are

enlarged by carbonation or when the roof of an underground cavern collapses. Sometimes a river

or stream may “disappear” down a sink hole and continue flowing underground. The photo

below shows a large sinkhole located in China.

This limestone feature is a large sinkhole known as the Xiaozhai Tiankeng

Caves: A cave is a naturally occurring underground hollow or passage, especially one with an

opening to the surface of the Earth. Caves often form in limestone areas when underground water

dissolves the rock, forming tunnels passages and even large caverns. There are several caves in
Barbados, the most famous of which is Harrison’s cave. Part of Harrison’s Cave can be seen in

the photo below.

Limestone Features seen at Harrison’s Cave, Barbados

Many interesting limestone features can be found within limestone caves. Some common ones

are stalactites, stalagmites and pillars.

Stalactites:Water dripping from the ceiling of a cave contains dissolved calcium carbonate.

Some of this calcium carbonate may be deposited on the ceiling of the cave. Over time the

deposition of calcium carbonate will form an elongated feature which hangs down from the

ceiling. This feature is known as a stalactite. Several stalactites can be seen in the photo above.

Stalagmites: As water drips from the ceiling onto the floor of the cave, calcium carbonate may

be deposited on the floor of the cave. Over time this may form an elongated feature which rises

vertically from the cave floor. This feature is known as a stalagmite.Several stalagmites can be

seen in the photo above.

Note: A simple way to avoid confusion is to remember that stalactite has a “c” for “ceiling” and

stalagmite has a “g” for “ground”.

Pillars: A stalagmite may form directly below a stalactite as water drips from the ceiling of the

cave onto the floor. The stalactite may continue to grow downwards and the stalagmite may

continue to grow upwards until the two limestone features eventually meet. When this happens

they form a new feature known as a pillar or column which extends all the way from the ceiling

of the cave to the floor. A limestone pillar can be seen in the photograph below.

This limestone pillar is found in the Cango Caves in South Africa

 KARST LANDSCAPES

In many limestone areas, the chemical weathering processes of solution and carbonation have

produced distinctive landscapes known as karst landscapes. Karst landscapes are dominated by

features such as sinkholes, disappearing streams and caves. One well known karst landscape in

the Caribbean is the Cockpit Country in Jamaica. On the map of Jamaica below, the Cockpit

Country is shown as an area outlined in pink.

Map of Jamaica showing Cockpit Country, (Map by DieBuche)

The Cockpit country is a large area with many small hills and depressions. This karst landscape

was formed in an area with white limestone. In this area, the rock has many joints. These joints

cross each other as some run from east to west and others run generally from north to south.

Water collects in these joints. Therefore the rock near the joints is dissolved relatively quickly

forming depressions. Small hills form in areas which are further away from the joints as the rock

in these areas is not dissolved as quickly. The photo below shows a small part of the Cockpit

Country.

The Cockpit Country, Jamaica

There are many caves and sinkholes within the Cockpit Country. No rivers or streams can be

found on the surface in the area because they have all disappeared into swallow holes and flow

underground through caves.