Goldhia

ttism

Gate in Fort Son Cristöbol, symbolic of

Spanish power

Discover You will learn to...

How did Spain'spoliticaltroublesin the explain Spain's political crisis in the
century affect Puerto Rico? How did
nineteenth
nineteenth century.
relations
Puerto Rico and Spain change after the identify how this crisis chongedpoliti-
wars of inde-
pendence in Latin America? What wasthe col conditions on the island.
Constitution
of Cådiz? How did it benefitPuerto Rico? What
kind list the different forms of laborin
of work did Puerto Ricansdo duringthe nineteenth
Puerto Rico in the nineteenthcentury.
century? What was it like to be a slave?What were
identify the most importantformsof
some of the methods of repressionthat were used?
repression and despotism.
 A Political Crisis and Reorganization in the Colonies

Spain's political crisis in the early nineteenth

century set the course for changes in its relations
with Puerto Rico. The creation of the intendancy
in 1811, the inclusion of Puerto Rico and Cuba
in the Spanish Parliament of 18 12, and the estab-
lishmentof the Provincial Council (Diputaciön
Provincial) of 1813 were important political
reforms.During that period, liberals in Spain were
workingto limit the power of the monarchy.
Meanwhile, wars for independence were raging
in the Americas.

However, the reforms that the Spanish liber-

als introduced between 1808 and 1812 were
revoked once Ferdinand Vll returned to power.
As you may recall, Ferdinand Vll had become
Napoleon's prisoner. When he returned to the
throne in 1814, he restoredan absolutemonar-
chy insteadof keeping a constitutionalmonar-
chy. He also repealed the Spanish Constitution
of 1812 and the parliament(Cortes).The liberal
reformsin the Americas thus came to an end.

Naturally, there was strong opposition to the king

after he took these measures, especially from the
people in the colonies. By 1824, Spain had lost
all of its possessionsin South, Central, and North
America. How would Spain's last two colonies in
the Americas react to political tensions? Do you
know which were the last colonies?

Indeed, they were Cuba and Puerto Rico. You may recall that it was King
Ferdinandwho approved the Cédula de Gracias. The charter'spurpose
wasto develop an export economy. It legalized trade with the United
States,although in a limited manner. Thanks to the charter, Cuba and
Puerto Rico were able to enjoy some economic prosperity.Agricultural
production grew in Puerto Rico because there was more trade. The
Cédula de Gracias also opened the door to immigrants,leading to popu-
lation growth as well.

Thesemeasuresinfluenced politics in Cuba and Puerto Rico, and they

helped keep both islands loyal to Spain. While other colonies were
becoming independent, Cuba and Puerto Rico strengthened their ties
to Spain. Of course, this was the result of the changing economies of
these two islands.As it had always been the case in the Caribbean, export
agricultureand slavery kept the colonial systemalive.

Spain: Absolute Monarchy or Constitutional
Monarchy?
We have seen that whenever Spain faced a political
the
crisis,its colonies across the ocean alwaysfelt
a ited by the constitution and by the parliament.
consequences. In the early nineteenth century,
in
new political crisis in Spain led to new reforms
the Antilles. This happened when King Ferdinand
Vll returned and restored the absolute monarchy.
The king thought that everyonewould welcome
his return and would allow him to rule however
he wanted. The people of Spain, however, had
not forgotten the positive effects of liberal reforms
such as the Constitution of 1812, and the Cortes
of Cådiz.
In 1820, General Rafael de Riego led the army in
a revolt againstthe king. They demanded the res-
toration of the Constitution of 1812. When civil-
iansjoined the cause and angry crowds assembled
outside his palace, King Ferdinand was forced to
concede to their pressure.The constitution insti-
tuted suffrage (the right to vote) for men, as well
as free trade and a free press. It also called for the
distribution of lands, abolished the religious tribu-
nal known as the Inquisition, and included Cuba
and Puerto Rico as provinces of Spain.
Thus, a second constitutional period began
Spain. It is called the Liberal for
Triennium
Constitutional Triennium because it lasted
until 1823. During this three
years, period, the king
absolute authority.
did
not have His power was
lim-
you learned in unit 4, the Cortes, or parliament,
included elected representatives from all the prov-
inces. Spain now had a constitutional monarchy
political system that limits a king's power.
Spanish Politics and Colonial Policies
In Puerto Rico, the governor, who was knownasthe
captain general, exercised political, military,andjudi-
cial power. He was the highest authority on the island
and was also in charge of administrative affairs.Often,
the governor ruled in a despotic manner,which
meansthat he did not allow the peopleof Puerto
Rico to participate in the political decisionsthat
would affect them. The people had little protection
against the governods abuse of power.
The Spanish constitution allowed Puerto Ricans—that
is, adult men who were landowners—to be represent-
ed in the Spanish parliament. They could also choose
the membersof the ayuntamientos, or town councils.
Town councils were the cities' governments and they

Restoring the Constitution of 1812 led to

these changes in Puerto Rico:

Direct participation in Possibility of electing a

Possibility and
Separation of eivi-l
the Spanish parliament, of electing
provincial council
municipal officials military government

Demetrio O'Da1y
In charge of Francisco Gonzalez
Town councils
supervising public
Jose Maria de Linares, head of
works, and directing
the civil government
and inspecting the
schools.
Miguel de la Torre,
head of the military
government

were made up of a mayor and severalcouncil mem-
bers.In addition, the constitution had establishedthe
Diputaciön Provincial, or provincial council. It was an
administrativegroup that supervised public works and
directed and inspected the schools. The governor
appointed its members.
During this second constitutional period, Demetrio
O'Daly was the first of Puerto Rico's representa-
tives at parliament O'Daly wanted more schools,
a university,and free trade for Puerto Rico. His
effortsmet with little success. In 1822, José Maria
Quiöones took O'Daly's place. Quiöones, along
with Félix Varela of Cuba, convinced the Cortes to
limit the governor's powers. Each overseas province
would still have a Spanish governor, but he would
need to work together with the provincial council.
Around the same time, Puerto Rico's government
was split into 0/0 parts. Francisco Gonzålez de
Linareswas appointed civil governor. Miguel de
la Torre became the captain general, head of the
militarygovernment.The new government sub-
dued a slave revolt in Guayama, only to be faced
with a conspiracyfor an independent "Boricua
Republic." The conspirators included businessmen
from several countries, whose motives had more to
Repression was evident under Miguel de 10 Torre, even
though he encouraged parties and celebrations.
do with money than with patriotism.Much of the
financing came from investorsin the United S&tes
and from French immigrants living on the island.
The leader was a German-French adventurer and
mercenary named Heinrich (Henri) Ducoudray
Holstein, chosen for his military experience, but
the planned attack never took place.
Back under the Absolute Monarchy:
The Administration of Miguel de la Torre
The reformsintroduced in Puerto Rico lasted only
a short time, since Spain's Liberai Triennium ended
in 1823. It ended becausethe Holy Alliance, a
group formed by kings of several European pow-
ers, believed that liberalism in Spain was a threat
to their absolute monarchies as well. United,
they sent troops to Spain to restore Ferdinand
Vll's absolute monarchy. Once again, the Spanish
Constitution and the liberal reforms in Spain were
repealed.
These changes, of course, affected Puerto Rico.
From then on, there would only be one governor:
Miguel de la Torre. He governed the island for
fifteen years, from 1823 to 1837. That period is
called the quincenario (fifteen years) of Miguel
201
 In Spain had already signed a treaty promisin
de la Torre. His regime had another nickname. abolish the dave trade in Coba and Puerto
B's
Spanish, it was the Government of the Three Nonetheless, De la Torre gave special permits
we could
(baile, botella y barajas), but, in English, dave traders allowing them to sell slavesin
dancinp„
say it was the regime of the Three D's: Guayama, Mayagüez, and San Juan. Durin
encouraged
drinking, and dice. Miguel de la Torre la Torre's fifteen-year term, the slave trade
parties,to drink,
people to have fun at dances and population grew significantlyin Puerto Pico
allegedly to keep
and to gamble, His purpose was 1812, the number of slaves was 17,536. By
independence
people's minds off ideas in favor of it had risen to 51,265. With so manyslaves,
government His
or from conspiring against the plantations were able to expand, but the
not rebel"
theory was: "A nation that revels does ment had to issuea new code to keep the growi
Influenced
(pueblo que se divierte no conspira). slavepopulation under control.
Americas,
by the wars of independencein the
spreading
separatist(independence) ideals were Delayed Promises: Special Laws
through Puerto Rico.
The death of King Ferdinand in 1833 brought
De la Torre's strategydid not stop at distracting
more political turmoil to Spain. The heir to
people. It also included persecution, imprison-
Ferdinand's throne was his daughter, Isabella
ment, exile, and even execution. De la Torre also
reorganized Puerto Rico's military system.The aim
She was still a child, however. Her mother,Maria
Cristina of Bourbon, was named regent until
was to keep other European nations from invading
Isabella was old enough to reign. Conservatie
the island and to fight piracy and smuggling. For
this reason, he ordered forts to be built in Vieques,
factions within the Spanish monarchy did not
Fajardo, Arecibo, Cabo Rojo, and Guayanilla. acknowledge Maria Cristina. They believedthat
Under his command, the famed pirate from Cabo the rightful heir to the throne was Charles
Rojo, Roberto Cofresi, was captured and executed (Carlos) of Bourbon, the king's brother.Hissup-
by firing squad. porters were called Carlists. As a civil war raged,
Maria Cristina had no choice but to seek thesup-
De la Torre also ordered that all small landowners port of liberals in order to remain on the throne.
pay their debts. Those who did not had their lands As a result, a new, more liberal constitutionwas
confiscated.The land would be handed over to approved and the Cortes were restored.
merchants, most of them peninsulares. In addition,
De la Torre imposed new regulationsfor keeping This time, however, the Cortes decreed thatthe
poor people, laborers, and slavesunder control. Constitution did not apply to Puerto Ricoand
Cuba. The two islandswould no longerbe able
For example, in 1824 he established the Bando de to send delegates to the parliament Instead,the
Policia y Buen Gobierno (an ordinance for public Cortes announced in 1837 that "speciallaws•
order and good governance).Any man over the would apply to these two islands.This decision
age of sixteenwho did not have a trade or a per- highlighted the fact that the people of Puerto
manentjob was classifiedas an idler and was put Rico and Cuba were merely subordinatesandnot
to work. The idea was to end subsistence farming.
citizens of the mother country. It was alsoa rec-
All of the men that were available in Puerto Rico
ognition of the differences that existed between
would be involved in the export economy. Then,
the realities of Spain and the realitiesof Cubaand
in 1826, De la Torre's administration issued a
regu- Puerto Rico.
lation for slavesthat establishedhow they should
behave. It also determined the type of punishment
Spain promised special laws for its Antillean colo-
slaves would receive in case they misbehaved
or nies, but writing these laws took thirty years.In
did not complete work that was assignedto them.
the meantime, the captain generals who govern
Puerto Rico during those thirty years continuedto
eoe

rule in a despotic way. Between 1837 and 1868,
Puerto Rico's government found many ways to
increaseits control over the people.
For instance, it created a residential identification
paper (pasaporte de vecindad) that each person
had to carry in order to go from one neighborhood
or town to another. The government also levied
moretaxes and imposed new rules against idleness
and vagrancy.
These rules included documents and passbooks
(libretas)that workers had to carry. All these
measures,and the suppressionof any attempt to
revolt, were aimed at strengthening the agricul-
tural export economy.
Above all, though, these strategies were aimed
at keeping Puerto Rico under Spain's control. By
regulatingwork and restricting the movements of
the peasantsin the countryside, the government
hoped to gain the support of the island's wealthy
elite and stay in power. With a strong export
economyto help them make more money, the
wealthywould continue to support Spain. Spain,
meanwhile,was not willing to risk losing its power
over its valuable Antillean colonies.
Sugar in Puerto Rico symbolized both sweet progress and bitter suffering.
Sugarcane workers, both slaves and day laborers, endured many hardships.
Plantations and Slave Labor
Throughout the Caribbean, the expanding sugar
plantation system needed more and more slave
labor. In the British and French possessions,this
expansiontook place from the mid-seventeenth
to the mid-nineteenth centuries. In Puerto Rico
and Cuba, it happened a little later. In Cuba it
took place mainly during the eighteenth cen-
tury, while in Puerto Rico it was not until the
nineteenth century. There had been slaves here
since the sixteenth century, but the sugar industry
required more slaves than ever before.
As more slaves were brought here during the
nineteenth century, more towns began producing
sugar. Slave labor helped to clear lowlands and
valleys for sugarcane planting. More haciendas
(plantations) appeared in Rio Piedras, Loiza, and
the Toa Valley. In 1811, these regionswere pro-
ducing a little more than sixty percent of the sugar
on the island. Shortly, however, sugar production
spread to many other places.
Particularly on the coastal plains, trees were cut
down to clear the land for sugar.Sugarcanefields
appeared in northern Puerto Rico around Vega
203
 Baja and Arecibo, as well as in Fajardo, Humacao,
and Naguabo in the east French-ownedplanta-
tions led sugar production in the southeast, in the
areas of Yabucoa, Maunabo, Patillas, and Arroyo.
Plains to the west, in the areas of Mayagüez,
Aguadilla, Aöasco, and Hormigueros, were also
turned into sugar plantations. Eventually Ponce and
Guayama, to the south, became the most important
sugar-producing areas on the island.
Sugar plantationswere found not only along the
coastal regions,but also in the valleys of Caguas,
Juncos, and Cayey. Here, too, the successof the
plantation depended on slave labor.
Do you know what kind of work the slaves,
including their children, did? In sugar planta-
tions, they were forced to do many chores. Men,
women, and children had to clear, prepare,and
plow the lands. They had to cut and carry the
sugarcane and operate the sugar mills. They also
did all the maintenance chores in and around the
hacienda.
Slaves working on c sugar plantation
04
Thousandsof slaves worked in the sugar planta-
tions, but slaves also worked elsewhere. Some slaves
worked growing coffee and tobacco, although
more day laborers were employed there. It is
mated that in 1864 there were 1.5 to 2.5 slavesfor
every free or day laborer in sugar-producing towns.
By contrast,there were 2.4 to 10.6 day laborers
for each slave in coffee-producing towns, suchas
Las Marias, Maricao, Lares, and Yauco. The con-
nection befiveen slavery and sugarcane was much
stronger than with other crops.
In PuertoRico, as in other parts of the Americas,
there were domestic slaves—houseslaves—inboth
the cities and the country. Some of these slaves
were skilled carpenters, blacksmiths, shoemakers,
tailors, etc. Sometimes owners would rent out their
skilled slavesto work for other people. The money
ey earned was paid to their masters.
SubsistenceFarming, Sharecropping
and Wage Labor
During the first half of the
nineteenth century, the
island's colonial officialstried
to deal with one of the chief
economic problems in Puerto
Rico: the labor shortage. This
shortage affected primar-
ily the large plantations that
raised a single crop for export
Why were there so few work-
ers available? Subsistence
farming was one reason.
Did you know that in a sub-
sistence economy entire
families had to work fora liv-
ing? On small country farms,
children started working at
the age of six or seven.They
carried water, fed the chick-
ens and other farm animals,
did some of the housework,
helped with planting and
weeding and took care of
their younger siblings. Both men and women
cultivated and harvested the crops. The family
depended on every member's contribution. It was
the only way to accomplishall of the necessary
tasksto raiseenough food for a family. These farm-
erswere not available to work on the plantations
and did not need a salary to survive.
Another reason for the shortage of farm laborers
was the sharecropping or tenant farming system. In
Puerto Rico, these farmers were called agregados
or arrimados. Under this system, a person or a fam-
ily settledon a plot of land belongingto a plan-
tation owner. The sharecropper was allowed to
use this plot for subsistencefarming. In exchange,
he would have to work on the plantation, in the
fields or doing other chores. The sharecropperwas
not paid a salary, but did not have to pay rent.
Through this system, the landowner obtained
cheap labor and avoided having his lands settled
by others.
There were variations to the sharecropping system
in Puerto Rico. Different arrangementscould be
made with the landowners. In some cases, the
owner demanded that the sharecropper pay some
or all of the property taxes. On the other hand, at
some coffee haciendas, sharecroppers did receive
wages as day laborers. In still other cases,
plantation owners did not allow sub-
sistencefarming on their lands.
They would let the agregados
live on the land, but they
had to work only on the
plantation.
ere was yet another
reasonfor the short-
age of farm laborers
in Puerto Rico. It was
the abundance of
unclaimed or vacant
lands.These lands had
no known owners or
may have belonged to
the Crown. Many people
in rural areas settled on these
Juande10Pezuelo
Governor
lands and felt no urgent need to
work for money. They could work the land and get
by on subsistencefarming.They might even have
some surplusproduce to sell at the market. For all
these reasons,farm laborerswere scarce and could
not be counted on.
Regulating Paid Labor
Colonial officials and landownersbelieved that
the sharecropping system and so many unclaimed
lands hindered commercial production. This is why
the governmenttook measuresto create a system
of paid labor. One of the measureswas to declare
all sharecroppers idlers or vagrants. The idea was to
turn them into day laborers.
This measurehad been decreed by Miguel de la
Torre, but without much success.In 1847, how—
ever, GovernorJuan de la Pezuela issuedan edict
against idleness.It stated that any man aged six-
teen or older who did not have a trade, profession,
occupation, salary, income, or any valid means of
support would be declared a vagrant. The same
label would apply to someonewho had a trade
but did not work, or whose income was not
enough to cover his needs. This order was aimed
directly at sharecroppers,peasantswithout land,
or people whose portions of land were very small.
You have probably noticed that, at
this time in history, the con-
cepts of vagrancy and idle-
ness were used as excuses
to punish people and to
discourage them from
doing traditional sub-
sistence farming. Work
was now defined
only as "labor done
for money."In addi-
tion, according to
this edict, work could
only be performedby
men, not by women
and children. Do these
definitions of work still
exist today?
eos

Glossary
despotic: Having total power.
Despotic rulers ore often
harsh and abusive.
edict: An official order from
o governmentor o person
with outhority.
Holy Alliance: A groupof
European rulers who signed
o pact in 1815 to defend
Christianity and the obsolUte
monarchy.
Inquisition: An orgonizo-
tion in the Roman Catholic
Church during the Middle
Ages that persecutedand
punished people who did
not accept its beliefs and
practices.
regent: A person who reigns
in place of o monarchwho
is too young to rule, or who
is sick, disabled, or absent.
suffrage: The right to vote in
elections.
triennium: A three-yearterm
or period.
eos
Because the government and landowners needed reliable
and
Stant sources of labor for the plantations, they created the cons
of day laborer (jornalero). A new day-laborer law (the Ley
Jornaleros) went into effect in 1849. This law stated that a day
lab
was any man who could not prove that he either owned land orer
or had
profession or trade to support himself.
By law, eachjornalero was required to look for work on a plantation
He also had to carry a small notebook with him at all times.It th
libreta deljornalero, or the day laborer's passbook. In it, an employer
would write down the worker's contract and his shift, as well as hiscon.
duct and actions. The idea behind this system was to have bettercontrol
over the people who did not own land and bind them to the official
export economy. Bear in mind that this systemwas establishedin the
1840s, when the slave trade was close to being abolished. It wasa of
compensatingfor the expected shortage of slaves.
This representeda complete change in the way all poor PuertoRicans
lived. It had become illegal for them to work or supportthem-
selvesin any way that was not linked with the plantation economy.
Due to these new measures,people were forced to abandonthe
unclaimed lands where they had settled. Sharecropping cameto an
end. Plantation ownershad a new labor force and could plantmore
sugarcane. Soon, planters and businessmen owned most of the land
on the island, which helped widen the gap between the wealthyand
the poor.
lilanati. 186-4.
10 Lajo el
de
LIBRET'.I
A doy laborer's passbook (libreto)