AIRCRAFT FUELING

Aircraft fueling is an operational procedure that is conducted more frequently than

any other. It must be done under a wide variety of conditions and typically must be
completed in a timely manner. The knowledge of aviation fuels and the use of
correct procedures are of extreme importance for safety and efficiency. Use of the
wrong type, wrong grade, intermixed, or contaminated fuels can lead to engine
failure and catastrophe. Therefore, steps must be taken at all levels to assure a clean
supply of the proper fuel is delivered to an aircraft.
To better understand what is required to maintain fuel quality as well as the
importance of proper fueling procedures, it is first necessary to have a basic
knowledge of aviation fuels. This knowledge should include the characteristics of
various grades of aviation fuels as well as the importance of controlling
contamination.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF AVIATION FUELS
The dynamics of the internal combustion cycle demand certain properties from
gasolines. Aircraft engines compound these demands because of the wide range of
atmospheric conditions they must operate under. One of the most critical
characteristics of aviation gasoline is its volatility, which is a measure of a fuel's
ability to change from a liquid into a vapor. Volatility is usually expressed in terms of
Reid vapor pressure which represents the pressure above the liquid required to
prevent vapors from escaping from the liquid at a given temperature.The vapor
pressure of 100LL aviation gasoline is approximately seven pounds per square inch at
100 degrees F. Jet A, on the other hand, has a vapor pressure of less than 0.1 psi at 100
degrees F and Jet B has a vapor pressure of between two and three pounds per square
inch at 100 degrees F.
For obvious reasons, a fuel's volatility is critical to its performance in an aircraft
engine. For example, in a piston engine, the fuel must vaporize readily in the
carburetor to burn evenly in the cylinder.
Fuel that is only partially atomized leads to hard starting and rough running. On
the other hand, fuel which vaporizes too readily can evaporate in the fuel lines
and lead to vapor lock. Furthermore, in an aircraft carburetor, an excessively
volatile fuel causes extreme cooling within the carburetor body when the fuel
evaporates. This increases the chances for the formation of carburetor ice, which
can cause rough running or a complete loss of engine power. Therefore, the ideal
aviation fuel has a high volatility that is not excessive to the point of causing
vapor lock.
Flash Point- the lowest temperature at which a liquid can gives off vapor to form
an ignitable mixture in air near the surface of the liquid.

Fire Point - is defined as the lowest temperature at which vapors of the material will
catch fire and continue burning even after the ignition source is removed.

Freezing Point - is the temperature at which a liquid becomes a solid at normal

atmospheric pressure
 DETONATION
Reciprocating engine aircraft require high-quality aviation gasolines to insure reliable
operation. These fuels are specially formulated to possess certain characteristics that allow
them to function reliably in aircraft. To understand the different numbers used to designate
fuel grades, you must first be familiar with detonation in reciprocating engines.

Detonation is the explosive, uncontrolled burning of the fuel-air charge. It occurs when the
fuel burns unevenly or explosively because of excessive cylinder temperature or pressure in
the cylinder. Rather than gently pushing the piston down, detonation slams against the
cylinder walls and the piston. The pressure wave hits the piston like a hammer, often
damaging the piston, connecting rods, and bearings. This is often heard as a knock in the
engine. Detonation also causes high cylinder head temperatures and, if allowed to continue,
can melt engine components.
Detonation can happen anytime an engine overheats. It also can occur if an improper
fuel grade is used. The potential for engine overheating is greatest under the following
conditions: use of fuel grade lower than recommended, takeoff with an engine that is
already overheated or is very near the maximum allowable temperature, operation at
high rpm and low airspeed, and extended operations above 75 percent power with an
extremely lean mixture.
 PREIGNITION
In a properly functioning ignition system, combustion is precisely timed. In contrast,
preignition takes place when the fuel/air mixture ignites too soon. Preignition is caused
by residual hot spots in the cylinder. A hot spot may be a small carbon deposit on a
spark plug, a cracked ceramic spark plug insulator, or almost any damage around the
combustion chamber. In extreme cases, preignition can cause serious damage to the
engine in a short period of time.
Preignition and detonation often occur simultaneously, and one may cause the other.
Inside the aircraft, you will be unable to distinguish between the two, since both are
likely to cause engine roughness and high engine temperatures.
 PERFORMANCE NUMBERS
Aviation gasoline is formulated to burn smoothly without detonating, or knocking, and fuels are
numerically graded according to their ability to resist detonation. The higher the number, the more
resistant the fuel is to knocking. The most common grading system used for this purpose is the
octane rating system. The octane number assigned to a fuel compares the anti-knock properties of
that fuel to a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane. For example, grade 80 fuel has the same
anti-knock properties as a mixture of 80 percent iso-octane and 20 percent heptane.

Some fuels have two performance numbers, such as 100/130. The first number is the lean mixture
rating, whereas the second number represents the fuel's rich mixture rating. To avoid confusion
and to minimize errors in handling different grades of aviation gasolines, it has become common
practice to designate the different grades of fuel by the lean mixture performance numbers only.
Therefore, aviation gasolines are identified as Avgas 80, 100, and 100LL. Although 100LL
performs the same as grade 100 fuel; the "LL" indicates it has a low lead content.
Another way petroleum companies help prevent detonation is to mix
tetraethyl lead (TEL) into aviation fuels. However, it has the drawback of
forming corrosive compounds in the combustion chamber. For this reason,
additional additives such as ethylene bromide are added to the fuel. These
bromides actively combine with lead oxides produced by the tetraethyl lead
allowing the oxides to be discharged from the cylinder during engine
operation.
 COLOR CODING OF AVIATION GASOLINES

In the past, there were four grades of aviation gasoline, each

identified by color. The old color identifiers were as follows:
80/87 red
91/96 blue 100/130 green 115/145
purple
The only reason for mentioning the old ratings is because
manuals on older airplanes may still contain references to
these colors.
The color code for the aviation gasoline currently available is
as follows:
80red 100green 100LLblue
 TURBINE FUELS
Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering turbojet, turbo-prop, and turboshaft engines. The types
of turbine fuel in use are JET A and JET A-l, which are kerosene types, and JET B, which is a
blend of gasoline and kerosene.

The difference between Jet A and Jet A-l is that Jet A-l has a freeze point of-47F (-52.6C) whereas
Jet A has a freeze point of-40F (-40C). Jet B, which is similar to JP-4, is normally used by the
military, particularly the Air Force. This fuel has an allowable freeze point of-50F (-58C).
One thing to keep in mind is that jet fuel designations, unlike those for avgas, are merely numbers
that label a particular fuel and do not describe any performance characteristics .
 COLOR CODING OF TURBINE FUELS
Unlike the various grades of aviation gasoline that are dyed different colors to aid in recognition,
all turbine fuels are colorless or have a light straw color. Be aware that off-color fuel may not
meet specifications and, therefore, should not be used in aircraft.
 ADDITIONAL MARKINGS

In addition to coloring fuels, a marking and coding system has been adopted to identify the
various airport fuel handling facilities and equipment, according to the kind and grade of fuel they
contain. For example, all aviation gasolines are identified by name, using white letters on a red
background. In contrast, turbine fuels are identified by white letters on a black background.

Valves, loading and unloading connections, switches, and other control equipment are color-coded
to the grade or type of fuel they dispense. The fuel in piping is identified by name and by colored
bands painted or decaled around the pipe at intervals along its length.
 FIRE HAZARDS

Any facility that is storing or handling fuel represents a major fire hazard.
This also holds true for facilities that store or handle aviation fuels.
Therefore, all personnel should be aware of the danger and be trained on
how to handle fuel.
 VOLATILITY

When an aircraft is fueled, vapors rise from the tank. The more volatile the fuel (the higher its
vapor pressure) and the higher the outside temperature, the more vapors are released and the more
caution is required when fueling.

Because of the flammable nature of fuel vapors, no fueling or defueling should be done in a
hangar or an enclosed area. Furthermore, if fuel is spilled, it must be wiped up or washed away
with water as soon as possible. It is extremely important that spilled fuel never be swept away
with a dry broom, as the static electricity generated by the broom can ignite the fuel vapors.

When it comes to storing fuel, aviation fuel should be stored in approved containers only. These
containers must be kept closed and stored in a cool and isolated area that has been approved for
fuel storage.
 STATIC ELECTRICITY

All aviation fuels burn under conditions where they have sufficient oxygen
and a source of ignition. Sufficient air and fuel vapors to support combustion
are normally present during any fuel-handling operation. Therefore, it is
vitally important that all sources of ignition be eliminated in the vicinity of
any fuel-handling operation. Obvious sources of ignition include matches,
cigarette lighters, smoking, open flames, even backfires from malfunctioning
vehicles. However, one source of ignition that may not be so obvious is the
sparks created by static electricity.
To minimize this hazard, it is necessary to eliminate static electrical charges before
they can build up to create a static spark. This is accomplished by bonding and
grounding all components of the fueling system together with static wires and
allowing sufficient time for the charge to dissipate before performing any act which
could draw a spark. Contrary to popular belief, the bleeding off of an electrical charge
from a body of fuel is not always an instantaneous act. In fact, it can take several
seconds to bleed off all static charges from some fuels. Because of this, it is absolutely
essential that the following procedures be followed to bleed off static charges.
When handling aviation fuels:
1. Connect a grounding cable (static wire) from the fuel truck or hydrant cart to ground.
Furthermore, when loading a fuel truck connect the static wire from the loading rack to the fuel
truck before operating the dome cover.
2. Connect a static wire from the fuel truck, hydrant cart, pit or cabinet to the aircraft.
3. When conducting overwing fueling, connect the fuel nozzle static wire to the aircraft before
the tank cover is opened. Underwing nozzles need not be bonded to the aircraft.
4. In general, the dispensing unit should be grounded first, and should ultimately be
bonded to the receiving unit. Dome or tank covers should never be opened during a fuel trans
fer unless all grounds and bonds are in place.
When handling turbine fuels:

1. Minimize splashing during the loading of a fuel

truck by placing the end of the loading spout at, or
as near as possible to the compartment bottom.
2. Do not suspend or lower metal or conductive
objects such as gauge tapes, sample containers,
or thermometers into a tank or fuel truck while
it is being filled. Give any static charge which
may be present a few minutes to bleed off after
filling before using these devices.
3. When filling large storage tanks, minimize the splashing action by slowing the initial flow rate
until the end of the tank inlet line is covered
with at least two feet of fuel
THANK YOU!
Do you have any questions?
 FUELING
PROCEDURES
The fueling process begins with the delivery of fuel to the airport fueling
facility, usually by tank truck. Quality control begins by checking the bill of
lading for the proper amount and grade of fuel.

Fuel testing should begin with the tank truck. The personnel receiving the
fuel delivery must determine that the proper type of fuel is in the truck, and
samples taken and checked for visible contamination. Once all of these
checks are completed, the truck is connected to the correct unloading
point, and unloading can proceed.
Turbine fuel should be allowed to settle a minimum of two hours after
any disturbance. Therefore, once a quantity of turbine fuel is delivered,
it should be allowed to sit in its storage tank for at least two hours
before it is pumped into an aircraft. Aviation gasolines do not need time
to settle before being withdrawn for use; however, no withdrawals may
be made from a tank while it is receiving fuel from a transport truck.
 FROM A FUEL TRUCK
Aircraft can have fuel pumped directly into their tanks
from over the wing tank openings, or from a single point
source under the wing. Typically, over-wing fueling is
done with a fuel truck whereas underwing fueling is
done from a pit through single-point fueling.

Before driving a fuel truck to an aircraft, be sure that the

sumps have been drained and that the sight gauges
show that the fuel is bright and clear. Furthermore, fire
extinguishers must be in place and fully charged.
Approach the aircraft with a fuel truck parallel to the
wings and stop the truck in front of the aircraft. Set the
parking brake on the truck and connect the static
bonding wire between the truck and the aircraft.
Prior to removing the aircraft's fuel tank cap verify that you have the proper grade
of fuel. This is done by reading the placard near the filler cap

Put a mat over the wing so the fuel hose can not scratch the finish, connect the
static bonding wire between the nozzle and the aircraft and remove the fuel tank
cap. Remove the dust cap from the nozzle, and when inserting the nozzle into the
tank be sure that the end of the nozzle does not contact the bottom of the tank, as
it could dent the thin metal. Should the fuel tank be a fuel cell, contact with the
nozzle could puncture the cell and cause a serious leak.
Misfueling is a constant danger that can frequently result in a complete engine failure.
To help prevent misfueling accidents, the nozzles used to pump turbine fuel are larger
than the nozzles used to pump aviation gasoline. Furthermore, FAR 23.973 specifies
that all general aviation aircraft utilizing aviation gasoline have restricted fuel tank
openings that will not allow the nozzle used to pump Jet A to fit in the tank opening.
While it is possible for a jet or turbine engine to run on gasoline, a piston engine will
not run on Jet A.
 UNDERGROUND STORAGE SYSTEM
Most of the large airports that service transport category aircraft have underground
storage tanks and buried fuel lines. This arrangement allows the aircraft to be fueled
without having to carry the fuel to the aircraft in tank trucks. Since most aircraft that
are fueled from this type of system use under-wing fueling, the method is discussed
here.
A service truck having filters, water separators, and a pump is driven to the aircraft and
its inlet hose is connected to the underground hydrant valve. The discharge hose or
hoses from the servicer are attached to the fueling ports on the aircraft and, with a
properly qualified maintenance person in the aircraft monitoring the fuel controls, the
valves are opened and the pumps started. The person monitoring the fuel controls can
determine the sequence in which the tanks are filled and can shut off the fuel when the
correct load has been taken on board.
Some large corporate aircraft also have single point refueling systems. However,
in most cases, control of the fueling sequence is from an outside control panel
located under an access cover. A service technician must be checked out on these
systems before operating them. Should there by any questions about the
operation, ask for assistance from the pilot-in-command of the aircraft
 DEFUELING

It is sometimes necessary to remove fuel from an aircraft, either for

maintenance reasons or because of a change in flight plans after the
aircraft was serviced. Defueling is accomplished in much the same
manner as fueling, with many of the same safety precautions used.

Never defuel an aircraft inside a hangar, or in any area with inadequate

ventilation. Be sure that all of the proper safeguards are taken with
regard to neutralizing any static electricity that builds up when the fuel
flows through the lines.
If only a small quantity of fuel is off-loaded and there is no reason to suspect
contamination, the fuel may be taken back to stock. On the other hand, the quality
of the off-loaded fuel could be suspect if an engine failed and a large quantity of
fuel was removed. This fuel should be segregated, preferably in a fuel truck, and
quarantined until its quality is assured.
In no event should suspected fuel be returned to storage or placed aboard another
aircraft. If acceptable fuel is returned to storage, make sure it is taken back into a
tank containing the same grade of fuel and that complete quality control
procedures are followed.
If an aircraft is defueled into drums, be sure that the drums are clean and that the
bungs are replaced and tightened immediately after the drums are filled. Some
companies, and some aircraft operations manuals, do not allow fuel that has been
stored in drums to be reused in an aircraft. Frequently this fuel is used in ramp
vehicles, space heaters, and GPUs.
 REVIEW OF SAFETY PROCEDURES
Review the safety procedures that must be observed when fueling or defueling an
aircraft:
1. Be sure that only the correct grade of fuel is put into an aircraft. Remember that
aviation gasoline comes in various grades and the wrong grade can cause
severe damage to the engine. Turbine fuel in a reciprocating engine can cause
severe detonation and engine failure, and the improper use of aviation gasoline
in a turbine engine can also be harmful.
2. Be sure that the fuel truck, or servicer, is properly bonded to the aircraft and the
fuel nozzle is bonded to the structure before the cover is taken from the fuel
tank.
3. Wipe up spilled fuel or flood it with water. Do not sweep spilled fuel with a dry
broom.
4. Be sure that there are no open fires in the vicinity of the fueling or defueling
operations.
5. Be sure that fire extinguishers suitable for a Class B fire are available. Either CO2 or
dry powder units are generally used.
6. Protect the aircraft structure from damage from the fuel hose and from the nozzle.
7. Be sure that the radio or radar are not used during fueling or defueling, and that no
electrical equipment is turned on or off, except for the equipment needed for the
fueling operation.
8. When defueling, be sure that the fuel is not contaminated if it is to be used again.
9. Be sure that the filters in the tank truck or servicer remove all traces of water and
contamination and that the fuel pumped into an aircraft is bright and clear.
10. If a biocidal additive is required, be sure that it is mixed with the fuel in the proper
concentration.
11. If the aircraft is being fueled in the rain, be sure that the tank opening is
covered to exclude water from the tank.
12. Be sure that dust covers and caps are placed over the end of the fuel nozzles
and any open fuel lines when they are not in use.
13. Drive the tank truck parallel to the wing of the aircraft and be sure that the
parking brake is set so the truck cannot roll into an aircraft.
14. When conducting underwing pressure fueling, be sure that the pressure used
and the delivery rate are those specified by the manufacturer of the aircraft.
15. If any fuel is spilled onto your body, wash it off with soap and water as soon as
possible. Do not wear any clothing on which fuel has been spilled.
THANK YOU!

Do you have any questions?