Physics Lab NOTES Semester 2

Standard Plus / Standard
Foundation Program
Physics
SEMESTER 2
Student Laboratory Pack
UNSW Foundation Studies
UNSW Global Pty Limited
UNSW
Sydney NSW 2052 Australia
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conditions described in the Copyright Act
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amendments, this publication may not be
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You WILL NOT be allow into the laboratory if you
are not wearing suitable footwear (closed shoes).
BEFORE EVERY LABORATORY SESSION:
1. Read the laboratory notes.

2. Bring your copy of the laboratory notes to the lab and complete any pre-work if
necessary.
3. Wear suitable closed footwear (refer to point further down this document).
4. Be on time.
Physics Laboratory Policy Document

1. Preamble
This policy is in place to ensure all students are aware of the rules and regulations
concerning safety and good practice in the Physics Laboratory
Scope
This policy applies to all students in UNSW Foundation Studies programs including
Australian citizens and permanent residents of Australia.
2. Definitions
UNSW Foundation Studies is an education group of UNSW Global Pty Limited, a not-
for-profit provider of education, training and consulting services and a wholly owned
enterprise of the University of New South Wales
The University of New South Wales (UNSW) CRICOS Provider No 00098G.
3. Policy Statement
General Rules
1. Laboratory work may be carried out only during allotted class times.
2. Experimental work is only to be performed on the exercise designated for that

particular class. Unauthorised experiments are prohibited.
Safety
1. Sensible clothing must be worn in the laboratory - laboratory coats are NOT
required in the physics lab.
• Students must not wear clothes that might extend past the ankle as this might
constitute a trip hazard. Such clothing should be pinned up in such a way to
remove this hazard.
• Headwear such as scarves, turbans, hijab, veil or niqab should be adjusted to

allow peripheral vision and be tucked in so as to avoid coming into contact with
equipment.
2. Fully enclosed shoes must be worn in the laboratory. Students will not be
permitted into the Physics lab without proper footwear. Thongs or open
sandals or shoes which do not cover the upper surface of the feet are
prohibited and you will be asked to leave immediately.
STUDENTS WHO ARRIVE AT THE LABORATORY WITHOUT PROPER

FOOTWEAR WILL BE TOLD TO LEAVE THE LABORATORY AND
WILL BE MARKED ABSENT FOR THAT CLASS.
3. Eating, drinking and smoking are not permitted in the laboratory.
4. Students are to read and be aware of the contents of the safety notes included in
each laboratory. Students must obey all safety directions issued by any
demonstrator. Should a student be asked to leave the laboratory they must do so
immediately.
5. Do not run or throw objects in the lab.
6. Mobile Phones are not permitted to be used during the laboratory session.
7. Place your bags under the benches and ensure the pathways are clear of
obstruction.
8. A record of attendance will be recorded for each laboratory session. A student

who is more than 15 minutes late may be denied entry and recorded as absent
for that laboratory session.
9. The practical work undertaken in the physics laboratories will be assessed and the
resulting marks will contribute the overall mark achieved in physics. If you fail to
attend a physics laboratory you should submit a yellow “Illness or Misadventure
affecting exams/assessment tasks” form within three working days of the missed
physics laboratory. Failure to submit a yellow “Illness or misadventure affecting
exams/assessment tasks” form will likely result in a zero mark for the missed
laboratory task.
PHYSICS LABORATORY NOTES
EXERCISE 3.1 REFLECTION
For this exercise

◆ you will be working with one partner from your tutorial group.
if possible, but
◆ each of you will be submitting individual reports.
when you go to the laboratory you MUST bring with you
❐ a 30cm transparent ruler
❐ a sharp pencil & a pen, and
❐ these exercise 3.1 laboratory notes
You will not be able to work through the exercise in the laboratory
unless you have these with you
ALSO NOTE
In the laboratory you and your partner MUST work through the tasks
listed in the sequence given.
You MUST completely finish each task before either you or your partner go
on to the next one. If you do not do this you will lose credit for any later
tasks completed.
You need to complete the preliminary work given on page 2

BEFORE going to the laboratory
Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes page 1

Introduction
This exercise is concerned with "seeing" reflections in mirrors, both plane and spherical, and in particular deals
with:
◆ the basic concepts and ideas involved, and
◆ the rules which allow us to predict the positions of the images resulting from reflections in mirrors.
References
■ Notes on Geometrical Optics, at the end of these notes
■ The sections of your text/reference books dealing with:
basic light reflection theory, in particular:
◆ reflection in mirrors, and
the rules governing reflections from mirror surfaces
◆ reflection in plane mirrors
◆ reflection from spherical mirrors, and
the rules which may be used to predict the position of images formed by
reflections from spherical mirrors.
Preliminary Work
❐ You should read through the sections indicated in the references above, and prepare written answers to
the 2 preliminary questions given on page 3.
Note that you will not be able to complete your laboratory tasks without understanding the basic concepts
and ideas of basic light reflection theory.
You need to bring with you.
■ a 30cm transparent ruler (graduated in millimetre)
■ sharp pencil & a pen
Apparatus and Equipment
The following equipment will be on your laboratory bench

■ a small mounted plane mirror
■ a mounted converging mirror and a mounted diverging mirror
■ a “ray-box" together with it’s power supply, and

■ a mounted converging lens
(as described on the following page)
page 2 Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes

◆ The Ray-Box
■ The ray-box is shown in the diagram following. It should be placed flat on the bench as shown.
It is powered from a universal AC adapter. You plug the adapter into one of the 240V power outlets on the
bench and connect the lead from it to the ray-box’s power port (as shown in the diagram below).
You turn the wheel on the front to select the number of rays it produces. It can produce
● one white ray
● three parallel white rays, narrowly spaced
✬ three parallel white rays, widely spaced
● three parallel coloured beams (red, green and blue)
■ In an experimental situation when using the ray-box to produce three parallel white rays you will
need to experiment to see which spacing is the best to use.
■ To produce a point object with three rays diverging from it you place the mounted converging lens
on the bench symmetrically in the path of three rays from the ray-box, as shown in plan view in the following
diagrams.
The angle between the three rays diverging from this arrangement will depend on the spacing of the three rays
from the ray-box.
In some situations it will be best to have rays diverging at a low angle, in others, to have the rays diverging at a
greater angle.
In each measuring situation you will need to experiment to see which angle is the best to use.
● With three narrowly spaced rays from the ray-box

the three rays from the point object diverge at a low angle
narrowly spaced
parallel rays point object
mounted rays diverge from

converging the point object
ray-box
lens at a low angle diagram 1
● With three widely spaced rays from the ray-box
the three rays from the point object diverge at a large angle
widely spaced

ray-box
lens at a large angle diagram 2

Before Your Laboratory Class you need to write the answers to these
PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS:
You will need to reproduce your answers in the first section of your laboratory report book
QUESTION 1. Briefly explain, in words, the difference between a real image and a virtual image.
(refer to PAGE 5 of NOTES ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS – PART 1, or your text books)
QUESTION 2. A ray of light is reflected from a surface.

With the aid of a diagram define, IN WORDS, what is meant by
◆ the angle of incidence
◆ the angle of reflection
(refer to your text books)
What You Will Have To Do In The Laboratory

PART 1
■ Firstly, you
● collect your marked previous laboratory exercise report
● check it through to learn where you made mistakes, etc, then
● take it to one of the demonstrators to collect your exercise 3.1 laboratory report book
● print your name & the other information required on the front of your report book
■ next, write your answers to the preliminary questions in your report book.
PART 2: PLANE MIRRORS

2. Reflection from a plane mirror.
■ In this part
● For one ray of light incident on a plane mirror, experimentally you determine the angle of incidence,
and the corresponding angle of reflection, for 5 different angles of incidence.
3. Image location in a plane mirror.

● In this part
● for a point object placed in front of a plane mirror, experimentally you determine the position of the
image.
● then you answer a number of questions about your results
PART 3: SPHERICAL MIRRORS

4. Focal Length Determination – Direct Method
■ In this part
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box to produce three parallel rays.
● Then, you place the converging mirror in the path of these rays, and obtain a diagram showing the
converging mirror, the paths of the rays before they are reflected, and after reflection.
From this diagram you determine the focal length of the converging mirror
● Finally, you repeat the procedure with the diverging mirror, and from the diagram determine its focal
length.

5. Converging Mirror – second method for determining the focal length
■ In this part
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box and mounted converging lens to produce a point object from which rays
diverge at a low angle (see the diagrams on page 2)
● Then you position the converging mirror so that the point object and its image are at the same place.
You obtain a diagram showing the mirror and the paths of the rays.
From measurements on this diagram and using the mirror relation you obtain a second experimentally
determined value for the focal length of the converging mirror.
6. Converging Mirror – third method for determining the focal length

■ In this part, in each of the 6 cases shown in the following box, you determine by experiment the
object distance and the corresponding image distance.
case 1 object distance: much greater than 2 x (focal length of mirror)

2 2 x (focal length)
3 about 1.5 x (focal length)
4 exactly the focal length
5 about 0.7 x (focal length)
6 much less than the focal length
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box and mounted converging mirror to produce a point object with rays
diverging from it (see the diagrams on page 2)
● Next, you position the converging mirror in the path of these rays for case 1 (ie so that the object
distance is much greater than 2 x (focal length of the mirror)) and experimentally obtain a diagram showing
the ray paths, and the mirror,
● Next, on this diagram, you measure the object distance and the corresponding image distance and record
your results in a table which is provided in your report book
● Next, you obtain the object and corresponding image distances for the other cases.

1 1
● Then, from a graph of image distance against object distance you obtain a third experimentally
determined value for the focal length of the converging mirror.
THEORY
1 1 1
For a spherical mirror + image distance = focal length of mirror
object distance
provided the standard sign convention is used.
1 1
Substituting x = , y= and f = focal length of mirror gives
object distance image distance
1 1
x + y = ie y = – x
f f
! !
1 1
So if y = is plotted against x = a straight line graph will be obtained
image distance object distance
This graph will have !
● a gradient of – 1
! ! 1
● an intercept on the vertical axis of
f
1
● an intercept on the horizontal axis of
f
!
● Next, you compare your three experimentally determined values for the focal length of the converging
mirror. !
● Lastly, you place the equipment back on the bench in a neat manner
Learning Goals for Exercise 3.1

After working through this exercise we expect you to be able to:
● state what is meant by a real image, and a virtual image.
● state what is meant by the angle of incidence, and the angle of reflection,
for a ray incident on a reflecting surface
● State the Laws of Reflection for light reflected from a surface, and
● use these Laws to determine the position of the image of an object placed in front of a
plane mirror
● explain what is meant by a converging mirror, and a diverging mirror
● explain the term: paraxial rays
● state what is meant by the focal length of a spherical mirror for paraxial rays.
● Give:
◆ the relationship between object distance, image distance and
focal length for a spherical mirror, and
◆ the sign convention which must be used when employing this relationship.
● Use this relationship to find the position and nature of the image
of an object placed in front of any given spherical mirror.

PHYSICS LABORATORY
NOTES ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS – PART 1
Notes On Geometrical Optics – Part 1 page 1

page 2 Notes on Geometrical Optics – Part 1
1 SEEING A REFLECTION
■ If we place a spherical object in front of a screen and we introduce a strong luminous point source to
illuminate the object and the screen, we find that (figure I .1 )
● the side of the object closer to the source is illuminated, and the other side is dark
● a black circular shadow appears on the screen.
The fact that the shadow is geometrically similar to the outline of the spherical object leads us to conclude that
light travels ("propagates") in straight lines, as illustrated in figure 1.2
These straight lines are called rays.
■ We see an object by virtue of the fact that we intercept some of the light coming from it.
The question arises as to how we locate the directions to objects.
Figure 1.3 shows a person holding a hand upright. If we consider the point at the tip of the thumb as an
example, this point sends out light in straight lines in all directions. However the eye intercepts only that light
in the very narrow cone shown. The angle at the apex of this cone is less than 1°, and the base of the cone is the
pupil of the eye.
Our mind, accepting that light travels in straight lines, locates the source of the light entering the pupil as the
apex of the cone. (This is geometrically the same as tracing back along the rays entering the eye.)

■ If we add a plane mirror, figure 1.4, we see another hand appear.
This new hand is not in, nor behind, the mirror.
This apparent hand is one type of image of the hand.
How does this image arise?

Since light radiates in all directions from the tip of the thumb, there will be light that enters the pupil following
reflection from the mirror. figure 1.5.
The pupil is now receiving a new cone of light from a different direction.
Automatically, our mind determines the straight line apex of the cone, and locates an object point there. As
shown, the mind places the object point behind the mirror.
The mind thus perceives two thumb tips in different locations because of the reflection.
It is this function of the mind that is the reason for this kind of image formation and the appearance of the
second hand.
(Other optical illusions arc similarly caused by the way the mind functions in interpreting data that the eye
receives)
Note that since the cones are very narrow it is customary to trace only the single ray of light down the
axis of each cone.
This convention is followed in all texts.
● REAL AND VIRTUAL IMAGES

In the case illustrated of seeing a reflection of a hand in a mirror,
the object (the person’s thumb) is said to be real
because the light rays actually originate from the position of the object.
However the light rays do not actually pass through the position of the image –
to the person they appear to come from there.
This image is said to be virtual.
We can also distinguish between a real and a virtual image in another way.
If the image can be displayed on a screen, then the light must actually converge at the position of the image,
so the image is real.
In general both objects and images can be real or virtual.

radius of curvature radius of curvature
centre of
pole curvature
pole
C
principal axis P principal axis P C
centre of
curvature
concave mirror convex mirror
figure 2.1 figure 2.2
reflected rays paraxial rays

image is here
reflected
point C rays
ource
point C
source
figure 2.4
figure 2.3
paraxial rays
paraxial rays
C P
C object P
point source
object image
image
it is real
it is virtual
paraxial rays
parallel to axis
C P P
F F
principal principal
point source focus focus
a long way away
– a point source "at Infinity"

2 SPHERICAL MIRRORS
■ The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is part of the surface of a sphere.

● The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of the sphere of which the mirror surface is part.
● A concave mirror has a surface that reflects light from its concave side.
As will be seen below, such a mirror is also called a converging mirror.
● A convex mirror has a surface that reflects light from its convex side.
Such a mirror is a diverging mirror.
■ Figure 2.1 shows a converging (concave) mirror and figure 2.2 a diverging (convex) mirror.
● The centre of the sphere of which the mirror surface forms part is the point C.
It is called the centre of curvature of the mirror.
● The geometric centre of the mirror section is called the pole, P
● The principal axis is the line through the centre of curvature and the pole.
(Obviously the distance of the centre of curvature from the pole is the radius of curvature of the mirror.)
■ If a point source of light is placed on the principal axis in front of a diverging mirror, the rays of light
striking the mirror will be reflected from it, figure 2.3.
Tracing back along the reflected rays it is found that they do not diverge from the one point. That is, there is
more than one image point. (As shown, the rays which strike the mirror at a long way from the axis form an
image point closer to the mirror than the rays that strike the mirror closer to the axis).
The question arises, if a single point object has many different (but close) image points, how can a clear image
be seen?
■ The eye uses only a very narrow cone of rays whose apex is less than 1°. Thus when viewing along the
axis only those rays whose angle of incidence on the mirror is ( 1/4)° (15 minutes) or less will enter the pupil of
the eye after reflection. If we consider only these rays then there is effectively only one image point behind the
diverging mirror (a virtual image), figure 2.4.
● This image is formed by reflection of those rays very close to the system axis – the paraxial rays.
Diagrams showing paraxial rays, such as figure 2 4, always are drawn with a very exaggerated lateral scale for
the sake of clarity. In reality, paraxial rays are so close together that in a diagram drawn to represent the real
situation they would be contained in the thickness of a single line!
■ For paraxial rays a similar situation occurs for a converging (concave) mirror.
In this case however, depending on the distance of the point source (object) from the mirror the image may be
real, figure 2.5, or it may be virtual, figure 2.6.
■ When a point source object placed on the principal axis is moved further and further away from a
spherical mirror the angle of the cone of the paraxial rays passing to the mirror becomes smaller and smaller. In
the limiting case when the source is a long, long way away from the mirror, paraxial rays passing to the mirror
will be parallel to the axis.
This limiting case is shown in figure 2.7 for the case of a converging mirror, and in figure 2.8 for the case of a
diverging mirror.
● The image point in this particular case is called the principal focus of the mirror.
● The distance of the principal focus from the mirror pole, P, is called the focal length of the mirror.
● The focal length of a spherical mirror (converging or diverging) for paraxial rays is equal to half the radius of
curvature of the mirror (it is easy to show this).

■ In the general case of an object in front of a spherical mirror and paraxial rays, theory gives
1 1 1
+ =
distance of object from mirror distance of image fom mirror focal length of mirror
then denoting the distance of the object from the mirror as p

the distance of the image from the mirror as i
! the focal length of the mirror as f
gives
1 1 1
+ =
p i f
When using this relationship the following sign convention must be used.
object real ! p is positive

virtual p is negative
image real i is positive
virtual i is negative
mirror converging f is positive
diverging f is negative

EXERCISE 3.2 REFRACTION
For this exercise

if possible, but

❐ a sharp pencil
❐ a pen, and
ALSO NOTE
tasks completed.

2013/01/20
Exercise 3.3 – Refraction – Laboratory Notes page 1

Introduction
This exercise is concerned with the phenomenon of refraction of light at interfaces between transparent media,
and in particular deals with
◆ the basic concepts and ideas involved,
◆ the absolute refractive index of a transparent medium,
◆ the laws of refraction
◆ the concept of “critical angle”
References
■ Notes on Geometrical Optics- Part 2, at the end of these notes
refraction, in particular:
◆ the laws governing refraction at an interface between two media
Preliminary Work
❐ You should read through the sections indicated in the references above.
and ideas of basic light refraction theory.
In the Laboratory

As indicted on the front page you need to bring with you.
■ sharp pencil & a pen
The following equipment will be in place on your laboratory bench,

■ a white wooden board fitted with a turntable and circular angular scale
The following will be in an equipment box

■ a rectangular transparent block
■ a semicircular transparent acrylic block
■ a protractor (you use this for measuring angles)
■ a “ray-box" together with its power supply,


◆ The Ray-Box
■ The ray-box should be placed flat on the bench as shown in the following diagram
As indicated you turn the wheel to select
● one white ray
● three parallel white rays, widely spaced
The ray-box is powered from a universal AC adapter. You plug the adapter into one of the 240V power outlets
on the bench and connect the lead from it to the ray-box’s power port (as shown in the diagram below).
■ To produce a point source with three rays diverging from it you place the mounted converging lens
supplied on the bench symmetrically in the path of three rays from the ray-box, as shown in plan view in the
following diagrams.
from the ray-box.
In some experimental situations it will be best to have rays diverging at a low angle, in others, to have the rays
diverging at a greater angle.

the rays diverge from the point source at a low angle
narrowly spaced

ray-box
lens at a low angle
the rays diverge from the point source at a large angle
widely spaced

ray-box
lens at a large angle

With the aid of diagram(s):
QUESTION 1. Define what is meant by the absolute refractive index of a medium.
(refer to page 4 of NOTES ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS – PART 2 at the back of PHYSICS
LABORATORY NOTES – EXERCSE 3.2 REFRACTION)
QUESTION 2. A ray of light is incident on a straight interface between two transparent media.
WITH THE AID OF A DIAGRAM, define, in words, what is meant by
◆ the angle of incidence
◆ the angle of reflection
◆ the angle of refraction
(refer to page 2 of NOTES ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS – PART 2)
PART 1
■ Firstly, you
● check it through to learn where you make mistakes, etc., then
■ next, write the answers to the preliminary questions in your report book.
PART 2: REFRACTION AT A PLANE INTERFACE

1. Refraction of a ray passing from air to acrylic.
■ Firstly, for a ray of light passing from air across a plane interface into a transparent acrylic material (in
this exercise the acrylic material is in the form of a semicircular block as shown below), experimentally you
determine the angle of incidence, and the corresponding angle of refraction, for a number of specified angles of
incidence.
reflected ray
normal to interface air- acrylic interface
angle o
f incide
nce
incident ray refracted ray
ang
le o
f
refr
acti
on
normal
● Next, you carry out a check to see if there is a linear relationship between the angle of refraction and the
angle of incidence (as did the early Greek investigators – here you will be using a different technique to that
used by the early Greek investigators)
● Next, using graphical techniques you obtain a value for the absolute refractive index of the acrylic
material.

2. Refraction of a ray passing from acrylic to air.
■ Firstly, for a ray of light passing from acrylic across a plane interface into air, experimentally you
determine the angle of incidence, and the corresponding angle of refraction, for a number of specified angles of
incidence.
reflected ray
normal refracted ray
angle of incidence
angle of refraction
incident ray
normal to interface
acrylic - air interface
● Next, using graphical techniques you obtain a second value for the absolute refractive index of the
acrylic material.
3. Refraction of a ray passing from acrylic to air – "total internal reflection"

When a ray of light passes from acrylic across an interface into air the angle of refraction will be greater
than the angle of incidence.
Further there will be a critical angle of incidence at which the angle of refraction of the refracted ray
will be 90˚.
If the angle of incidence of the incident ray is increased past this critical value then the ray will be totally
reflected at the interface (º "totally internally reflected") and there will be no refracted ray.
■ In this part
● experimentally you determine the critical angle of incidence for light passing from the acrylic material
into air.
● Then, using this datum, you obtain a third value for the absolute refractive index of the acrylic material.
● Finally, you compare the three values obtained.
PART 3: REFRACTION BY A PARALLEL SIDED BLOCK

■ In this part
● You pass a ray of light through a parallel-sided acrylic block and experimentally determine the angles
between several of the rays and the interfaces in the arrangement.
Then, working from Snell’s Law and your measurements, you obtain two values for the absolute refractive
index of the acrylic of this block, and compare these values.
● Finally, you place the equipment on the bench in a neat and tidy manner

Learning Goals for Exercise 3.2

● define what is meant by the absolute refractive index of a transparent medium
● state what is meant by the angle of incidence, and the angle of refraction,
for a light ray transmitted across an interface between two transparent media
● state the Laws of Refraction for light refracted at a plane interface between two transparent
media,
● use these Laws to predict the paths of a ray of light incident on a plain interface between two
transparent media of known absolute refractive indices.
● explain what is meant by the critical angle of incidence for a ray of light traveling in a
transparent material passes across an interface into a material of lower absolute refractive index
● explain the phenomenon of “total internal reflection”

PHYSICS LABORATORY

4. REFRACTION
■ When a ray of light strikes an interface between two transparent media in general, there will be both a
reflected ray in the first medium and a ray passing into the second medium, as shown in figure 4.1.
● the incident and reflected rays are in the same plane, and
● the angle of incidence = the angle of reflection
● The ray passing into the second medium has its direction changed however.
This effect is called refraction.
The ray in the second medium is called the refracted ray.
■ THE ANGLE OF REFRACTION

The angle of refraction is the angle between the refracted ray in the second medium and the normal to the
interface at the point of incidence.
■ HISTORY
● The laws of reflection were readily apparent from ancient times (e.g. Euclid knew both of them in 300 BC),
however the refraction laws were somewhat more elusive.
The first detailed study of refraction seems to be that by a Greek mathematician, Ptolemy, early in the second
century AD. Ptolemy investigated refraction at interfaces using angles of incidence from 10o to 80o in ten
degree intervals.
Ptolemy found that:
(i) the incident and refracted rays lie in a plane perpendicular to the refracting surface;
(ii) rays normal to the surface are not refracted; and
(iii) the amount of refraction depends on what the two media are.
But Ptolemy did not find the relationship that we now know as Snell's Law.
This is because inspection of an accurate table of angle of incidence and corresponding angle of refraction
values does not easily yield any specific relationship between these angles - other than some obvious
inequalities (e.g. in the case of a ray passing from air into glass the angle of incidence > the angle of
refraction).
Various later attempts to find a specific relationship all failed - e.g. in the Middle East by scientists such as
Alhazen (10th Century) and Al-Farisi (13th Century) and in Europe by scientists such as Grosseteste (12th
Century) and Witelo (13th Century)
The hunt for the refraction law was made even more complicated by the fact that although Ptolemy (and several
of the later investigators) made very accurate readings of the angles involved they subsequently altered some of
their records to make the data fit a proposed theory!! (This was discovered because they wrote in ink and later
inspection of their records revealed the changes (they did not have liquid paper in those days!!)
Eventually, in the first decade of the 17th century, Johannes Kepler (of Kepler's laws-of-planetary-motion
fame) decided the correct relationship would include some form of the trigonometrical functions.
In a desperate attempt to prove his hunch about a trigonometrical relationship he tested a variety of such
functions against experimental results.
He tried each of the following combinations, where i = angle of incidence
r = angle of refraction
k, k1 and k2 are constants
i – r = k sec i
2i – r = k sin i
tan i = k tan r
tan i = sin (i – r)
1 – tan i cot (i – r) = k tan i
1 – tan i cot (i – r) = k sin i
i – r = k1 + k2 sec i
1 – tan i cot (i – r) = k1 + k2 sin i
But Kepler found none of these relationships fitted the experimental data and so eventually he conceded defeat.
Not long after this (around 1626) the correct law was discovered by Snell
Snell, however, used a geometrical construction and was not aware that the law could be expressed
trigonometrically.
(Reference for the historical survey above: A.F. Chalmers, "The Extraordinary Prehistory of the Law of Refraction",
The Australian Physicist, June 1975, 85-77.)

5 REFRACTIVE INDEX
● Light travels in a vacuum at a speed of 2.9979 x 108 ms–l = 3.0 x 108 ms–l.
● The speed of light in a vacuum is usually denoted by the symbol, c.
● In a transparent medium light travels at a slower speed.
■ The Absolute Refractive Index of a Medium

DEFINITION
speed of light in a vacuum
absolute refractive index of a medium =
speed of light in the medium
● The absolute refractive index of a medium is usually denoted by the symbol, n.
Hence if the!speed of light in a particular transparent medium is v, then
c
n = absolute refractive index of the medium =
v
Clearly, the absolute refractive index of a medium will always be greater than 1.0.
● As examples: !
• water (at 20oC) has an absolute refractive index of 1.33.
So, in water light travels at about 3/4 (or 75%) of its speed in a vacuum.
• glasses have absolute refractive indices in the approx. range 1.5 – 1.7
(the exact value depending on the composition of the glass)
• air at standard temperature and pressure has an absolute refractive index of l.0029.
• for almost all practical purposes in optics the absolute refractive index of air is taken as 1.0
that is, air is treated as if it was a vacuum.

6 THE LAWS OF REFRACTION
● When a ray of light strikes an interface between two transparent media, in general, there will be both
● a reflected ray in the first medium. and
● a ray transmitted into the second medium – the refracted ray, as shown in figure 6.1.
incident ray reflected ray
!1 !1 figure 6.1
medium 1
absolute refractive index = n 1 interface
medium 2
absolute refractive index = n 2
!2
angle of refraction
transmitted ray
= refracted ray
The normal laws of reflection apply for the incident and reflected rays. Hence
● the incident and reflected rays are in the same plane, and
● the angle of incidence = angle of reflection = θ1 (as shown).
■ The ray passing into the second medium has its direction changed and this is the phenomenon of refraction.
● The ray transmitted into the second medium, medium 2, is the refracted ray.
● The angle of refraction, θ2, is the angle between the refracted ray in medium 2 and the normal to the
interface at the point of incidence.
■ Theory gives that:

(a) the incident and refracted rays are in the same plane
(b) the angle of incidence, θ1, and the angle of refraction, θ2, are related by:
n1sin"1 = n 2sin" 2
where n1 is the absolute refractive index of the first medium,
and n2 is the absolute refractive index of the second medium
These are the laws of refraction. !

The second, law (b), is called "Snell's Law".

[Blank Page]
EXERCISE 3.3 LENSES
For this exercise

if possible, but
❐ a sharp pencil & a pen, and

ALSO NOTE
tasks completed.

Exercise 3.3 – Lenses – Laboratory Notes page 1

Introduction
This exercise is concerned with the refractive optical element, the thin lens, in particular with
◆ "seeing" images of objects viewed through a thin lens, and
◆ the rules which allow us to predict the positions and types of the images resulting from refraction by
lenses.
References
■ Notes on Geometrical Optics – Part 3, at the end of these notes
thin lenses, in particular:
◆ refraction of rays by a thin lens, and
◆ the rules which may be used to predict the position of images formed by
refraction through thin lenses.
Preliminary Work
❐ You should read through the sections indicated in the references above, and prepare written answers to
the 2 preliminary questions given on page 3.
and ideas of basic light refraction theory.
As indicted on the front page you need to bring with you.
■ a sharp pencil & a pen

The following equipment will be in place on your laboratory bench
■ a mounted converging lens and a mounted diverging lens (each has silver aluminium bars on each side)
■ an A3 size sheet of white paper
■ a “ray-box" together with it’s power supply, and

■ a converging lens mounted in a black mount
page 2 Exercise 3.3 – Lenses – Laboratory Notes

◆ The Ray-Box
■ The ray-box is shown in the diagram following. It should be placed flat on the bench as shown.
It is powered from a universal AC adapter. You plug the adapter into one of the 240V power outlets on the
bench and connect the lead from it to the ray-box’s power port (as indicated in the diagram below).
You turn the wheel on the front to select the number of rays it produces. It can produce
● one white ray
✬ three parallel white rays, widely spaced
■ To produce a point source with three rays diverging from it you place the converging lens mounted
in a black mount on the bench symmetrically in the path of three rays from the ray-box, as shown in plan view
in the following diagrams.
from the ray-box.
In some experimental situations it will be best to have rays diverging at a low angle, in others, to have the rays
diverging at a greater angle.

the rays diverge from the point source at a low angle
narrowly spaced

ray-box
lens at a low angle
the rays diverge from the point source at a large angle
widely spaced

ray-box
lens at a large angle

You will need to reproduce your answers in the laboratory in the first section of your report book
QUESTION 1. With the aid of diagram(s), explain what is meant by the focal length of a thin lens.
(refer to PAGE 4 of NOTES ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS – PART 3)
QUESTION 2. With the aid of diagram(s), explain what is meant by the linear magnification of an image.
(refer to PAGE 5 of NOTES ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS – PART 3)

PART 1
■ Firstly, you
● check it through to learn where you make mistakes, etc., then
■ next, write your answers to the preliminary questions in your report book.
PART 2: LENSES
1. Focal Length Determination – Direct Method
■ In this part
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box to produce narrowly spaced parallel rays.
● Then, you place the converging lens supplied in the path of these rays, and obtain a diagram showing
the lens, the paths of the rays before they enter the lens, and the paths after they emerge.
From this diagram you obtain a value for the focal length of the converging lens.
● Finally, you repeat the procedure with the diverging lens supplied, and so obtain a value for its focal
length.
2. Converging lens – other determinations of the focal length

■ In this part
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box and the converging lens in its black mount to produce three rays which
diverge at a low angle from a point.
● Then you place the converging lens at a position in the path of these rays so that the rays converge after
refraction by the lens. You obtain a diagram showing the lens, the paths of the rays before they enter the lens,
and the paths after they emerge.
Using data obtained from this diagram you obtain a second value for the focal length of the converging lens.
● Next, you repeat the procedure but this time positioning the lens so that the rays diverge after
refraction by the lens.
This gives a third value for the focal length of the converging lens.
● Finally, you compare your three values for the focal length of the converging lens.

3. Diverging lens – another determination of the focal length
■ In this part you need to produce three rays which converge at a low angle to a point. To do this:
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box and the converging lens in its black mount to produce three rays which
diverge from a point at a low angle. Then you place your converging lens in the path of these rays. The rays
which emerge from it will converge at a low angle to a point.
● Next you place the diverging lens at a position in the path of these rays so that the rays still converge
after refraction by this lens. You obtain a diagram showing the diverging lens, the paths of the rays before they
enter the diverging lens, and the paths after they emerge.
Using data obtained from this diagram you obtain a second value for the focal length of the diverging lens.
● Finally, you compare your values for the focal length of the diverging lens.
PART 3: SPHERICAL ABERRATION

■ In this part
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box to produce narrowly spaced parallel rays.
l Then, you place the converging lens in the path of these rays, and obtain a diagram showing the lens,
the paths of the rays before they enter the lens, and the paths after they emerge.
From this diagram you obtain a value for the focal length of the converging lens for rays which are close to the
centre of the lens, ie for paraxial rays.
● Next, you repeat the procedure with the ray-box set up to produce widely spaced parallel rays, and so
obtain a value for the focal length of the converging lens for rays which pass through the outer edges of the
lens, ie for peripheral rays.
● Finally you compare these two values.
PART 4: MAGNIFICATION
■ In this part
● Firstly, you set up the ray-box and the converging lens mounted in a black mount to produce rays
which diverge from a point source at a low angle,
● Then, you position the ray-box and the converging lens mounted in a black mount so that this point
source is above the axis of your converging lens, and obtain a diagram showing the lens, the paths of the rays
before they enter the lens, and the paths after they emerge.
From this diagram you obtain a value for the linear magnification produced by the lens.
● Next, you compare this value to the ratio of (the measured image distance to the measured object
distance).
● Finally, you place the equipment back on the bench in a neat manner and hand in your and your
partner’s report and work sheet.

Learning Goals for Exercise3.3

● state the laws of refraction for light refracted at a plane interface between two media;
● explain what is meant by a converging lens, and
a diverging lens
● state what is meant by the focal length of a lens for paraxial rays.
● explain what is meant by paraxial rays and peripheral rays.
● give the relationship between object distance, image distance and focal length
for a thin lens, and
give the sign convention which must be adopted when employing this relationship.
● use this relationship to find the position and nature of the image of an object
viewed through any given lens.
● state what is meant by the linear magnification produced by a lens.

PHYSICS LABORATORY

incident rays
convergence
emerging rays
increased
figure 5.2 converging lens
incident rays emerging rays divergence

increased
figure 5.3
diverging lens
axis
C
figure 5.4
converging lens

5 LENSES
■ An optical lens is a device which modifies the paths of light rays by refraction. It usually consists of a
slab of transparent material, such as glass, bounded by two spherical surfaces.
● A thin lens is one whose thickness is small in comparison with the distances generally associated with its
optical properties (for example the radii of curvature of lens surfaces, The object and image distances, etc.).
■ Figure 5.1 shows the cross sections of typical common thin lenses.
● When a ray of light is incident on a lens, reflection and refraction occur at both surfaces encountered. The ray
that emerges from the opposite side of the lens, in general, does not have the same direction as the incident ray.
■ converging lens
When rays are incident on a converging lens, the emerging rays have their "convergence" increased.
Figure 5.2 shows the effect of a converging lens on incident rays.
■ converging lens
When rays are incident on a diverging lens. the emerging rays have their "divergence" increased.
Figure 5.3 illustrates this effect.
■ Figure 5.4 shows a converging lens with rays which are parallel to the lens axis incident on it.
(The axis of the lens is the line which joins the centre of curvature of each of the two lens surfaces - this line
passes through the geometric centre of the lens. C.)
The paths of the rays which emerge from the opposite side of the lens are shown also.
As shown, the emerging rays do not converge to one point.

The rays which pass through the outer edges of the lens (ie the periphery) converge to a point closer to the lens
than those rays which are nearer to the axis.
As in the case of spherical mirrors, the question arises as to how a clear image may be formed or seen?
● Just as in the case of spherical mirrors, the answer lies in the fact that the images we see are formed by
paraxial rays.
■ If only paraxial rays are considered there is effectively one image point. as shown in figure 5.5. (This is
the image of an object which is a long, long way from the lens). The image is real.
■ Figure 5.6 shows the similar situation for a diverging lens. The image in this case is virtual.
Remember: diagrams showing paraxial rays, such as figures 5.5 and 5.6, are drawn very exaggerated in lateral
scale to make the situation clear. In reality the paraxial rays are so close together than in a diagram drawn to
represent the real situation they would be contained in the thickness of a single line.

■ focal point
● The axial point having the property that any incident ray parallel to the axis of the lens will, after refraction,
proceed toward it, or appear to come from it, is one of the focal points of the lens.
Figures 5.5 shows this focal point, F’, for a converging lens, and figure 5.6 shows this focal point for a
diverging lens.
converging lens diverging lens
parallel C F´ F´
C
paraxial
rays
image is here image is here

● The axial point having the property that any ray coming from it, or proceeding toward it, will travel parallel
to the axis after refraction is the other focal point of the lens.
Figure 5.7 shows this focal point, F, for a converging lens, and figure 5.8 shows this focal point for a diverging
lens..
converging lens diverging lens rays parallel
to axis
rays
F C parallel
C
to F
axis
DEFINITION
● The focal length of a lens is the distance between the centre of a lens and either of its focal points.
● In the general case of an object in front of a lens and paraxial rays, theory gives that
1 1 1
+ =
distance of object from centre of the lens distance of image from centre of the lens focal length of the lens
then if the distance of the object from the centre of the lens is labeled by the symbol p
the distance of the image from the centre of the lens is labeled by the symbol i
the focal length of the lens is labeled by the symbol f
then we have:
1 1 1
+ =
p i f
When using this relationship the following sign convention must be used.
object: real o is positive !

virtual o is negative
image: real i is positive
virtual i is negative
lens : converging f is positive
diverging f is negative

■ Image “Nature”
An image produced by an optical system may be

● real (ie rays actually pass through the iimage point) or
virtual (ie rays only appear to pass through the image point)
● magnified (ie larger in size than the object) or
diminished (ie smaller in size than the object)
● upright (ie in the same orientation as the object) or
inverted (ie in the opposite orientation to the object)
Real images of a real object formed by a single lens or mirror are always inverted
Virtual images of a real object formed by a single lens or mirror are always upright
■ Linear
Magnification
DEFINITION
height of the image
The linear magnification produced by an optical system =
height of the object
For a single lens or mirror the following result may be derived

(NB this is a derived result and so is not a definition)
!
image distance
the linear magnification = –
object distance
A negative linear magnification means that the image produced is inverted.

and a positive linear
! magnification means that the image produced is upright.

[Blank Page]
! THE PRELIMINARY EXERCISES ON PAGE 2 ARE TO BE COMPLETED IN ADVANCE
AND BROUGHT TO YOUR LAB SESSION !
For this exercise you will be working with partners from your tutorial group, if possible. Each of you will
be submitting individual reports.
When you go to the laboratory need to bring with you

 a calculator
 a sharp pencil
 a pen, and
 these exercise 4.1 laboratory notes
You will not be able to work through the exercise unless you have these with you
ALSO NOTE you and your partners must

work through the tasks listed in the sequence given
You MUST completely finish each task before either you or your partners go to the next one. If you do not
do this you will lose credit for any later tasks completed.
PHYSICS UNSW Foundation Studies

Physics Lab 4.1 Standing Waves I UNSW Foundation Studies
NAME CLASS
THIS PAGE TO BE COMPLETED IN ADVANCE AND BROUGHT TO YOUR LAB SESSION
(i) Write down two necessary conditions for the formation of standing (stationary) waves
1.
2.
(ii) Sketch standing-wave “loop” diagrams for the first two harmonics in a stretched string of fixed
length . Note that the two patterns (or “modes”) have different frequencies (because they have
different wave lengths).
First harmonic (or fundamental) --------------------------------------------------------
Second harmonic (or first overtone) --------------------------------------------------------
(iii) In this experiment you will excite a stretched string at one fixed frequency and vary the length to
observe the various vibrational modes.
Sketch “loop” diagrams for the fundamental mode and the first overtone when the frequency (and
hence the wavelength) are the same.
fundamental mode --------------------------------------------------------
first overtone -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iv) It can be shown that if the tension in a stretched wire is F, then the velocity of a wave in the wire is
given by
F
v =

Where  is the mass per unit length (often called the linear density) of the wire.
You should also know that for a wave of frequency  and wavelength ,
v = 
In this exercise you will work with fixed values for  and .
Write an equation to show how  depends upon F.
2
AIM
(i) To create and observe transverse standing waves from a string under tension.
(ii) To record relevant physical characteristics of these standing waves and hence determine approximate
values for the linear density  (mass per unit length) of string.
EQUIPMENT NOTE
The experimental equipment for this practical session is shown in the pictures below.
A schematic is shown on the next page
Mains connected AC power supply (set to 6V) Cord stop (squeeze to release string)
Excess string (DO NOT UNTIE!)
String under tension
String Vibrator
Pulley (clamped to desk)
Slotted masses
LABORATORY PROCEDURE
In this exercise standing waves are produced by having a travelling (or “progressive”) wave interfere
continuously with a reflection of itself.
The travelling transverse wave is created by sending a 50 Hz* oscillation along a string using a string vibrator
(oscillator) connected to a 6V AC power supply. Reflection (with a phase change) occurs at the opposite end and
thereafter the incident wave and the reflected wave continuously interfere with each other to produce a standing
wave pattern.
* in Australia, the mains frequency is 50 Hz.

3
(a) Check that the apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram on the next page.
Consult your demonstrator if you are unsure.
Cord stop excess string under tension
string
Pulley
(clamped to desk)
String vibrator
(oscillator)
length to be measured
(Node to Node)
electrical
leads AC power supply
plugged into mains
Slotted
(set to 6V output)
masses
(b) Use 6V alternating current (AC). Set the output voltage on the power supply to 6V. If you use more
than 6V the oscillator may overheat. Switch on the power supply.
(c) Set the mass on the end of the string to 50 g.
(d) Adjust the length of the string such that a one loop standing wave is set up on the string. The length
of the string can be changed by physically moving the string vibrator and/or releasing excess string
using the cord stop. Make sure that the slotted masses do not rest on the floor or are pulled over the
pulley.
On the first line of your table in your Report record the length of string and the the total mass hanging
on the end of the wire.
(e) Adjust the position of the Oscillator to set up a two loop and then a three loop standing wave. Measure
the lengths of the string in both cases when a maximum amplitude has been obtained.
Record these lengths on the table in the appropriate column (2 loops and 3 loops), in your report.
(f) Complete the other entries in the first line of your table.
(g) Repeat steps (d) to (f) at least another five times, each time with a different mass suspended from the
string (in increments of 50 g up to 300 g).
(h) Plot a graph of v2 (the square of the speed of propagation of waves on the wire) against F (tension in
the wire).
(i) Use your graph from (h) to obtain a value for  (the mass per unit length of the wire).
(j) Weigh a known length of string… DO NOT UNTIE AND USE YOUR STRING!… and obtain it’s mass.
Calculate its linear density . Compare this value with to one you obtained from your graph. Are they
in good agreement? Give a reason for your opinion.
4
! THE PRELIMINARY EXERCISES ON PAGE 2 ARE TO BE COMPLETED IN ADVANCE
AND BROUGHT TO YOUR LAB SESSION !
For this exercise you will be working with partners from your tutorial group, if possible. Each of you will
be submitting individual reports.
When you go to the laboratory need to bring with you

 a calculator
 a sharp pencil
 a pen, and
 these exercise 4.2 laboratory notes
You will not be able to work through the exercise unless you have these with you
ALSO NOTE you and your partners must

work through the tasks listed in the sequence given
PHYSICS UNSW Foundation Studies

Physics Lab 4.2 Standing Waves II UNSW Foundation Studies
THIS PAGE TO BE COMPLETED IN ADVANCE AND BROUGHT TO YOUR LAB SESSION
(i) In the diagrams below, X represents an anti-node. On the diagrams draw arrows near X to show in
what directions the medium at X is vibrating.
X
X
String Air-column
(ii) Sketch standing-wave diagrams (using the loop-convention) for the first two modes in an air-column
of fixed length which is open at one end and closed at the other. Note that these two modes must
have different frequencies.
Fundamental (first harmonic)
First overtone (third harmonic)
(iii) Beside each diagram above, write an equation to show the approximate relationship between the
length (  ) of the air-column and the wavelength () of the sound-wave.
(iv) In this experiment you will use a source of fixed frequency to excite an air-column which is closed
(or “stopped”) at one end. Since the other end is open to the atmosphere, the wavelength will also be
fixed. To observe the different vibrational modes you will vary the length of the column.
Sketch “loop” diagrams for the fundamental mode and the first overtone when the frequency (and
also the wavelength) are the same.
Fundamental
1
First overtone
2
(v) Write down the relationship between (  2   1) and the wavelength ().
2
AIM
To record relevant physical characteristics of these standing waves and hence determine approximate values
for the velocity of sound in air.
EQUIPMENT NOTE
Standing waves will be produced by holding a vibrating tuning-fork just above the open end of the air-
column in the apparatus shown below:
stand
adjustable clamp
air column
reservoir
calibrated glass tube
water
rubber tube
(a) Examine the apparatus and practice operating the clamp which allows you to move the reservoir
while your partner holds the vibrating tuning-fork over the mouth of the air-column.
Note:
(i) the ‘adjustable length’ glass tube is fragile - do not drop it or strike it with metal objects;
(ii) tuning forks should be set into vibration by striking on a cork board or the heel of your shoe and
NOT by striking on the bench.
3
(b) You will know when you have found a resonant length for your air-column by the large increase in
sound-level. This is because the area of the mouth of the tube becomes a sound radiator that reinforces
the radiation from the prongs of the tuning-fork.
(c) Choose the tuning fork of highest frequency from the selection supplied with the apparatus and record
its frequency in your Report.
Find the shortest length of air-column which produces a maximum in the loudness of the sound.
Record the water level at which this occurs in the column headed “first (upper) resonant water-level”
in the data table in your Report
(d) Increase the length of the air column until the next loudness-maximum occurs.
Record this water-level in the column headed “second (lower) resonant water-level”.
(e) Calculate the wavelength of the sound-waves (in m), and record it in your Report. Enter also the
reciprocal of frequency.
(f) Repeat for forks of at least 3 other frequencies. Record your findings.
(g) Plot a graph of wavelength as a function of the reciprocal of frequency. (What is another name for the
reciprocal of frequency? Write this name on the axis of your graph.)
(h) From your graph determine a value for the speed of sound waves in under the conditions of the
experiment.
(i) Use the graph to identify the fork for which your results seem most accurate. From the graph, obtain
the appropriate value of /4 and compare it with the measured length of the air-column in the first
resonant position. Which is longer? By how much?
The end-correction for a vibrating air-column is often taken to be about 1/3 of the diameter. Do your
results support this?
If you have any doubts about what you have done, consult your demonstrator.
HAND IN YOUR WORK TO YOUR DEMONSTRATOR.

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BEFORE EVERY LABORATORY SESSION:

1. Read the laboratory notes.

Physics Laboratory Policy Document

The University of New South Wales (UNSW) CRICOS Provider No 00098G.

2. Experimental work is only to be performed on the exercise designated for that

• Headwear such as scarves, turbans, hijab, veil or niqab should be adjusted to

STUDENTS WHO ARRIVE AT THE LABORATORY WITHOUT PROPER

3. Eating, drinking and smoking are not permitted in the laboratory.

5. Do not run or throw objects in the lab.

8. A record of attendance will be recorded for each laboratory session. A student

EXERCISE 3.1 REFLECTION

For this exercise

❐ a sharp pencil & a pen, and

❐ these exercise 3.1 laboratory notes

You need to complete the preliminary work given on page 2

Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes page 1

Apparatus and Equipment

The following equipment will be on your laboratory bench

■ a “ray-box" together with it’s power supply, and

page 2 Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes

● With three narrowly spaced rays from the ray-box

mounted rays diverge from

mounted rays diverge from

Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes page 3

QUESTION 2. A ray of light is reflected from a surface.

What You Will Have To Do In The Laboratory

PART 2: PLANE MIRRORS

3. Image location in a plane mirror.

PART 3: SPHERICAL MIRRORS

page 4 Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes

6. Converging Mirror – third method for determining the focal length

case 1 object distance: much greater than 2 x (focal length of mirror)

Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes page 5

Learning Goals for Exercise 3.1

page 6 Exercise 3.1 – Reflection – Laboratory Notes

NOTES ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS – PART 1

Notes On Geometrical Optics – Part 1 page 1

Notes On Geometrical Optics – Part 1 page 3

How does this image arise?

● REAL AND VIRTUAL IMAGES

Notes On Geometrical Optics – Part 1 page 5

figure 2.1 figure 2.2

reflected rays paraxial rays

page 6 Notes on Geometrical Optics – Part 1

■ The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is part of the surface of a sphere.

Notes On Geometrical Optics – Part 1 page 7

then denoting the distance of the object from the mirror as p

object real ! p is positive

page 8 Notes on Geometrical Optics – Part 1

EXERCISE 3.2 REFRACTION

For this exercise

❐ a 30cm transparent ruler

You need to complete the preliminary work given on page 2

Exercise 3.3 – Refraction – Laboratory Notes page 1

Apparatus and Equipment

The following equipment will be in place on your laboratory bench,

The following will be in an equipment box