energies
Article
The Analysis of the Possibility of Feeding a Liquid Catalyst to a
Coal Dust Channel
Zdzisław Bielecki 1,2, *, Marek Ochowiak 3, *, Sylwia Włodarczak 3 , Andżelika Krupińska 3 ,
Magdalena Matuszak 3 , Robert Lewtak 4 , Jarosław Dziuba 5 , Ernest Szajna 6, *, Dariusz Choiński 2
and Marcin Odziomek 7






Citation: Bielecki, Z.; Ochowiak, M.;
Włodarczak, S.; Krupińska, A.;
Matuszak, M.; Lewtak, R.; Dziuba, J.;
Szajna, E.; Choiński, D.; Odziomek,
M. The Analysis of the Possibility of
Feeding a Liquid Catalyst to a Coal
Dust Channel. Energies 2021, 14, 8521.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248521
Academic Editor: Ali TURAN
Received: 17 November 2021
Accepted: 15 December 2021
Published: 17 December 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Energies 2021, 14, 8521. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248521
1 Kuncar S.A., Pszczyńska 167C, 43-175 Wyry, Poland
2 Department of Automatic Control and Robotics, Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka 2A,
44-100 Gliwice, Poland; dariusz.choinski@polsl.pl
3 Department of Chemical Engineering and Equipment, Poznan University of Technology,
60-965 Poznan, Poland; sylwia.wlodarczak@put.poznan.pl (S.W.); andzelika.krupinska@put.poznan.pl (A.K.);
magdalena.matuszak@put.poznan.pl (M.M.)
4 Institute of Power Engineering, Department of Thermal Processes, Mory 8, 01-330 Warsaw, Poland;
robert.lewtak@ien.com.pl
5 Department of Power Engineering and Turbomachinery, Silesian University of Technology,
44-100 Gliwice, Poland; jaroslaw.dziuba@polsl.pl
6 KMB Catalyst Sp. z o.o., 43-175 Wyry, Poland
7 Faculty of Chemical and Process Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Waryńskiego 1,
00-645 Warsaw, Poland; marcin.odziomek@pw.edu.pl
* Correspondence: zbielecki@post.pl (Z.B.); marek.ochowiak@put.poznan.pl (M.O.); e.szajna@uce.com.pl (E.S.)
Abstract: This article presents the concept of a method of improving the dynamics of combustion in
boilers operating in power plants, cogeneration plants, and heating plants by introducing a catalyst
that is fed with a carrier in the form of droplets. Thanks to the proposed method, a greater degree
of fuel burnout can be obtained, which, in turn, results in lower energy consumption in the case of
producing the same amount of power. The parameters of the emitted exhaust gases and ash are also
improved. The method described in the article involves the adding of a catalyst to the dust pipe
of the boiler, which improves the combustion parameters. The catalyst was implemented using a
sprayer/nebulizer. In order to obtain the correct flow parameters, the sprayer was modeled using
CFD calculations. The calculations include trajectories, velocities and concentrations with regards
to various flow parameters. Particular attention should be paid to the model of the evaporation
of moving droplets. The results of these calculations enable the parameters that guarantee that
the catalyst reaches the dust channel outlet in the desired form to be assessed. The analysis is an
introduction to experimental research that is carried out on a medium and large scale.
Keywords: dust channel; atomization; catalyst; injection modeling
1. Introduction
Due to the rising share of energy from renewable sources, both in the case of domestic
and foreign production capacities, there is an increasing need to improve the operating
parameters of classic power units. It is worth emphasizing that soot from combustion
processes is a significant pollutant of the Earth’s atmosphere, and it is the second-most
important factor influencing the climate, right after carbon dioxide (CO2 ) [1]. These and
other environmental problems have prompted the industry to implement both newer solu-
tions and more expensive and complex exhaust gas treatment technologies in combustion
processes [2–4]. The general energy policy and global trends are focused on achieving
three basic goals, i.e., minimizing the emission of harmful substances to the environment,
keeping energy prices at the lowest possible level, and ensuring the security of the energy
supply in the short and long term [5,6]. On the other hand, there is also an aim to increase
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 2 of 14

the efficiency of electricity production. These goals are achieved thanks to the possibility of
using modern technologies and materials in individual elements of conventional power
plants. One such element is the boiler. Increasing requirements for the operation of boilers
are forced by the variable loads of energy systems, in which the unstable natures of work,
wind, and solar power plants have an increasing share. This results in the necessity to
increase the dynamics (flexibility) of coal-fired power plants. In this case, the ability to
transfer from basic to regulating work and, also, the speed and range of changes of the
loads that are associated with it can be seen to be important.
There are many possibilities of modifying the course of the combustion process, which
would allow the energy efficiency of boilers to be increased [7]. One of the most popular
solutions is the use of catalysts [8–10]. It is not only the choice of the type of modifier that
is the subject of extensive considerations by technologists and scientists but, also, the way
it is delivered to the right place and in the right form. In the literature, it can be found
that the course of the combustion process also depends on factors such as: environmental
parameters, the properties of the feed fuel (e.g., gas), or the geometry of the injector and
dust channel [2,3,11–13]. Dust channels are not only widely used in combustion processes
but, also, in many industries related to, among others, mining and the ventilation of rooms,
industrial buildings, and utility buildings [14–19]. For example, the authors of paper [2]
carried out an analysis of the combustion process with regards to various environmental
parameters, the properties of feed fuel, and the various geometric parameters of injectors.
As a result, channel fuel injectors have been proven to be effective in reducing soot levels
by 35–100% at a wide range of operating conditions and geometries. Moreover, guidance
on the geometric parameters that are most important for the purpose of improving the
process efficiency were also provided. In turn, the authors of paper [20], in addition to the
analysis of the above-mentioned factors, also attempted to better understand the process
and the phenomenon of soot formation during combustion processes. These studies aimed
to reduce the amount of soot emissions. In the process of coal combustion in power
boilers, various additives are used to modify this process. They are designed to prevent
the accumulation of soot and other deposits. The appropriate use of combustion process
modifiers can significantly contribute to the improvement of the quality parameters of
exhaust emissions. In the process of coal combustion in power boilers, various additives are
used to modify this process. They are meant to prevent the accumulation of soot and other
deposits. The correct use of combustion process modifiers can significantly contribute to
improving the quality parameters of exhaust emissions. Therefore, it is important to select
the chemical composition of the fuel additive, as well as the method of its administration.
Many different fuel additive concepts have been proposed, with the most popular additives
being copper compounds and sodium chloride. Fuel additives enable the load associated
with coal combustion to be decreased and, therefore, the amount of fuel needed to produce
a unit amount of energy to also be reduced [10,21,22].
The precise dosing of catalysts to the flux that is fed to the fuel combustion chamber
is still a difficult issue, and many variables that influence the dosing accuracy need to be
considered. The parameters of the catalyst transporting flux, the assumed quantity and
form of the catalyst, its concentration, and the geometry of the system should definitely
be analyzed.
The main goal of the study was to develop a system that would allow for the precise
dosing of the catalyst into the combustion chamber and, also, to analyze the effectiveness
of the developed concept by performing numerical calculations. The method described in
this article involves the intensification of the combustion of solid fuels in a boiler by using
alkyl alcohol and Al–Ni catalyst as combustion promoters. Work [23] described in detail
the operating principle of the catalyst. There is no chemical reaction of the fuel with the
catalyst, but at the appropriate temperature, isopropanol in the presence of the catalyst is
hydrogenated, and free radicals are formed, and the combustion reaction is more efficient
and faster. It should be noted that the catalyst only works when there is alcohol in the
droplets. If it evaporates, the desired effect will not be achieved.
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 3 of 14

2. Materials and Methods

The main assumption of the method, i.e., delivering a droplet of alcohol with a
suspended catalyst to the pyrolysis zone (the droplets cannot evaporate), was tested using
simulations (Ansys Fluent, Canonsburg, PA, USA). The obtained results will be verified
on a specially constructed measuring stand. If the droplets in the 1.0–1.5-m section of
the pipeline do not evaporate, the proposed method can be successfully applied. It is
assumed that the catalyst is fed using a nebulizer. Its system is designed in such a way
that the size and quantity of the catalyst can be controlled. In order to achieve the correct
parameters of the flow, it was modeled with the use of CFD calculations in Ansys Fluent
2021R1 software. These calculations include trajectories, velocities, and concentrations for
various flow parameters. Due to this, the obtained spectrum of results can be adjusted to
a specific case. Particular attention should be paid to the evaporation model of moving
particles. This information allows the delivery of the appropriate amount of droplets (with
an appropriate size) that contain the catalyst to be programmed.

2.1. Evaporation–Condensation Model

The evaporation–condensation model is a mechanistic model [24] that has a physical
basis and which can be used in the case of mixed and Eulerian multiphase models. In
this model, the mass transfer is described by the following formulas: in the case of the
evaporation process, i.e., when T > Tsat :

. ( T − Tsat )
me→v = coe f f ·αl ρl (1)
Tsat

whereas, in the case of the condensation process, i.e., when T < Tsat :

. ( T − Tsat )
me→v = coe f f ·αv ρv (2)
Tsat
.
where me→v is the mass transfer flux, i.e., from the liquid phase to the vapor phase, coeff is a
coefficient that is different when analyzing different problems and which can be interpreted
as a relaxation time, α is a volume fraction, and ρ is the density. The source term for the
energy equation can be derived by multiplying the mass transfer flux by the latent heat.
In turn, the Hertz–Knudsen formula describes the evaporation–condensation flux on
the basis of the kinetic theory of gases:
s
M
F=β ( P∗ − Psat ) (3)
2πRTsat

where M is mass of molecule, P is the pressure, T is the temperature, R is the gas constant, β
is the so-called accommodation coefficient (which refers to the amount of vapor molecules
that go into the liquid surface, which are then adsorbed by this surface), and P* is the vapor
pressure. The abberviation sat refers to the saturation condition. The Clapeyron–Clausius
equation shows the relation between the pressure and the temperature in the case of the
saturation process:
dP L
=
(4)
dT T v g − vl
where v g is the inverse of density of the gas, vl is the inverse of density of the liquid
(volume per mass unit), and L is the latent heat (J/kg). Based on this differential equation,
a variation of temperature with regards to the variation of pressure, which is close to the
saturation condition, can be obtained.
 𝐿
(𝑃∗ − 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) = (𝑇 ∗ − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 ) (5)
𝑇(𝑣𝑔 − 𝑣𝑙 )
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 4 of 14
Taking the above into consideration, the Hertz–Knudsen equation can be written as
follows:

When P∗ and T ∗ are close to the 𝑀 saturation

𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑙condition (Figure 1), the Clapeyron–
𝑇 ∗ − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
Clausius equation takes the𝐹following
= 𝛽√ 𝐿(
form: )( ) (6)
2𝜋𝑅𝑇 𝜌 −𝜌 𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑙 𝑔 𝑠𝑎𝑡

L
where β is determined using ( P∗the
−P accomodation
sat ) =
(T∗ − T
coefficient and
sat )the physical characteristics
(5)
T v g − vl
of the gas. In the case of conditions that are close to equlibrium, β is equal to 1.0.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. The diagram of the stability
stability phase.
phase.

Taking the above

In the Eulerian andinto consideration,
mixed multiphasethe Hertz–Knudsen
models, equationto
the flow is assumed can
bebe written
dispersed.
as
In follows:
the case when all vapor bubbles have the
s  same diameter,
 ∗ theinterfacial area density is
described by the formula M ρ g ρl T − Tsat
F=β L (6)
2πRTsat ρl − ρ g Tsat
𝐴𝑖 6𝛼𝑣
where β is determined using the accomodation = (7)
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 coefficient
𝑑 and the physical characteristics
of the gas. In the case of conditions that are close to equlibrium, β is equal to 1.0.
whereIn Vthe Eulerian
cell is the cell and mixed
volume, andmultiphase
the phase models,
source termthe flow
takesistheassumed to be
following dispersed.
form:
In the case when all vapor bubbles have the same diameter, the interfacial area density is
described by the formula 𝐴𝑖 6 𝑀 𝜌𝑙 𝑇 ∗ − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
𝐹 = 𝛽√ A 𝐿 ( 6α ) [𝜌𝑔 𝛼𝑣 ( )] (8)
𝑉𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑑 2𝜋𝑅𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡i = 𝜌𝑙 −v 𝜌𝑔 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 (7)
Vcell d
In this case, coeff, which is inversed to the relaxation
where Vcell is the cell volume, and the phase source term takes time the(1/s), can be determined
following form: as
follows:
s  ∗
T − Tsat
  
Ai 6 M ρl
F = β 6L 𝑀 ρ g αv𝜌𝑙 (8)
Vcell d 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓
2πRT=sat 𝛽√ρl − ρ g 𝐿 ( )T (9)
𝑑 2𝜋𝑅𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑔 sat
In this case, coeff, which is inversed to the relaxation time (1/s), can be determined
This leads to the final expression for the vaporization, which is defined in Equation
as follows:
(2). It can be treated implicitly as a source s term in the phase  conservation equation. A
similar expression can be obtained 6in the M of the ρcondensation
case l process. However,
coe f f = β L (9)
d 2πRT sat ρ l − ρ g
small droplets in a continuous vapor phase need to be considered, even if the primary
phase is aleads
This liquid.
to the final expression for the vaporization, which is defined in Equation (2).
It canItbeshould
treatedbeimplicitly
highlightedas athat coefficient
source term incoeff shouldconservation
the phase theoreticallyequation.
be different for the
A similar
condensation and evaporation expressions. Moreover, the flat interface,
expression can be obtained in the case of the condensation process. However, small droplets the dispersed re-
gime of the flux of droplets with a constant diameter, and known β
in a continuous vapor phase need to be considered, even if the primary phase is a liquid. were the main as-
sumptions
It shouldfor be
thehighlighted
obtained theoretical expression.
that coefficient coeff should theoretically be different for the
condensation and evaporation expressions. Moreover, the flat interface, the dispersed
regime of the flux of droplets with a constant diameter, and known β were the main
assumptions for the obtained theoretical expression.
Due to the fact that the diameter of a bubble and the accommodation coefficient are
usually not fully known, the coefficient coeff can be adjusted in order to correlate with the
 Due to the fact that the diameter of a bubble and the accommodation coefficient ar
usually not fully known, the coefficient coeff can be adjusted in order to correlate with th
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 5 of 14
experimental data. By default, this coefficient, in the case of evaporation and condensa
tion, is equal to 0.1.

experimental
2.2. Geometry data.
of aBy default,
Dust this coefficient, in the case of evaporation and condensation,
Channel
is equal to 0.1.
Numerical calculations were carried out for a model of geometry corresponding t
that of the actual
2.2. Geometry apparatus
of a Dust Channel (Figure 2) in which the experimental studies were conducted
TheNumerical
stand consists of dustwere
calculations channels
carriedthat
outare
for fixed to of
a model thegeometry
OP-430 corresponding
boiler No. 15 at to the Siek
ierki CHP Plant (Warsaw) in Poland. The temperature in the dust channel
that of the actual apparatus (Figure 2) in which the experimental studies were conducted. is 110–115 °C
(>100
The °C).consists
stand The dust of channel is a cylindrical
dust channels stainless-steel
that are fixed pipeboiler
to the OP-430 with No.
a diameter
15 at the of 300 mm
Siekierki CHP Plant (Warsaw) ◦C
and a length of 2.5 and 6.0inm.Poland. The temperature
The tests were carried in out
the dust channel
for the is 110–115evaporatio
isopropanol
(>100 ◦ C). The dust channel is a cylindrical stainless-steel pipe with a diameter of 300 mm
process (100% of isopropanol as the catalyst’s main system) with the following parame
and a length of 2.5 and 6.0 m. The tests were carried out for the isopropanol evaporation
ters: isopropanol density of 785 kg/m3, specific heat of 2570 J/kg × K, heat of vaporizatio
process (100% of isopropanol as the catalyst’s main system) with the following parameters:
of 700 kJ/kg, and boiling point of 355 K. The geometry and numerical mesh of the dus
isopropanol density of 785 kg/m3 , specific heat of 2570 J/kg × K, heat of vaporization
channel
of 700 kJ/kg, created in the ANSYS
and boiling point of Fluent 2021R1
355 K. The program
geometry and are shownmesh
numerical in Figure
of the3.dust
The numer
channel created in the ANSYS Fluent 2021R1 program are shown in Figure 3. The numericalbeing ap
ical mesh applied in the computations is poly-hexcore, with the boundary layer
pliedapplied
mesh at all the domain
in the walls. isThe
computations mesh contains
poly-hexcore, around
with the 324 layer
boundary k numerical cells inside
being applied
atvolume of 0.623walls.
all the domain m3 (i.e.,
The volume of thearound
mesh contains computational domain),
324 k numerical cellsand therefore,
inside a volumethe of averag
0.623 m 3 (i.e., volume of the computational domain), and therefore, the average cell size
cell size (treated as a cube) of the whole domain is 12.4 mm. The mesh is presented i
(treated
Figure as 4. a cube) of the whole domain is 12.4 mm. The mesh is presented in Figure 4.

Figure2.2.Dust
Figure Dust channels
channels on the
on the OP-430
OP-430 boilerboiler
No. 15No. 15 at
at the the Siekierki
Siekierki CHP Plant.
CHP Plant.
2021, 14, xEnergies
FOR PEER 14, 8521
2021,REVIEW 6 of 14 6 of 14
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 14

Figure 3. Geometry Figure

of the calculation
3. Geometryarea
of (in
the millimeters).
calculation area
Figure 3. Geometry of the calculation area (in(in millimeters).
millimeters).

Figure 4. Geometry and numerical mesh of the computational domain.

Figure4.4.Geometry
Figure Geometryand
andnumerical
numericalmesh
meshofofthe
thecomputational
computationaldomain.
domain.

3. Results and 3.Discussion

3.Results
ResultsandandDiscussion
Discussion
3.1. Analysis of the
3.1.Flow in the Dust Channel Dust Channel
3.1. Analysis of theFlow
Analysis of the Flowininthe
the Dust Channel
Figure 5 showsFigure
the exemplary results obtained for the flow of pulverized coal and
Figure 5 shows the exemplaryresults
5 shows the exemplary resultsobtained
obtainedforforthe
theflow
flowofofpulverized
pulverizedcoal
coaland
and
aerosol (100% isopropanol)
aerosol (100% with a droplet
isopropanol) diameter
with a of 30
dropletµ m. The velocity
diameter of 30of the
µm. gas
Thetrans-
velocity of thetrans-
gas
aerosol (100% isopropanol) with a droplet diameter of 30 µ m. The velocity of the gas
porting the pulverized coal was
transporting the approximately
pulverized coal27 m/s approximately
was (Figure 5a). The27particle
m/s 5a).size distri-
(Figure
porting the pulverized coal was approximately 27 m/s (Figure The 5a). Thesize
particle particle
distri-
bution of the coal
sizedust was modeled
distribution of thewith
coalRosin-Rammler
dust was modeled distribution with the following
with Rosin-Rammler distribution with the
bution of the coal dust was modeled with Rosin-Rammler distribution with the following
parameters: mean diameter
following dave = 69 µmean
parameters: m, polydispersion
diameter dave parameter n = 2.23, and diameter
= 69 µm, polydispersion parameter n = 2.23, and
parameters: mean diameter dave = 69 µ m, polydispersion parameter n = 2.23, and diameter
of the coal dustdiameter
range from of 20
thetocoal
200dust
µ m. range
The carbon
from analysis
20 to 200showed
µm. The(working condition):
carbon analysis showed (working
of the coal dust range from 20 to 200 µ m. The carbon analysis showed (working condition):
moisture 8.70%, condition):
ash 24.50%, moisture 8.70%,parts
combustible ash 24.50%,
33.50%, combustible
HHV = 22530parts 33.50%,
kJ/kg, LHV =HHV 22027= 22,530 kJ/kg,
moisture 8.70%, ash 24.50%, combustible parts 33.50%, HHV = 22530 kJ/kg, LHV = 22027
kJ/kg, C 57.80%, LHV = 22,027
H 3.00%, kJ/kg,NC1.07%,
O 4.26%, 57.80%,
andHS 3.00%,
0.67%. O 4.26%,
The N the
flow of 1.07%, and S 0.67%.
pulverized coal The flow of
kJ/kg, C 57.80%, H 3.00%, O 4.26%, N 1.07%, and S 0.67%. The flow of the pulverized coal
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 7 of 14
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 14

the pulverized coal before the bent section was leveled and had a homogeneous dust
before the bent
concentration ofsection
approx.was g/m3 .and
250leveled had a homogeneous
Downstream of the bentdust concentration
section, of approx.
after changing its
250 g/m
flow 3 . Downstream
direction, of the bent
the pulverized coalsection,
mainly after changingnear
accumulated its flow
the direction,
upper part theofpulverized
the dust
coal mainly
channel (Figure accumulated
5b), where near the upper
the dust part of the
concentration wasdust
abovechannel (Figure
1000 g/m 3 . Then,
5b), where
some ofthe
the pulverized coal flowed along the wall of the dust channel, and its flow
dust concentration was above 1000 g/m . Then, some of the pulverized coal flowed along
3 was generally
only
the observed
wall of the around the wall along
dust channel, and itsthe entire
flow wasperimeter
generally(high
onlydust concentrations
observed around the above
wall
1000 g/m
along the3 ).entire
In turn, the transporting
perimeter (high dustgas flowed through
concentrations abovethe center
1000 g/mof3). the dust the
In turn, channel
trans-
(dust concentration 3 —Figure 5d). The 30-µm-diameter droplets of 100%
porting gas flowedbelow through50 the
g/m center of the dust channel (dust concentration below 50
isopropanol
g/m3—Figure spray
5d).delivered to the top of droplets
The 30-µ m-diameter the dust of
channel
100% completely
isopropanolevaporated
spray deliveredbeforeto
the outlet opening (Figure 5c).
the top of the dust channel completely evaporated before the outlet opening (Figure 5c).

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 5. Cont.
Energies 2021,14,
Energies2021, 14,8521
x FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
of1414

(d)

Figure5.5.The
Figure Theflow
flowininthe
thedust
dustchannel—selected
channel—selectedresults
resultsfor
fordroplets
dropletswith
withaadiameter
diameterofof30
30µm
μmand
and
100% of isopropanol: (a) gas velocity, m/s; (b) dust concentration, kg/m 33; (c) droplet trajectories,
100% of isopropanol: (a) gas velocity, m/s; (b) dust concentration, kg/m ; (c) droplet trajectories,
whichare
which arecolored
coloredwith
withregards
regardstototheir
theirvelocities,
velocities,m/s;
m/s;and
and(d)
(d)dust
dusttrajectories
trajectoriescolored
coloredwith
withregards
regards
to the diameter of the dust, m.
to the diameter of the dust, m.

3.2.Droplet
3.2. DropletMotion
Motionand
andEvaporation
EvaporationAnalysis
Analysis
Inthe
In thecurrent
currentstudy,
study, the
the Euler–Lagrange
Euler–Lagrange approach
approach is applied
is applied to simulate
to simulate the evolu-
the evolution
tion
of of evaporating
evaporating droplets
droplets and pulverized
and pulverized coal,the
coal, i.e., i.e.,
gasthephase
gas phase is treated
is treated in the in the Eu-
Eulerian
lerian manner,
manner, while
while the the droplets
droplets and pulverized
and pulverized coal particles
coal particles areastreated
are treated as Lagrange
Lagrange discrete
discrete moving
particles particlesinmoving
the gas in the gas
phase. Bothphase. Both continuous
continuous and discrete and discrete
phases phases
interact withinteract
each
other by exchange
with each other by of mass, momentum,
exchange and energy.
of mass, momentum, andThe mass,The
energy. momentum, and energy
mass, momentum, and
equations that govern
energy equations thatthe droplet
govern theevolution are presented
droplet evolution below. The
are presented massThe
below. conservation
mass con-
equation
servationofequation
the droplet is defined
of the droplet as [25,26]: as [25,26]:
is defined

dm𝑑𝑚 d 𝑑 = −𝑟 (10)
= −r d 𝑑 (10)
dt 𝑑𝑡
where 𝑚 is the droplet mass, and 𝑟 is the droplet evaporation rate defined as follows:
where md 𝑑is the droplet mass, and rd is𝑑 the droplet evaporation rate defined as follows:
𝑟𝑑 = 𝑘𝑐 𝐴𝑑 ρ ln(1 + 𝐵𝑀 ) (11)
rd = k c Ad ρ ln(1 + B M ) (11)
in which 𝐴𝑑 is the droplet surface area, 𝜌 is the gas density, and 𝐵𝑀 is the Spalding mass
number
in which defined
Ad is theas:
droplet surface area, ρ is the gas density, and B M is the Spalding mass
number defined as: 𝑌𝑠 Y− 𝑌∞
Ys − ∞
B M𝐵= 𝑀 = (12)
(12)
1 −1 Y−s 𝑌𝑠
whereY𝑌isisthe
where thevapor
vapormass massfraction
fractionatatthe
thesurface
surface(s)(s)and
andininthe
thebulk
bulkgas
gas(∞).
(∞).The
Themass
mass
transfer coefficient 𝑘
transfer coefficient k c is is calculated from the Sherwood number
𝑐 calculated from the Sherwood number correlation: correlation:

k c d𝑘p𝑐 𝑑𝑝 2 + 0.6 𝑅𝑒 0.5 (13)

Sh𝑆ℎ= = 𝐷= = 2 + 0.6 Re0.5 𝑑 𝑆𝑐
d Sc (13)
D
in which 𝑑 is the droplet diameter, D is the diffusion coefficient of the vapor in the bulk
in which d p 𝑝is the droplet diameter, D is the diffusion coefficient of the vapor in the bulk
gas, Sc is the Schmidt number, and 𝑅𝑒 is the droplet Reynolds number.
gas, Sc is the Schmidt number, and Red 𝑑is the droplet Reynolds number.
The droplet momentum equation is defined as follows [27]:
The droplet momentum equation is defined as follows [27]:
𝑑𝑢𝑑 𝑓𝐷
dud 𝑑𝑡 = f D 𝜏 (𝑢𝑓 − 𝑢𝑑 ) + 𝑔 (14)
= 𝑉u f − u d + g (14)
dt τV
where 𝑢𝑝 is the droplet velocity, 𝑢𝑓 is the fluid velocity, and 𝑔 is the standard accelera-
where u p to
tion due is the droplet velocity, u f is the fluid velocity, and g is the standard acceleration
gravity,
due to gravity,
ρ d𝜌𝑑 𝑑𝑝
τV τ= 𝑉 =d p (15)
(15)
18 18
µ f μ𝑓
is the droplet relaxation time, 𝜌𝑑 is the droplet density, 𝜇𝑓 is the fluid viscosity,
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 9 of 14

is the droplet relaxation time, ρd is the droplet density, µ f is the fluid viscosity,

CD Red
fD = (16)
24
is the normalized drag coefficient, and CD is the drag coefficient.
Finally, the droplet temperature Td is updated according to the heat balance, which
takes into account the convective and latent heat transfer between the droplet and the
continuous phase [25,26]:

dTd  
md c p = hAd T f − Td + rd h f g (17)
dt
where c p is the droplet heat capacity, T f is the gas temperature, h f g is the latent heat of the
droplet, and h is the convective heat transfer coefficient that is calculated with the modified
Nu number as follows [13]:

h dp ln(1 + BT )  
Nu = = 2 + 0.6 Re0.5
d Pr 0.33
(18)
k BT

where k is the thermal conductivity of the gas phase, Pr is the Prandtl number of the gas
phase, and BT is the Spalding heat transfer number defined as:
 
c pv T f − Td
BT = . (19)
h f g − qd /rd
.
where cpv is the specific heat of the droplet vapor, and qd is the heat transferred to
the droplet.
Afterwards, using the model presented above, the process of vaporization of the
isopropanol droplets of selected diameters during the flow through the dust channel was
modeled for different reagent injection conditions. The boundary conditions applied in the
numerical simulations are as follows:
• dust channel: a gas flow rate of 5000 Nm3 /h (26.8 m/s), a mass flow rate of pulverized
coal of 1.2 t/h, the size distribution of the pulverized coal is the Rosin-Rammler distri-
bution with parameters: d = 70 µm and n = 2.0 in the diameter range of 20–200 µm,
and a gas temperature of 100 ◦ C.
• reagent: a flow rate of 300 mL/h; injection with a high velocity of 120 m/s or with
a low velocity of 10, 20, and 30 m/s; various droplet diameters of 20 and 30 µm; a
temperature of 25 ◦ C; and catalyst/liquid introduction angles of 30◦ and 45◦ .
The next step was to compare the trajectory of 20-µm droplets for isopropanol, wa-
ter, and the N–C solution. The following parameters were considered for the water:
ρ = 994 kg/m3 , cp = 4200 J/kgK, b = 2382 J/g, and Tp = 100 ◦ C and, for the N–C solution:
ρ = 970 kg/m3 , cp = 3874 J/kgK, b = 2060 J/g, and Tp = 83 ◦ C. The concentration of the
isopropanol in the N–C solution was 20%, with the remaining 80% being water.
Figure 6 shows the effect of the droplet diameter and the type of solution on the path,
followed by the reagent aerosol until it disappears completely (evaporation). The reagent
injection took place at a high speed of 120 m/s. Due to the physical properties, for droplets
with a composition of 100% isopropanol, the evaporation process is fast and ends before the
dust channel’s outlet, even in the case of large droplets with a diameter of 30 µm (Figure 6a).
When comparing 20 and 30-µm isopropanol droplets, it can be seen that the 20-µm droplet
is able to reach a distance of approx. 0.5 m (Figure 6b), while the 30-µm droplet can reach
a distance of approx. 0.85 m. For the pure water aerosol, complete evaporation does not
occur for the droplets of 20 µm (Figure 6c). Therefore, it should be assumed that, in the
case of a certain concentration of the reagent, the vaporization of the aerosol will occur
exactly in the desired area, i.e., near the outlet of the dust channel. An appropriate reagent
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 10 of 14

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW

concentrationis provided by the N–C solution. This is due to the fact that, for the10N–C of 14

solution (for high-speed injection conditions), evaporation of the aerosol occurs near the
outlet in the case of the droplet with a diameter of 20 µm (Figure 6d). However, in the
case
caseofoflower
lowerinjection
injectionvelocities,
velocities,which
whichareareusually
usuallyused usedininpractice,
practice,the
thediameter
diameterofofthethe
droplets,
droplets, which ensures evaporation in the area of the dust channel’s outlet,will
which ensures evaporation in the area of the dust channel’s outlet, willbebegreater
greater
than
than2020µm. Therefore,
µ m. Therefore,as can be seen
as can fromfrom
be seen further analysis
further of theof
analysis obtained images,images,
the obtained in orderin
for the for
order droplet to reachtothe
the droplet endthe
reach of end
the dust
of thechannel, it should
dust channel, have ahave
it should diameter greatergreater
a diameter than
30 µm.30 µ m.
than

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 6. Comparison of the trajectory of the droplets with a diameter of: (a) for the isopropanol—
Figure 6. Comparison of the trajectory of the droplets with a diameter of: (a) for the isopropanol—30 µm,
30 μm, (b) for the isopropanol—20 μm, (c) for the water—20 μm, and (d) for the N–C solution—20
(b) for the isopropanol—20 µm, (c) for the water—20 µm, and (d) for the N–C solution—20 µm. The
μm. The distance from the injection point to the dust channel’s outlet is 1.0 m.
distance from the injection point to the dust channel’s outlet is 1.0 m.
Successive simulations show the trajectories of the N–C solution droplets for the se-
Successive simulations show the trajectories of the N–C solution droplets for the
lected diameters (from 6 to 30 μm) for three different inlet velocities (10, 20, and 30 m/s).
selected diameters (from 6 to 30 µm) for three different inlet velocities (10, 20, and 30 m/s).
Figure 7 shows the effect of changing the droplet’s diameter during the flow in the dust
Figure 7 shows the effect of changing the droplet’s diameter during the flow in the dust
channel under selected conditions. Droplets with a size of 20 μm evaporate before the dust
channel under selected conditions. Droplets with a size of 20 µm evaporate before the dust
channel’soutlet.
channel’s outlet.This
Thisisisin
incontrast
contrastto
tothe
thedroplets
dropletswith
withaasize
sizeofof30
30µm,
μm,which,
which,for
forthe
the
tested injection speeds, are completely vaporized at the desired distance from the injection
point, i.e., near the dust channel’s outlet. A droplet size of 20 μm reaches a distance of
about 0.85 m. The results show that droplets smaller than 30 μm evaporate, and therefore,
for further experimental work, a droplet diameter equal to 30 μm will be considered.
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 11 of 14

tested injection speeds, are completely vaporized at the desired distance from the injection
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
point, i.e., near the dust channel’s outlet. A droplet size of 20 µm reaches a distance 11 of
of14
about 0.85 m. The results show that droplets smaller than 30 µm evaporate, and therefore,
for further experimental work, a droplet diameter equal to 30 µm will be considered.
Increasing
Increasingthe theinlet velocity
inlet velocity from 1010
from toto
3030
m/s
m/scontributes
contributestotothe
the“injection”
“injection”ofofthe
thedroplet
droplet
into
intothe
theflowing
flowingflux
fluxtotoa agreater depth.
greater depth.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 7. Comparison of the selected trajectories of the droplets with a diameter of: (a) 20 μm, a gas
Figure 7. Comparison of the selected trajectories of the droplets with a diameter of: (a) 20 µm, a gas
and droplet inlet velocity of 30 m/s; (b) 30 μm, a gas and droplet velocity of 30 m/s; and (c) 30 μm,
and droplet inlet velocity of 30 m/s; (b) 30 µm, a gas and droplet velocity of 30 m/s; and (c) 30 µm, a
a gas and droplet inlet velocity of 10 m/s. The distance from the injection point to the dust channel’s
gas and is
outlet droplet
1.0 m.inlet velocity
Tested of 10 m/s.
liquid—N–C The distance from the injection point to the dust channel’s
solution.
outlet is 1.0 m. Tested liquid—N–C solution.
Therefore, from the simulations made using Ansys Fluent, it can be seen that the
Therefore, from the simulations made using Ansys Fluent, it can be seen that the
droplet size that is needed to deliver the catalyst (carried by the liquid droplets) to the
droplet size that is needed to deliver the catalyst (carried by the liquid droplets) to the dust
dust channel’s outlet is, in practice, between 30 and 50 µ m (>30 µ m).
channel’s outlet is, in practice, between 30 and 50 µm (>30 µm).
By analyzing the obtained results, the velocities and droplet sizes required for the
By analyzing the obtained results, the velocities and droplet sizes required for the
droplets to reach of the end of the dust channel can be indicated. A very important com-
droplets to reach of the end of the dust channel can be indicated. A very important
ponent of the performed simulations is the modeling of the droplets’ evaporation. Droplet
component of the performed simulations is the modeling of the droplets’ evaporation.
evaporation for the same diameters and for two different velocities (30 and 120 m/s) was
Droplet evaporation for the same diameters and for two different velocities (30 and 120 m/s)
compared for the setting angle of the inlet pipe of the atomizer, which was equal to 45°
was compared for the setting angle of the inlet pipe of the atomizer, which was equal to
45(Figure 8).8).
◦ (Figure When
Whencompared
comparedtotoan anangle
angleofof 30°,
30◦ , the
the droplets, at an
droplets, at anangle
angleofof4545°, getdeep
◦ , get deep
insidethe
inside thedust
dustchannel;
channel;this
thismeans
meansthat thatthe
thecatalyst
catalystisisdistributed
distributedinina alarger
largervolume
volumeofof
the dust channel. In the case of the setting angle of 30 , the droplets reach a distance ofof
the dust channel. In the case of the setting angle of 30°,
◦ the droplets reach a distance
approx.0.12
approx. 0.12mmfrom
fromthetheaxis
axisofofthe
thedust
dustchannel.
channel.Therefore,
Therefore,a achange
changeofofthetheangle
angle toto
4545°
◦

benefits the delivery process of the droplets. Figure 8b, which shows the trajectory of a a
benefits the delivery process of the droplets. Figure 8b, which shows the trajectory of
dropletwith
droplet witha adiameter
diameterofof3030µm,
µ m,proves
proves that
that such
such a adroplet
droplet will
will reach
reach the
the end
end ofof the
the dust
dust
channel,effectively
channel, effectivelytransferring
transferringthe the catalyst.
catalyst.
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 12 of 14
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 14

(a)

(b)

Figure 8. Droplet trajectories for the selected initial diameters equal to (a) 20 µ m and (b) 30 µ m with
Figure 8. Droplet trajectories for the selected initial diameters equal to (a) 20 µm and (b) 30 µm with
regards to the droplet’s diameter (color), a gas and droplet velocity of 120 m/s, and a pipe inclination
regards
of 45°.to the droplet’s diameter (color), a gas and droplet velocity of 120 m/s, and a pipe inclination
of 45◦ .
The obtained results show which droplets will not evaporate before reaching the end
The obtained results show which droplets will not evaporate before reaching the
of the dust channel. The modeling of the above-described phenomena allows for the
end of the dust channel. The modeling of the above-described phenomena allows for the
change of inlet parameters of the applied dispersion (adaptation to various types of boil-
change of inlet parameters of the applied dispersion (adaptation to various types of boilers)
ers) and, thus, the selection of appropriate velocities, droplet size range, and the angle of
and, thus, the selection of appropriate velocities, droplet size range, and the angle of
inclination of the pipe (applicator) with the catalyst. In future research work, the con-
inclination of the pipe (applicator) with the catalyst. In future research work, the conducted
ducted simulations
simulations will bewith
will be verified verified
testswith tests
on an on an appropriate
appropriate laboratorylaboratory
stand. stand.

4.4.Conclusions
Conclusions
AsAsa aresult
resultofofusing
usingthe thesimulation
simulationofofthe thereal
realmodel,
model,a avery
verywide
widespectrum
spectrumofofresults
results
was obtained. The desired droplet size was determined, i.e., the critical (minimum)diam-
was obtained. The desired droplet size was determined, i.e., the critical (minimum) di-
eter was
ameter was determined
determined forforthethegiven
givenparameters
parameters of the dustdust
of the channel’s operation.
channel’s The possi-
operation. The
bilities of adapting
possibilities of adapting thethecreated
created model
modeltotoaaspecific
specific case
case were analyzed.
analyzed. TheThepaper
paperpre-
pre-
sentedselected
sented selected calculation
calculation results
results thatthat confirmed
confirmed the correctness
the correctness of theofmade
the made assump-
assumptions.
tions.analysis
Their Their analysis gives appropriate
gives appropriate guidelines guidelines for the construction
for the construction of a test
of a test stand. stand. A
A system
system
that allowsthatfor
allows for the dosing
the precise precise of dosing of the catalyst
the catalyst was presented,
was presented, and the andeffectiveness
the effective-
ofness of the developed
the developed method method was analyzed.
was analyzed. The method
The method involvedinvolved the intensification
the intensification of theof
the combustion
combustion of solidof fuels
solidin fuels in a with
a boiler boilerthewith
usethe use of
of alkyl alkyl alcohol
alcohol and Al–Ni and(as
Al–Ni (as com-
combustion
bustion promoters).
promoters). Due to the Due to the proposed
proposed method, it method,
will be itpossible
will be to possible
obtain to obtain degree
a higher a higher
ofdegree
fuel burnout, which, in
of fuel burnout, turn, in
which, will result
turn, willinresult
a lower
in aenergy consumption
lower energy in the case
consumption in the
ofcase
producing the same
of producing the amount
same amount of power and, also,
of power and,inalso,
an increase of the of
in an increase flame’s stability.
the flame’s sta-
The parameters
bility. of the emitted
The parameters exhaustexhaust
of the emitted fumes and fumes ash will
and also
ash willimprove. BasedBased
also improve. on theon
conducted process
the conducted simulations,
process simulations,it wasitshown
was shownthat: that:
• • ininorder
orderto to
supply
supply thethecatalyst
catalystto the system,
to the droplets
system, withwith
droplets a diameter of at least
a diameter of at 30 µm30
least
should be generated;
µ m should be generated;
• • ananangle ◦ for the inlet pipe of the isopropanol feeding atomizer is beneficial; this
angleofof4545° for the inlet pipe of the isopropanol feeding atomizer is beneficial; this
allows
allowsthe thecatalyst
catalystflux flux totobebe introduced
introduced into
intothe
thefuel flux.
fuel flux.
The
Thestudy
studyclearly
clearlyshows
showsthat thatadditional
additionalfactors
factorsmustmustbebeconsidered
consideredwhen whendesigning
designing
the
theprocess
processofofintroducing
introducinga acatalyst catalystintointoa fuel
a fuel system.
system.The Theatomizing
atomizingdevice
deviceshould
shouldbebe
carefully
carefully matched
matched with withthe the
liquid properties
liquid and other
properties and process parameters.
other process The performed
parameters. The per-
simulations are currently being verified on experimental
formed simulations are currently being verified on experimental stands. The stands. The research should be
research
should be continued by extending it with tests on dust channels of various geometries,
Energies 2021, 14, 8521 13 of 14

continued by extending it with tests on dust channels of various geometries, and with tests
conducted for a carrier liquid containing a catalyst with different rheological properties.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: Z.B., M.O. (Marek Ochowiak), R.L., J.D., E.S., and D.C.
Formal analysis: Z.B., M.O. (Marek Ochowiak), R.L., J.D., E.S., and D.C. Investigation: Z.B., M.O.
(Marek Ochowiak), R.L., J.D., E.S., D.C., and M.O. (Marcin Odziomek). Methodology: Z.B., M.O.
(Marek Ochowiak), R.L., J.D., E.S., D.C., S.W., A.K., M.M., and M.O. (Marcin Odziomek). Writing:
Z.B., M.O. (Marek Ochowiak), R.L., M.M., A.K., S.W., J.D., E.S., and D.C. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was supported by the project “Development and implementation of innova-
tive technology intensification of the combustion of solid fuels” co-financed by the Polish National
Centre for Research and Development, national program—R&D works and commercialization of
R&D—Regional Scientific and Research Agendas/2017 (contract no. POIR.04.01.02-00.068/17-00).
This research work was supported by Polish Ministry of Education and Science too.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author (Z.B.).
Acknowledgments: The authors thank the Polish National Centre for Research and Development
for financial support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest concerning this study.

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