Fluid Mechanics

Prof. Dr. Andreas Malcherek

 Torricelli’s law
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Andreas Malcherek
The experiment
Kinematics on earth

dx 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝑢𝑢 =0
dt 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
dy 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝑣𝑣 =0
dt 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
dz 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
= 𝑤𝑤 =-g
dt 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
 Horizontal motion

dx 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
=0
= 𝑢𝑢 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡
dt

𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑥𝑥0 𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑢𝑢0

 Vertical motion

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 = −𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑤𝑤0

= −𝑔𝑔
𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡

dz 1 2
= 𝑤𝑤 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = − 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 + 𝑤𝑤0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑧𝑧0
dt 2

1 2
𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = ℎ − 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤 = 2 𝑔𝑔 ℎ − 𝑧𝑧
2
The trajectory z(x)

2
1 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑥𝑥0
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑔𝑔
2 𝑢𝑢0

2
1 𝑥𝑥
𝑧𝑧 = 𝑔𝑔
2 𝑢𝑢0
 Torricelli‘s law (1644)

v A = 2 gh
 function ParticleKinematics
The program x0=0;
y0=0;
z0=0;
dt=[0 10];
[T,F] = ode45(@RHS,dt,[x0 y0 z0]);
Please change for yourself x=F(:,1); y=F(:,2); z=F(:,3);
plot(T,x)

function dfdt = RHS(t,f)

x=f(1); y=f(2); z=f(3);
u=2;
v=0;
w=0;
dxdt=u;
dydt=v;
dzdt=w;
dfdt = [dxdt;dydt;dzdt];
end
end
Mass balance for the outflow
problem

Prof. Dr. Andreas Malcherek

Simple Mass balance
Volume flux and velocity
Velocity and Discharge
The emptying of a vessel
Application of Torricelli‘s law

v A = 2gh

dh AA
=− 2gh
dt A

2
 t A0 2h 0
h(t) = h 0 1 −  τ=
 τ AA g
 Outflow time
2
 t
h(t) = h 0 1 − 
 τ
 h1  A0 2h 0
Ausflusszeit von h0 auf h1: T = τ1 -  τ=

 h 0  AA g
A 0  2h 0 2h1 
T=  - 

AA  g g 

A0 2h 0
Entleerungszeit: T∞ =
AA g
 function waterLevel
The MATLAB program A0=100;
AA=1;
g=9.81;
h0=1;
[T, H] = ode45(@RHS,[0 50],h0);
plot(T,H)

function dhdt = RHS(t,h)

if h>0
dhdt=-AA/A0*sqrt(2*g*h);
else
dhdt=0;
end
end
end
Results
 The vena contracta theory
Replace

by
Results
The discharge coefficient

v A ≈ µ 2gh
The general mass balance

Prof. Dr. Andreas Malcherek

Reservoir dynamics

Constant density
The continuity equation for pipes

Incompressible
The normal unit vector concept
Arbitrarily shaped boundaries
Elementary pipe flows
Prof. Dr. Andreas Malcherek
Momentum balance – left hand side

L
Driving forces and friction forces

Friction proportional to
• Circumstance
• Pipe length
• Velocity square
• density
Skalar form in flow direction
Pressure force as a driving force
Gravitation in a earth surface co-ordinate
system
F = ma

F = mg

0
  
F = −mg 0 
1
 
Gravitation potential

ϕ = gz
0
 
grad ϕ =  0 
g
 

g = − grad ϕ

F = − m grad ϕ
Gravitational force in flow direction
Normal unit vector in flow directionung
 function pipe_instationary
The program
g=9.81; rho=1000;
L=1000; % Length
D=2; % Diameter
p1=5000; p2=0; % Pressure difference
z1=0; z2=0;

[T,V] = ode45(@RHS,[0 1000],0);

plot(T,V,'LineWidth',2,'Color',[0 0 0])

function dvdt = RHS(t,v)

lambda = 0.02;
dvdt = (p1-p2)/(rho*L)-lambda/D*v*abs(v)/2+g*(z1-
z2)/L;
end
end
 1

0.9

The result 0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

Geschwindigkeit [m/s]
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Zeit [s]
The friction coefficnet λ
 function lambda=colebrook_white(Re,ks_by_dhyd)
lambda=0*Re; % Initialisierung
Re1=2000;
Re2=4000;
Colebrook-White- for i=1:length(Re)
Re(i)=max(abs(Re(i)),100);
function lambda_l(i)=64/Re(i);
lambda0=0.0055.*(1+(20000.*ks_by_dhyd+1e6/Re(i))^(1/3));
lambda(i)=(-2*log10(2.51/(Re(i)*sqrt(lambda0)) ...
+ks_by_dhyd/3.71))^(-2);
while abs(lambda(i)-lambda0) > 1e-4
lambda0=lambda(i);
lambda(i)=0.9*lambda(i)...
+0.1*(-2*log10(2.51/(Re(i)*sqrt(lambda0)) ...
+ks_by_dhyd/3.71))^(-2);
end
if Re(i)<Re1
lambda(i)=lambda_l(i);
elseif Re(i) >= Re1 && Re(i) < Re2
lambda(i)=lambda_l(i) ...
+(lambda(i)-lambda_l(i))/(Re2-Re1)*(Re(i)-Re1);
end
end
end
Bernoulli’s energy principle

Prof. Dr. Andreas Malcherek

Pressure force are acting everywhere on a
boundary

 
F = − ∫ pndA
∂Ω

Gaußian integral rule


F = − ∫ grad pdΩ
Ω
Integral momentum balance

F = − ∫ grad pdΩ
Ω
 Kinetic energy

Multiplication with
Potential energy
The pressure integral
Hydraulic losses
Bernoulli‘s equation
Derivation of Torricelli‘s law
Continuous changes of cross sections

Same geodetical heigth:

Weisbach‘s friction formula
 Momentum flux

Prof. Dr. Andreas Malcherek

The falling water column
Mass balance for the vessel
Momentum balance for the vessel
… is the sum of acting forces
… and momentum fluxes
Result: Momentum fluxes have to be taken into account
Full momentum balance
Outflow from a vessel
Momentum change (left hand side)
Stationary conditions
The vena contracta