Criminal Sociology

Criminal Sociology - investigates the social causes of criminal behavior in an effort to ultimately end them. Criminal
sociologists identify the sources outside of a person in society that influence and even as some theorists believe, compel
criminal action.                       

Criminology Theories

1. Strain Theory - people has aspirations like wealth and education. There goals are blocked along the way. They resort
to illegal activities what they cannot achieved through legitimate means. People may reduce their aspirations or increase
opportunities.
   
2. Learning Theories - follow the lead of Sutherland’s theory of differential association. Criminals learn from their peers.

3. Control Theories - focuses on the relationship of a person to their parents, teachers, officers of the law and other
agents of socialization. Effective bonding with such authority figure help keep people out of trouble from the law.
 
4. Labelling Theory - People who are branded as criminals will eventually criminal.

5. Conflict Theory - society is based on conflict between competing interests’ group.

6. Radical Theory - crime is seen as a reflection of   class struggle.

7. Left Realism - people of the working-class prey upon one another. Poor people victimize other poor people of their
own race and kind.
 
8. Peacemaking Theory - making "war on crime” will not work. Making peace is the solution to crime.

9. Feminism - crime cannot be understood without considering gender. Crime is shaped by the different social
experiences and power is exercise by men and women. Men may use crime to exert control over women and to
demonstrate masculinity.

10. Critical Theory - Inequality in power and material well-being create conditions that lead to street crime and
corporate crime. Capitalism and its market economy are especially criminogenic because they create vast inequalities
that impoverishes many and provides opportunities for exploitation for the powerful.
     
11. Social Disorganization - disorganized communities   cause crime because informal social controls breakdown and
criminal cultures emerge. They lack collective efficacy to fight crime and disorder.

12. Classical - crime occurs when the benefits outweigh the costs, when people pursue self interest in the absence of
effective punishments. Crime is a free willed choice.
   
13. Positivist - Crime is caused or determined. Placed more emphasis on biological deficiencies, while later scholars
would emphasize psychological and    sociological factors. Use science to determine the factors associated with crime.

14. Individual Trait - criminals differ from non-criminals on a number of biological and sociological traits. These traits
cause crime in interaction with the social environment.
    
15. Differential Association - crime is learned through associations with criminal definitions. These definitions might be
generally approving of   criminal conduct or be neutralization that justify crime only under certain circumstances.
Interacting with anti-social peers is a major cause of crime. Criminal behavior will be repeated and become chronic if
reinforced. When criminal subculture exists then many individuals can learn to commit crime in one location and crime
rates, including violence may become very high.
   
16. Anomie - the gap between a person’s goal or economic success and the opportunity to obtain this goal creates
structural strain. Norms weakens and anomie ensues, thus creating high crime rates. When other social institutions such
as family are weak to begin with or also weakened by a person’s goal, the economic institution is dominant. When such
an institutional imbalance exists, then crime rates are very high.
 
17. Rational Choice - Building on classical theory, crime is seen as a choice that is influenced by its costs and benefits,
that is, by its rationality. Crime will be more likely to be deterred if its costs are raised especially if the costs are certain
and immediate. Information about the costs and benefits of crime can be obtained by direct experiences with
punishment and punishment avoidance and indirectly by observing whether others who offend are punished or avoid
punishment.
 
18. Routine Activities - crime occurs when there is an intersection in time and space of a motivated offender, an
attractive target, and a lack of capable guardianship. People’s daily routine activities affect the likelihood they will be an
attractive target who encounters an offender in a situation where no effective guardianship is present. Change in  
activities in society can affect crime rates.
 
19. Developmental Life Course - crime causation is a developmental process that starts before birth and continues
throughout the life course.  Individual factors interact with social factors to determine the onset, length, and end of
criminal careers. The key theoretical issues involve continuity and change in crime. Some theories predict continuity
across the life course, others predict continuity for some offenders and change  for other offenders, and some predict
continuity and change for the same offender.

20. Integrated - these theories use components from other theories, usually strain, control, and social learning to create
a new theory that explains   crime. They are often life course theories, arguing that causes of crime occur in a
sequence across time.
 INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY
Criminology - the scientific study of crime and criminal behavior and law enforcement.
3 Main School of Thought
1. Classical school
2. Positivist school
3. Chicago school

Classical school - based on utilitarian philosophy developed in the 18th century. This school of thoughts argues:
1. That people have free will to choose how to act.
2. Deterrence is based upon the notion of the human being as a hedonist who seeks pleasure and avoid pain and a
rational calculator weighing up the cost and benefits of the consequences of each action.
3. Punishment of sufficient severity can deter people from crime as the cost (penalties) outweigh benefits and that
the severity of punishment should be proportionate to the crime.
4. The more swift and certain the punishment, the more effective it is in deterring criminal behavior.

Prominent Philosophers of Classical School

1. Cesare Becarria - author of crimes and punishment.
2. Jeremy Bentham - inventor of the panopticon - type of institutional building designed to allow an observer to
observe inmates of an institution without them being able to tell whether or not they are being watched.

Positivist school - presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individuals
control.
                               
Positivism can be broken in 3 segments which include:
                 1. Biological
                 2. Psychological
                 3. Social - one of the largest contributors to biological positivism and founder of the Italian school of
criminology is Cesare Lombroso.

Italian School

 Cesare Lombroso - an Italian doctor and sometimes regarded as the father of criminology. Considered also as
the founder of criminal anthropology. He suggested that physiological traits such as the measurement of
the check bones or hairline or a cleft palate, considered to be throwbacks to neanderthal man, were indicative
of "atavistic criminal tendencies". This approach has been superseded by the beliefs of Enrico Ferri.
 Enrico Ferri - a student of Lombroso, believe that social as well as biological factors played a role
and held the view that criminals should not be held responsible when factors causing their criminality were beyond
their control.
 Sociological positivism - suggest that societal factors such as poverty, membership of subcultures or low levels
of education can predispose people to crime.

1. Adolphe Quetelet - made use of data and statistical analysis to gain insight into relationship between crime and
sociological factors. He found that age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important
factors related to crime.
2. Rawson W. Rawson - utilized crime statistics to suggest a link between population density and crime rates with
crowded cities creating an environment conducive for crime.
3. Joseph Fletcher and John Glyde - also presented papers to the statistical society of London on their studies of
crime and its distribution.
 4. Henry Mayhew - used empirical methods and an ethnographic approach to address social questions and
poverty.
5. Emile Durkheim - viewed crime as an inevitable aspect of society with uneven distribution of wealth and other
differences among people.

Chicago School - arose in the early 20th century, through the work of Robert Park, Ernest Burgess and other urban
sociologist at the university of Chicago. Park and Burgess identified five concentric zones that often exist as cities grow,
including the zone in transition which was identified as most volatile and subject to disorder.

 Edwin Sutherland - suggested that people learn criminal behavior from older, more experienced criminals that
they may associate with. (Differential Association).

2 Main difference between the classical and positivist schools of criminology

Classical school                           Positivist school

1.Free will                                   1. Determinism
2. Philosophy                              2. Scientific methods

De Minimis - is an addition to a general harm principle. The general harm principle fails to consider the possibility of
other sanctions to prevent harm, and the effectiveness of criminalization as a chosen option.

Thanatos - a death wish.

Tagging - like labeling, the process whereby an individual is negatively defined by agencies of justice.

Criminology Consists of 3 Principal Divisions

1. Sociology of Law - which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the conditions under which criminal law influences
society.
2. Criminal Etiology - which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the study of causes or reasons for crime.
3. Penology - concerned with control crime by repressing criminal activities through the fear of punishment.

Crime - is a wrong doing classified by the state as a felony or misdemeanor.

Felony - is a serious crime punishable by at least one year in prison.

Misdemeanor - is a crime for which the punishment is usually a fine and/or up to one year in jail.

*Crimes are defined and punished by statutes and by the common law.

Etiology - study of causes and reasons for crime.

Atavism - the view that crime is due to a genetic throwback to a more primitive and aggressive form of human being.

Elements Necessary For A Crime To Occur

1. Desire or motivation on the part of the criminal.
2. The skills and tools needed to commit the crime.
3. Opportunity.

Spree killer - is someone who embarks on a murderous assault on 2 or more victims in a short time in multiple locations.
Spree killing - killings at two or more locations with almost no time break between murders.

Spree murder - two or more murders committed by an offender/offenders without a cooling off period.

Serial murder - two or more murders committed by an offender/offenders  with a cooling off period.

Mass murderer - are defined by one incident with no distinctive time period between the murders.

Thrill killing - a premeditated murder committed by a person who is not necessarily suffering from mental instability and
does not derive sexual satisfaction from killing victims or have anything against them and sometimes do not know them
but instead motivated by the sheer excitement of the act.

Victimology -studies the nature and cause of victimization.

Psychology - the scientific study of the human mind and its functions.

Psychiatry - the branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders.

Ecology - the environment as it relates to living organisms.

Demography - the branch of sociology that studies the characteristics of human populations.

Epidemiology - the branch of medical science dealing with the transmission and control of disease.

Anthropology - the social science that studies the origins and social relationships of humans.

Impulse - a sudden strong urge or desire to act.

Kleptomania - is an irresistible impulse to steal in the absence of economic motive.

Prototype - is a standard or typical example.

Pathological - is caused by or evidencing a mentally disturbed condition.

 Criminal Justice System

Criminal Justice System - is the system of practices and institutions of governments directed at upholding social control,
deterring and mitigating crime or sanctioning those who violate laws with criminal penalties and rehabilitation efforts.

Goals of Criminal Justice

1. to protect individuals and society
2. to reduce crime by bringing offenders to justice
3. to increase the security of the people

Criminal Justice System consists of three main parts

1. Legislative - create laws
2. Courts - adjudication
3. Corrections - jail, prison, probation, parole

Participants of Criminal Justice System

1. Police - first contact of offender since they investigate wrongdoing and makes arrest.
2. Prosecution - proves the guilt or innocence of wrongdoers.
3. Court - venue where disputes are settled, and justice is administered.
4. Correction - after accused is found guilty, he is put to jail or prison to be reformed.
5. Community - where the convict after service of sentence comes back to be integrated to be a productive
member of society.

Community Policing - the system of allocating officers to particular areas so that they become familiar with the local
inhabitants.

Early History of Punishment

1. Early Greece and Rome

     a. most common state administered punishment was banishment and exile.
     b. economic punishment such as fins for such crime as assault on slave, arson, or house breaking.

2. Middle 5th to 15th Century

     a. blood feuds were the norm.
     b. law and government not responsible for conflict.

3. Post 11th century feudal periods

     a. fine system, punishment often consisted of payment to feudal lord.
     b. goals, public order and pacifying the injured.
     c. corporal punishment for poor who cannot pay.

4. 1500's
     a. urbanization and industrialization, use of torture and mutilation showed, and punishment began to be more
monetary based.
     b. use of gallery slaves - ship-rowers.
     c. shipped inmates to American colonies

5. 1700's - early 1800's

     a. increase in prison population
     b. gap between rich and poor widens
     c. physicality of punishment increases
Goals of Punishment

1. General Deterrence - the state tries to convince potential criminals that the punishment they face is certain, swift,
and severe so that they will be afraid to commit an offense.

2. Specific Deterrence - convincing offenders that the pain of punishment is greater than the benefits of crime so they
will not repeat their criminal offending.

3. Incapacitation - if dangerous criminals are kept behind bars, they will not be able to repeat their illegal activities.

4. Retribution/Just Desert - punishment should be no more or less than the offender’s actions deserve, it must be based
on how blameworthy the person is.

5. Equity/Restitution - convicted criminals must pay back their victims for their loss, the justice system for the costs of
processing their case and society for any disruption they may have caused.

6. Rehabilitation - if the proper treatment is applied, an offender will present no further threat to society.

7. Diversion - criminals are diverted into a community correctional program for treatment to avoid stigma of
incarceration. The convicted offender might be     asked to make payments to the crime victim or participate in a
community-based program that features counseling.

8. Restorative Justice - repairs injuries suffered by the victim and the community while insuring reintegration of the
offender. Turn the justice system into a healing process rather than a distributor of retribution and revenge.

3 Broad Categories of Crime

1. Sensational crime
2. Street Crime
3. Corporate Crime, White Collar Crime, and Organized Crime.

Sensational Crime - certain offenses are selected for their sensational nature and made into national issues. Much of
what we know about crime comes from the media.

Street Crime - includes a wide variety of acts both in public and private spaces including interpersonal violence and
property crime.

Justice - the quality of being just, fair and reasonable.

Rule of law - is a legal maxim whereby governmental decisions be made by applying known legal principles.

Judge - a public officer who presides over court proceedings and hear and decide cases in a court of law either alone or
as part of a panel of judges.

Prosecutor - the person responsible for presenting the case  in a criminal trial against an individual accused of breaking
the law.

Law - is a system of rules of conduct established by the sovereign government of a society to correct wrongs, maintain
the stability of political and social authority and deliver justice.

Plaintiff - the person who brings a case against another in court of law.

Respondent - the defendant in a lawsuit.

Appellee - the respondent in a case appealed to a higher court.

Appellant - the party who appeals the decision of the lower court. A person who applies to a higher court for a reversal
of the decision of a lower court.

Stare Decisis - the legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent. Latin for "to stand by that
which is decided", general practice of adhering to previous decisions when it makes new one.

Miranda Doctrine - criminal suspect has the right to remain silent which means they have the right to refuse to answer
questions from the police. They have the right to an attorney and if they cannot afford an attorney, one will be provided
for them at no charge.

Pro Bono - legal work done for free.

Writ - a form of written command in the name of the court or other legal authority to act or abstain from acting in some
way.

Subpoena - is a writ issued by a court authority to compel the attendance of a witness at a judicial proceeding.

Summon - a legal document issued by a court or administrative agency of government authoritatively or urgently call on
someone to be present.

Discretion - the use of personal decision making and choice in carrying out operations in the criminal justice system.

What is twelve table? early Roman laws written around 450 BC which regulated family, religious, and economic life.

What is the medical model of punishment?

- a view of corrections holding that convicted offenders are victims of their environment or sick people who were
suffering from some social malady that prevented them into valuable members of society.

What is the difference between Indeterminate sentence and Determinate sentence?

1. Indeterminate Sentence
    a. a term of incarceration with a stated minimum and maximum length. ex. 3-10years
    b. prisoner is eligible for parole after the minimum sentenced has been served.
    c. based on belief that sentences fit the criminal, indeterminate sentences allow individualized sentences and provide
for sentencing flexibility.
    d. judges can set a high minimum to override the purpose of the indeterminate sentence.

2. Determinate Sentence
    a. a fixed term of incarceration ex. 3 years
    b. these sentences are felt by many to be restrictive for rehabilitative purposes.
    c. offenders know exactly how much time they must serve.

Various Factors Shaping Length of Prison Terms

1. Legal Factors
    a. the severity of the offense
    b. the offenders prior criminal record
    c. whether the offender used violence
    d. whether the offender used weapons
    e. whether the crime was committed for money
2. Extra Legal Factors
    a. social class
    b. gender
    c. age
    d. victim characteristics

What are the institutions of socialization?

1. Family - is the primary institution of socialization in society.
2. Religion
3. Schools
4. Media
 Juvenile Delinquency

PD 603 - Child and Youth Welfare Code

RA 9262 - Anti Violence Against Women and their Children Act of 2004.

RA 9344 - Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of 2006

Youthful offender - over 9 years old but under 18 years old at the time of the commission of the offense.

Crime Theories Applicable to Juvenile Delinquency

  1. Rational Choice - causes of crime lie within the individual offender rather than in their external environment.

  2. Social Disorganization - absence or breakdown of communal institutions and communal relationships that
traditionally encouraged cooperative relationships among people.
                  
Communal Institutions
          1. Family
          2. School
          3. Church
          4. Social Groups

   3. Strain Theory - crime is caused by the difficulty of those in poverty in achieving socially valued goals by legitimate
means.

  4. Differential Association - young people are motivated to commit crimes by delinquent peers and learn criminal skills
from them.

  5. Labelling Theory - once a person is labeled criminal, they are more likely to offend. Once labeled as deviant, a person
may accept that role and more likely to associate with others who have been similarly labeled.

  6. Social Control Theory - proposes that exploiting the process of socialization and social learning builds self-control
and can reduce the inclination to indulge in behavior recognized as anti-social.

Four Types of Control That Can Help Prevent Juvenile Delinquency

  1. Direct - punishment is threatened or applied for wrongful behavior and compliance is rewarded by parents, family
and authority figures.

  2. Internal - youth refrains from delinquency through the conscience or super ego.
  3. Indirect - by identification with those who influence behavior because his/her delinquent act might cause pain and
disappointment to parents and others with whom he/she has close relationships.

  4. Control - through needs satisfaction, if all individuals needs are met, there is no point in criminal activity.

Breed vs. Jones - A US court decision where it held that juveniles cannot be tried when acquitted in juvenile court then
tried again in adult criminal court. Double jeopardy applies to juveniles as well as adults.
Juvenile Delinquency - is the participation in illegal behavior by minors who fall under a statutory limit.

Juvenile Delinquent - is a person who is typically under the age of 18 and commits an act that otherwise would have
been charged as a crime if they were an adult.

Crimes Commonly Committed by Juvenile Delinquents

1.  Status offenses - is an action that is prohibited only to a certain class of people and most often applied to
offenses only committed by minors. example, underage smoking.

2. Property crimes - is a category of crime that includes theft, robbery, motor vehicle theft, arson, shop lifting and
vandalism.

3. Violent Crime in which the offender uses or threatens to use violent force upon the victim.

Age of Majority - is the threshold of adulthood as it is conceptualized, recognized, or declared by law. Most of the
country including the Philippines set majority age at 18.

Young Adult - a person between the ages of 20 and 40 whereas adolescent is a person between the ages of 13 and 19.
 
Types/Categories of Juvenile Delinquency

1.  Delinquency - crimes committed by minors which are dealt with by the juvenile courts and justice system.

2. Criminal behavior - crimes dealt with by the criminal justice system.

3. Status offenses - offenses which are only classified as such because one is a minor, such as truancy which is also
dealt with by juvenile court.

Truancy - is any intentional unauthorized absence from compulsory schooling.

Vandalism - Ruthless destruction or spoiling of anything beautiful or venerable. The term includes criminal damage such
as graffiti and defacement directed towards a property without the permission of the owner.

Graffiti - is writing or drawings scribbled, scratched or sprayed illicitly on a wall or other surface in a public place.

Defacement - refers to marking or removing the part of an object designed to hold the viewers attention.

Types of Offenders That Emerge in Adolescence

1. Repeat Offender (life-course-persistent offender) - begins offending or showing anti-social/aggressive behavior

in adolescence or even childhood and continuous in adulthood.

2. Age Specific Offender (adolescence-limited offender) - juvenile offending or delinquency begins and ends
during their period of adolescence.
 Human Behavior and Crisis Management
Crisis Management - is the process by which an organization deals with a major event that threatens to harm the
organization or the general public.

Crisis - is any event that is expected to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group,
community or society.

Risk Management - involves assessing potential threats and finding the best ways to avoid those threats.

Crisis Management - dealing with threats after they have occurred. Crises Management is occasionally referred as
incident management.

Crisis Negotiation - is a technique for law enforcement to communicate with people who are threatening violence
including barricaded subject, hostage taker, stalkers, threats, workplace violence or person threatening suicide.

Forensic Psychology - forensic discipline that evaluates behavioral patterns and how they relate to crime.

Hostage Negotiation - a negotiation conducted between law enforcement agencies, diplomatic or other governmental
representatives for the release of a person held hostage against their will by criminal, terrorist or other elements.

Crises Management Plan - crises management methods of a business or organization.

3 Elements of Crises Management

  1. threat to the organization or public
  2. element of surprise
  3. short decision time

Types of Crises
  1. Natural Disaster
  2. Technological Crises
  3. Confrontation
  4. Malevolence
  5. Organizational Misdeeds
  6. Workplace violence
  7. Rumors
  8. Terrorist attacks/Man-made disasters

Natural Disaster - considered acts of god - such as environmental phenomena as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
floods, landslides, storms, tsunamis and droughts that threaten life, property and the environment itself.

Technological Crises - are caused by human application of science and technology.

Confrontation Crises - occur when discontented individuals and/or groups, fight business, government and various
interest groups to win acceptance of their demands and expectations.

Common Type of Confrontation Crises

  1. Boycott
  2. Picketing
  3. Sit-ins
  4. blockade
  5. Occupation of buildings
  6. Resisting/Disobeying police
  7. Ultimatums to those in authority

Crises of Malevolence - opponents or miscreants individuals use criminal means or other extreme tactics for the
purpose of expressing hostility or anger toward a company or country with aim of destabilizing or destroying it. ex.
product tampering, kidnapping, terrorism, espionage.

Crises of Organizational Deeds - occurs when management takes actions it knows will harm stakeholders without
adequate precaution.

3 Types of Organizational Misdeeds

  1. Crises of skewed management values
  2. Crises of Deception
  3. Crises of Management Misconduct

Human Behavior - refers to the range of behaviors exhibited by humans and which are influenced by culture, attitudes,
emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and genetics.

Factors Affecting Human Behavior

  1. Genetics
  2. Attitude
  3. Social Norms
  4. Perceive behavioral control
  5. Core faith
  6. Survival instinct

Psychiatric Disorders Associated with Criminal Behavior

1. Anxiety Disorders
2. Delirium
3. Delusional Disorder
4. Dementia
5. Impulse Control Disorder
6. Intoxication or withdrawal from medication or drugs
7. Malingering
8. Mood disorders such as major depression, anxiety disorders and bipolar disorders
9. Personality disorders, especially anti-social personality disorder
10.Pervasive developmental disorder (autism)
11.Psychotic disorder
12.Schizophrenia
13.Schizo-afflective disorder
14.Schizophreniform disorder
15.Substance dependence and abuse
16.Traumatic brain injury

Mental Illness/Mental Disorder - a health conditions that changes a person’s thinking, feelings or behavior and that
causes the person distress and difficulty in functioning.
Schizophrenia - a long term mental disorder of a type involving a breakdown in the relation between thought, emotion
and behavior, leading to faulty perception, inappropriate actions and feelings, withdrawal from reality and personal
relationships into fantasy and delusion and a sense of mental fragmentation.

Autism - a mental condition present from early childhood characterized by great difficulty in communicating and
forming relationship with other people and in using language and abstract concepts.

Hypnosis - the induction of a state of consciousness in which a person apparently losses the power of voluntary action
and is highly responsive to suggestions or directions.

Stalking - is a term used to refer to unwanted and obsessive attention by an individual or group to another person.

Definition of Terms:

2 Basic Instinct/Impulse
1. Eros – life instinct – preservation of life
2. Thanatos – Death instinct
3 Possible Causes of Crime and Delinquency

1. Conscience so overbearing – strong

2. Weak Conscience
3. Desire for immediate gratification of needs

3 Components Of The Human Personality

ID, Ego, and Super Ego
3 Dimension Of Personality Related To Criminal Behavior – Eysencks Theory

1. Psychotism
2. Extroversion
3. Neurotism
4.
46 Chromosomes – normal person.

Female – XX on 23rd chromosomes

Male - XY on 23rd chromosomes

Anal – Anus is the source of gratification.

Basic concept Of the Crisis Theory

1. Equilibrium
2. Time
3. Change
Behavior -
1. Overt – directly seen
2. Covert – motives, emotions
3.
Catatonic – wax – motor disorder, will stay in one position for a long period without moving, harmless.
Change – the result of crisis on individual.

Coprolalia – obtaining of sexual pleasure by using or hearing certain dirty words

Criminal Psychology – Human conduct against criminal laws.

Crisis – A state provoked when a process faces obstacle, hazard to important life goals that is for a time insurmountable
through the utilization of customary method of problem solving.

Delusion – erroneos belief

1. Delusion of persecution
2. Delusion of grandeur – you feel as a powerful person

Dyspareunia – painful intercourse

Ego – In charge with reality.

Electra Complex – For female, female child develop hatred to the mother but sexual attraction to the father.

Equilibrium – state of balance or adjustment between opposite or divergent influences.

Exhibitionism – exposure of genitals in public.

Extroversion – sensation seeking, adventurous, dominant, assertive.

Faotreurism – rubbing genitals to other person.

Fetishism/Fatalism – sex objects are not human.

Frigidity – inability to have sexual arousal and enjoy coitus.

Genetic Basis Of Criminology – bad seed theory.

Genital – With other person.

Gonorrhea – infection of genitals acquired through sexual contacts.

Symptoms
                          1.  Inflammation
                          2.  Discharge of white, yellow, or yellowish green fluid  
                               from the urethra
                          3. Burning sensation when urinating

Hallucination – perceive something without realistic basis.

Hebephrenic – harmless, excessive withdrawal from human contact, characterized by silliness and childlike mannerism.

Herpes – infection of the genetals acquired after 2-20 days of sexual contact with the carrier.
Symptoms
1. Sores, ruptures, and blisters
 2. It is recurrent

Histrionic – characterized by over reactivity. OA

Homosexuality – sexual attraction and relationship with the person of the same sex.

ID – Based on pleasure principle. Animal instinct.

Incest – sex with close relative

Insanity – Symptoms
1. Hallucination
2. Delusion

Klismaphilia – erotic activity involving the anal region

Masochism – he is the one being hurt.

Mental disorder – is insanity. Is known as severe psychosis, also called schizophrenia.

Narcissism – love of oneself

Narcissistic Personality – inflated ego, “mataas ang pagtingin sa sarili”

Necrophilia – sex with a corpse

Neuroticism – low self-esteem, mood swings, excessive anxiety.

Oedipus Complex – For male, male child develop hatred to the father but sexual attraction to the mother.

Oral – Mouth is source of gratification. From birth up to 3 years.

Paranoid – characterized by extreme suspiciousness, most dangerous.

Paranoid Personality – characterized by suspiciousness but absence of delusion and hallucination. Neurotic.

Paraphilias – abnormal ways of sexual gratification.

Personality Disorder – not insane

1. Psychopath/Sociopath/Anti-social personality
2. Narcissistic Personality
3. Paranoid Personality
4. Histrionic
5. Schizoid Personality
Phallic – Source of pleasure is the sex organ. About 5 years old.

Pedophilia – having sex with children, usually below 13 years old.

Psychology – Study of behavior.

Psychopath – no sense of shame, no morality, do not learn from their experience.

Psychosexual development
1. Oral
2. Anal
3. Phallic
4. Genital

Psychoticism – aggressive, egocentric, impulsive.

Sadism – a person who achieve sexual satisfaction by seeing the partner suffer.

Sado-Masochism – both sadism and masochism

Schizoid Personality – extreme social withdrawal.

Sexual Disorders -
1. Sexual Dysfunctions
2. Paraphilias
3. Gender Identity Disorder

Sexual Dysfunction – sexual disorder. Arousal disorder.

1. Failure to achieve orgasm
2. Premature orgasm

Sigmund Freud – psycho analytic theory.

Super Ego – In charge with morality – conscience.

Syphilis – STD disease acquired 3-4 weeks after sexual contact with an infected person.

Symptom – Sore or chancre in the penis or scrotum for male, cervix or vaginal walls for woman, can be diagnosed by
blood test.

Time – involves the period of disorganization, period of upset, and the period of adaptation.

Transvestism – cross-dressing, sexual gratification by wearing the clothes of the opposite sex.

Types Of Psychosis
1. Disorganized or hebephrenic
2. Catatonic
3. Paranoid
4. Undifferentiated

Undifferentiated – simple schizophrenia, do not care about their hygiene anymore, harmless, taong grasa.

Venereal Diseases – sexually transmitted diseases

1. Gonorrhea
 2. Syphilis
3. Herpes
4. Aids

Voyeurism – peeping tom

XYY – appearance of extra chromosomes, violent people. Aggressive, usually tall.

Zoophilia/Bestiality – having sex with animal

Seminar on Contemporary Police Problem

Contemporary Police Problem may be Classified into the following:

1. Police Misconduct - is a broad category. The term refers to a wide range of procedural, criminal and civil
violations.

2. Police Corruption - is the abuse of authority for personal gain.

Misconduct - is procedural when it refers to police who violate police department rules and regulation.

Criminal - when it refers to police who violate the penal laws.

Civil - when it refers to police who violate a citizen’s civil right.

Common forms of Misconduct:

1.  Excessive use of physical or deadly force

2. Discriminatory arrest
3. Physical or verbal harassment
4. Selective Enforcement of the law
5. False arrest and imprisonment
6. Perjured testimony about illegal searches

Common Forms of Police Corruption:

1.  Bribery
2. Extortion
3. Receiving of Fencing Stolen goods
4. Selling drugs, theft of drugs and money from drug dealer
5. malicious prosecution
6. Making false report and committing perjury
7. Protecting illegal gambling
8. Theft of seized property
9. Receiving discounts on purchases
10. Selling information about police operation

What are the safeguards against police misconduct?

1.  Establish Code of conduct

 2. Train new recruit ethically and properly
3. Investigate and Discipline violators
4. Establish independent body ex. Pleb
 Despite legal safeguards and well-intentioned reforms, Police problems have continued to produce headlines.
 What can society do against the age-old problem of police misconduct and corruption? ans. Monitor and
Correct.

Trends in the forms of Police Corruption

  1. Drugs - became the major driver of corruption replacing gambling, prostitution, and alcohol.
  2. Corruption is systemic in police departments.

Systemic - affecting the entire system, group, body, or society as a whole.

Standard strategies for reducing Police Corruption

  1. Create permanent external oversight over the police with particular emphasis on monitoring police officer behavior.
  2. Holding supervisors responsible for the integrity of their subordinate.
  3. Reforming merit promotion and assignment.
  4. Changing police culture.
  5. Creating training programs in integrity for recruits and in-service personnel particularly first line supervisors.
  6. Creating an effective internal integrity monitoring unit.
  7. Annually evaluating the integrity of all officers.
  8. Making the Chief responsible for enforcing all disciplines.
  9. Proactively investigate misbehavior.
  10. Improving standards for recruitment and training.

Information about Police corruption comes from several sources

  1. Appointed commission/Body of investigation
  2. Civil and Criminal investigations of police behavior
  3. Investigations undertaken by the police themselves
  4. Accounts by public media
  5. Observations by outside witnesses
  6. Surveys of police officers and the public
  7. Accounts by people involved in corrupt activity

Being on the Pad - this phrase is associated with bribery and extortion, a category of police corruption.

Police Brutality - actions such as using abusive language, making threats, using force or coercion unnecessarily, prodding
with night sticks and stopping and searching people to harass.

Most Common Types of Corruption in the PNP

1. Case Fixing - subjective imposition of penalties or downright sabotage of the investigation process in exchange for
money or other things for personal gain.

2. Bribery - receipt of cash or a gift in exchange for past of future assistance in avoidance of prosecution.

3. Extortion - common practice of holding "street court" where incidents such as minor traffic tickets can be avoided
with a cash payment to the officer and no receipt given.
4. Protection - taking of money or other rewards from vice operators or from legitimate companies operating illegally in
return for protecting them from law enforcement activity.

5. Recycling - use or sale of confiscated items and evidence, usually drugs or narcotics.

6. Selective Enforcement - occurs when police officer exploits their officer discretion eg. areglo, balato.

7. Internal Pay-Offs - sale of work assignments, day offs, holidays, vacation period and even promotion.

Police Ethics and Community Relations

PNP Philosophy
  1. Service
  2. Honor
  3. Justice

PNP Core Values

  1. Makadios (God-Fearing)
  2. Makabayan (Nationalistic)
  3. Makatao (Humane)

Ethical Acts to be Observed by PNP members

  1. Morality
  2. Judicious use of authority
  3. Integrity
  4. Justice
  5. Humility
  6. Orderliness
  7. Perseverance

Definition of Terms

 Customs - established usage or social practices carried on by tradition that have obtained the force of law.

 Traditions - bodies of belief, stories, customs, and usages handed down from generation to generation with the
effect of an unwritten law.

 Courtesy - a manifestation of expression of consideration and respect for others.

 Ceremony - a formal act or set of formal acts established by customs or authority as proper to special occasion.

 Social Decorum - a set of norms and standard practiced by the members during social activities and other
functions.

Police Community Relation - generally refers to the sum total of attitudes and behavior between police and the
communities they serve.

Public Relations - a collection of communication techniques used by individuals or organizations to convince an

audience about the merits of an idea, organization, program, practice or policy.

Community Service - refers to the activities whereby police engage in pro-social activities to enhance the well-being of
the community beyond law enforcement and other maintenance.

Community Participation - involves members of the community taking an active role in trying to genuinely help the
police.

Police Traditions
1. Spiritual beliefs
2. Valor
3. Patriotism
4. Discipline
5. Gentlemanliness
6. Word of Honor
7. Duty
8. Loyalty
9. Camaraderie

Spiritual Beliefs - can refer to an ultimate or an alleged immaterial reality, an inner path enabling a person to discover
the essence of his/her being or the deepest values and meanings by which people live.

Valor - great courage in the face of danger. Strength of mind or spirit that enables a person to encounter danger with
firmness.

Patriotism - love of country and willingness to sacrifice for it.

Discipline - the practice of training people to obey rules or a code of behavior using punishment to correct disobedience.

Gentlemanliness - characteristic of or having the character of a gentleman. A man whose conduct conforms to a high
standard of propriety or correct behavior.

Word of Honor - a verbal commitment by one person to another agreeing to do or not to do something in the future.

Duty - a task or action that someone is required to perform.

Loyalty - a strong feeling of support or allegiance. Is faithfulness or a devotion to a person, country, group, or cause.

Camaraderie - mutual trust and friendship among people who spend a lot of time together. Goodwill and lighthearted
rapport between or among friends.
 Criminalistics
Criminalistics - is the forensic science of analyzing and interpreting evidence using the natural sciences. Forensic science
pertains to all sciences applied to legal problems.
                         - application of scientific techniques in collecting and analyzing physical evidence in criminal cases.

Hans Gross - (1847-1915) An Austrian criminalist who in 1891 first used the term criminalistics. Father of forensic
publications. Wrote the book on applying all the different science disciplines to the field of criminal investigation.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - sci-fi author in late 1800. Popularized scientific crime detection methods through his fictional
character "Sherlock Holmes".

Mathiew Orfila - (1787-1853) father of toxicology. Wrote about the detection of poisons and their effects on animals.

Alphonse Bertillon - (1853-1914) father of anthropometry. Developed a system to distinguish one individual person
from another based on certain body requirements.

Francis Galton - (1822-1911) father of fingerprinting. Developed fingerprinting as a way to uniquely identify individuals.

Leone Lattes - (1887-1954) father of blood stain identification. He developed a procedure for determining the blood
type (A, B, AB, or O) of a dried stain.

Calvin Goddard - 1891-1955) father of ballistics. Developed the technique to examine bullets using a comparison
microscope to determine whether or not a particular gun fired the bullets.

Albert Osborn - (1858-1946) father of document examination. His work led to the acceptance of documents as scientific
evidence by the courts.

Walter McCrone - (1916-1915) father of microscopic forensics. he developed and applied his microscopic techniques to
examine evidence in countless court cases.

Edmond Locard - (1877-1966) father of the crime lab. In 1910, he started the first crime lab in an attic of a police station.
Founded the institute of criminalistics in France. His most important contribution was the "Lockard’s Exchange
Principle".

Locard Exchange Principle

1. Every contact leaves a trace
2. Every criminal can be connected to a crime by particles carried from the crime scene
3. When a criminal comes in contact with an object or person, a cross transfer of evidence occurs.

J. Edgar Hoover - father of the FBI. Director of the FBI during the 1930s. His leadership spanned 48 years and 8
presidential administrations. Organized a national laboratory to offer forensic services to all law enforcement agencies in
the US.

Goals of Forensic Science - to determine the cause, location, and time of death.
 Police Photography

Forensic photography - sometimes referred to as police photography, forensic imaging, or crime scene photography. - is
the art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident using photography for the benefit of a
court or to aid in an investigation.

Photography - is the art, science, and practice of creating durable images by recording light. The word photography was
derived from the Greek word "phos" - light and "graphe" - drawing.

Photograph - is an image created by light falling on a light-sensitive surface usually photographic film or electronic
imager.

Sir John Herschel - made the word photography known to the world in a lecture before the royal society of London in
1839.

Camera - is a device that records and stores images.

History of camera

  Mo Ti - 5th century BC Chinese philosopher who noted that a pin hole can form an inverted and focused image
when light passes through the hole and into a dark area. He is the first recorded person to have exploited this
phenomenon to trace the inverted image to create a picture.

 Aristotle - in 4th century BC, described observing a partial solar eclipse in 330 BC by seeing the image of the sun
projected through the small spaces between the leaves of the tree.

 Ibn Al-Haytham (Alhazen) - an Egyptian scientist who wrote about observing a solar eclipse through a pin hole
and he described how a sharper image could be produced by making the opening of the pin hole smaller.

 Roger Bacon - English philosopher and Franciscan friar who in his study of optics, included a discussion of the
physiology of eyesight, the anatomy of the eyes and brain and considered light, distance, position, size, direct
vision, reflected vision and refraction, mirrors and lenses.

 Johannes Kepler - a German mathematician and astronomer who applied the actual name of camera obscura
and later added a lens and made the apparatus transportable in the form of a tent.

 Robert Boyle - a British scientist who, with his assistant Robert Hooke developed a portable camera in the 1660.

 Johann Zahn - in 1685, built the first camera obscura that was small enough for practical use as a portable
drawing aid because the only way to preserve the images produced by the camera was to manually trace them.

 Joseph Nicephore Niepce - was a French inventor who is noted for producing the first known photographs in
1825 by using a sliding wooden box camera made by Charles and Vincent Chevalier in Paris.

 1920 - the electronic video camera tube was invented, starting a line of development that eventually resulted in
digital cameras which largely supplanted film cameras after the turn of the 21st century.

 William Henry Fox Talbot - a British inventor and pioneer of photography. He was the inventor of calotype
process, the precursor to most photographic processes of the 19th and 20th century.
  Lumiere Brothers - introduced the autochrome, the first commercially successful color process.

 Kodachrome - the first modern integral tripack color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the
three basic color components in a multi-layer emulsion.
 
Camera obscura - obscura means dark or darkened chamber room, is an optical device that projects an image of its
surroundings on a screen. It is used in drawing and for entertainment and was one of the inventions that led to
photography. The camera obscura is the forerunner to the photographic camera.

Basic Modern Camera Parts

1. Lens - the light enters through the lens; this is where photo process begins.
2. View Finder - is what the photographer looks through to compose and, in many cases, to focus,
    the picture.
3. Body - the basic most part of a camera. It is the box that holds the film and the camera controls.
4. Shutter Release - is a button found on many cameras used to take the picture.
5. Aperture - is a hole or an opening thorough which light travel. The aperture affects the image's exposure by changing
the diameter of the lens opening which control the amount of light reaching the image sensor.
6. Image Sensor - converts the optical image to an electronic signal.
7. Memory Card - stores all the image information.
8. LCD Screen - typically replaced the view finder.
9. Flash - provide extra light during dim, low light situations.
10. User Control

Exposure - total amount of light allowed to fall  on the photographic medium during the process the of taking
photograph.

Film Speed - is the measure of a photographic films sensitivity to light.

Shutter Cycle - is the process of the shutter opening, closing and resetting to where it is ready to open again.

Shutter - is a device that allows light to pass for a determined period of time for the purpose of exposing photographic
film or light sensitive electronic sensor to light to capture a permanent image of a scene.

Red Eye Effect - is the common appearance of red pupils in color photographs  of eyes. It occurs when using a
photographic flash very close to the camera lens in ambient low light.

Photographic Emulsion - is a light sensitive colloid such as gelatin, coated into a substance. In silver gelatin photography,
the emulsion consists of silver halide crystals suspended in gelatin and the substance may be glass, plastic film, paper or
fabric.
 Personal Identification

Fingerprint - is an impression left by the friction ridge of a human finger.

Friction Ridge - is a raised portion of the epidermis on the fingers and toes, the palm of the hand or the sole of the foot,
consisting of one or more connected ridge units of the friction ridge skin. These are sometimes known as "epidermal
ridges".

Dermatoglyphics - scientific study of fingerprints.

Type of Prints
1. Exemplar - "known prints" - fingerprints deliberately collected from a subject.

2. Latent - means chance or accidental impression left by the friction ridge skin on a surface regardless of whether it is
visible or invisible at the time of deposition. Although the word latent means hidden or invisible in modern usage for
forensic science.

3. Patent - chance friction ridge impressions which are obvious to the human eye, and which have been caused by the
transfer of foreign material from a finger into a surface.

4. Plastic Print - is a friction ridge impression left in a material that retains the shape of the ridge detail.

5. Electronic Recording - example, a man selling stolen watches sending images of them on a mobile phone and those
images included parts of his hands in enough detail for police to be able to identify fingerprint patterns. 

Notes:
Plantar - refers to feet and toes.
Palmar - refers to finger and palm.

Personalities who significantly contributed to the science of fingerprint.

 Jan Evangelista Purkinje (1787 - 1869) - a Czech physiologist and professor of anatomy at the university of
Breslau, published a thesis in 1823 discussing 9 fingerprint patterns but he did not mention any possibility of
using fingerprint to identify people.

 Georg Von Meisner (1829 - 1905) - German anatomist who studied friction ridges.

 Sir William James Herschel - initiated fingerprinting in India. In 1877 at Hoogly near Calcutta, he instituted the
use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds to prevent the then rampant repudiation of signatures and he
registered government pensioners fingerprint to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a pensioner’s
death.

 Henry Faulds - a Scottish surgeon who in 1880, in a Tokyo hospital, published his first paper on the subject in the
 scientific journal nature. He took up the study of "skin furrows" after noticing finger marks on specimens of
prehistoric pottery.

 Juan Vucetich - an Argentine chief of police who created the first method of recording the fingerprint of
individuals on file, associating this these fingerprints to the anthropometric system of Alphonse Bertillon.

 Alphonse Bertillon - created in 1879 a system to identify individuals by anthropometric photographs and
associated quantitative descriptions.

 Edward Richard Henry - UK home secretary who conducted an inquiry into identification of criminals by
measurements and fingerprints. The Henry Classification System of classifying fingerprint was named after him.

 Azizul Hague and Hem Chandra Bose - Indian fingerprint expert who have been credited with the primary
development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named after their supervisor Sir Edward Richard
Henry.

 Henry P. deForrest - used fingerprinting in the New York civil service in 1902 and by 1906. Pioneered U.S.
fingerprinting.

 Nehemiah Grew -(1641 - 1712) - in 1684, this English physician, botanist and microscopist published the first
scientific paper to describe the ridge structure of the skin covering the fingers and palms.

 Marcelo Malphigi - an anatomy professor at the university of Bologna, noted in his treatise in 1686, ridges,
spirals and loops in fingerprints, A layer of skin was named after him "malphigi layer" which is approximately 1.8
mm thick.

 Mark Twain - in his memoir life on the Mississippi 1883, it mentioned a melodramatic account of a murder in
which the killer was identified by a thumbprint. Twain's novel Pudd'n head Wilson published in 1893 includes a
court room drama that turns on fingerprint identification.   

Fingerprint Sensor - is an electronic device used to capture a digital image of the fingerprint pattern. The captured
image is called a live scan.

Biometrics (Biometric Authentication) - refers to the identification of humans by their characteristics or traits.

Latent Print - (known as dactyloscopy or handprint identification) - is the process of comparing two instances of friction
ridge skin impressions from human fingers, palm of the hand, or even toes to determine whether these impressions
could have come from the same individual.

The Most Popular Ten Print Classification System.

1. Roscher System - developed in Germany. Implemented in Germany and Japan.

2. Juan Vucetich System - developed in Argentina. Implemented throughout South America.

3. Henry Classification System - developed in India. Implemented in most English-speaking countries.

In the Henry System of Classification. There are 3 basic fingerprint patterns.

1. Loop - constitute 60% to 65% of all fingerprints. The ridges enter from one side of the finger, form a curve and then
exit on that same side.

Kinds of Loop
1) Ulnar Loop
2) Radial Loop

2. Whorl - constitute 30% to 35% of all fingerprints. Ridges form circularly around a central point on the finger.

Kinds of Whorl       
1) Plain Whorl
2) Accidental Whorl
3) Double Loop whorl
4) Central Pocket Loop Whorl.

3. Arch - constitute 5% of all fingerprints. The ridges enter from one side of the finger, rise in the center forming an arch
and then exit the other side of the finger.

Kinds of Arch
1) Plain Arch
2) Tented Arch

The Basic Fundamentals of Fingerprints are:

1. Permanence - fingerprints never change.
2. Individuality - no two fingerprints are alike.

Characteristics of a Ridge (Minutia Features)

1. Ridge Ending - the end of a ridge.
2. Bifurcation - the Y-shaped split of one ridge into two.
3. Dot - is a very short ridge that looks like a dot.

When is fingerprint ridges formed? 

Formed during the third to fourth month of fetal development.

Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) - is the process of automatically matching one of many unknown
fingerprints against a database of known and unknown prints.

What does a Minutiae Include? ans. It includes the following:

1. Ridge Ending - the abrupt end of a ridge.

2. Ridge Bifurcation - a single ridge that divides into two ridges.

3. Short Ridge or Independent Ridge - a ridge that commences, travels a short distance, and then ends.

4. Island - a single small ridge inside a short ridge or ridge ending that is not connected to all other ridges.

5. Ridge Enclosure - a single ridge that bifurcates and reunites shortly afterward to continue as a single
    ridge.
6. Spur - a bifurcation with a short ridge branching off a longer ridge.

7. Crossover or Bridge - a short ridge that runs between two parallel ridges.

8. Delta - a Y-shape ridge meeting.

9. Core - A U-turn in the ridge pattern.

Forensic Anthropology - forensic discipline that studies human skeletal remains for identification.

Forensic Odontology - study of dental features to identify a victim when the body is otherwise unidentifiable.
 Forensic Medicine
Forensic Medicine - the science that deals with the application of medical knowledge to legal question.

Clinical Forensic Medicine - involves an application of clinical methods for the administration of justice.

Paulus Zacchias - father of legal medicine as well as father of forensic psychiatry.

Medical Ethics - deals with the moral principles which should guide members of the medical profession in their dealings
with each other, their patients and the state.

Medical Etiquette - deals with the conventional laws of courtesy observed between members of the medical profession.
A doctor should behave with his colleagues as he would have them behave with himself.

Hippocrates - father of medicine, discussed lethality of wounds and formulated medical ethics.

Forensic Pathology - deals with the study and application of the effects of violence or unnatural disease in its various
forms in or on the human body, in determining the cause and manner of death in case of violence, suspicious,
unexplained, unexpected, sudden, and medically unattended death.

Pathology - is the precise study and diagnosis of disease.

Pathologist - a medical doctor who conducts an autopsy.

Autopsy - post mortem examination of a corpse.

Other Names of an Autopsy

 post-mortem examination
 necropsy -particularly as to non-human body
 autopsia cadavarem
 obduction

Objectives of Autopsy
1. To find out the time of death.
2. To find out the cause of death.
3. To find out the manner of death, whether accidental, suicidal or homicidal.
4. To establish the identity of the body.
5. In newborn infants, to determine live birth or viability.

Exhumation - is the digging out of an already buried body from the grave.

Disease - is an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism.

Cadaver - also called corpse, is a dead human body.

Carcass - dead body of an animal.

Injury - is damage to a biological organism which can be classified on various bases.

Wound - is a type of injury in which the skin is torn, cut, or punctured or where blunt force trauma causes a contusion.
Classification of Wound

Open Wound - is a break in the skin's surface resulting in external bleeding.

Closed Wound - the skin is not broken open and remains intact.

Classification//Categories of Open Wounds

Incised Wound - caused by a clean, sharp-edged object such as a knife, razor or a glass splinter.

Laceration - irregular tear like wound caused by some blunt trauma.

Abrasion - (grazes) - superficial wound in which the top most layer of the skin is scraped off. Are often caused by a
sliding fall into a rough surface.

Puncture Wound - caused by an object puncturing the skin such as nail.

Penetration Wound - caused by an object such as a knife entering and coming out from the skin.

Gunshot Wound - caused by a bullet or similar projectile driving into or through the body. There may be two wounds,
one at the site of entry and one at the site of exit generally referred to as through and through.

Classification/Categories of Closed Wound

Contusions - commonly known as bruises, caused by a blunt force trauma that damages tissue under the skin.

Hematoma - called blood tumor, caused by damage to a blood vessel that in turn causes blood to collect under the skin.

Crush Injury - caused by a great or extreme amount of force applied over a long period of time.

Ante Mortem - before death.

Post Mortem - scientific term for after death.

Cadaver Tag - an identification tag attached to the cadaver containing tag number, name if identified, date/time and
place of recovery, date/time of incident, gender, other pertinent information and name of the investigator.

In articulo mortis - at the point of death.

Rigor mortis - stiffening of the body after death.

Lividity - process through which the body's blood supply will stop moving after the heart has stopped pumping it around
the inside of the deceased.

Necrophagus - this type of organism feeds directly on decomposing tissue.

37 degrees Celsius or 98 degrees Fahrenheit - average body temperature.

4 Categories of Death
 natural causes
 homicide/killing
 accidental death
 suicide
Vital Signs - are measures of various physiological statistics often taken by health professionals in order to assess the
most basic body functions.
 body temperature
 pulse rate/heart rate
 blood pressure
 respiratory rate

Death - cessation of all biological functions that sustains a living organism.

Causes of death
 old age
 predation - biological interaction where a predator (organism that is hunting) feeds on its prey (the organism
that is attacked).
 malnutrition
 disease
 accidents
 injury

Signs of death

 cessation of breathing
 cardiac arrest - no pulse
 livor mortis - settling of the blood in the lower dependents of the body.
 algor mortis - reduction in body temperature following death.
 rigor mortis - the limbs of the corpse become stiff and difficult to move.
 decomposition - reduction into simple form of matter accompanied by strong unpleasant odor.

Cadaveric Spasm - sudden rigidity of the muscle immediately after death. A rare form of muscular stiffening that occurs
at the moment of death, persists into the period of rigor mortis and can be mistaken for rigor mortis.

Other Names of Cadaveric Spasm

1. Instantaneous rigor
2. Cataleptic rigidity
3. Instantaneous rigidity
4. Death grip
5. Post Morten spasm

When does the stiffness of death begin to disappear? After 36 hours.

What is the rate of temperature change to a body after death? After one hour, body temperature drops 1 to 1 1/2
degrees per hour.

Dying Declaration - is a testimony that would normally barred as hearsay but may nonetheless be admitted as evidence
in certain kinds of cases because it constituted the last words of a dying person.

Nemo Morituros Praesumitur Mentiri - a dying person is not presumed to lie.

Zombie - an animated corpse brought back to life by mystical means such as witchcraft.

Coffin Birth - (post Morten fetal extrusion) - is the expulsion of a non-viable fetus though the vaginal opening of the
decomposing body of a pregnant woman as a result of the increasing pressure of the intra abdominal gases.

Code of Hammurabi - King of Babylon (4000 to 3000 BC) is the oldest known medico legal code.

Bologna, Italy - where the first medico-legal autopsy was done.

Bartolomeo de Varignana - conducted the first medico-legal autopsy in Italy in 1302.

Fortunato Fedele - an Italian physician who in 1602 published the first book on forensic medicine.

Inquest - is the legal or judicial inquiry to ascertain a matter of fact.

Euthanasia - (mercy killing) - it means producing painless death of a person suffering from hopelessly incurable and
painful disease. It is not allowed by law in the Philippines.

Malingering/Shamming - means conscious, planned feigning or pretending disease for the sake of gain.

The Rule of Haase - is used to estimate age of fetus. The length of the fetus in cm. divided by five, is the duration of
pregnancy in months.

Forensic Entomology - is the use of insects and their arthropod relatives that inhabit decomposing remains to aid in
legal investigations.

What are the 2 methods of biological forensics are concerned with? Entomology and DNA.

Residence Time - this defines how long an insect colony has been at a corpse.

The Body Farm - used for entomological experiment. This place exists at the University of Tennessee.

Definition of Terms

Abrasion - a skin injury caused by scraping off of superficial skin due to friction against a rough surface.

Adipocere - a peculiar waxy substance consisting of salts and fatty acids and formed from the decomposition of corpse
tissues, especially in moist habitats, also called grave-wax.

Aedeagus - the reproductive organ of a male insect.

Agnosia - impairment or loss associated with brain injury of the ability to recognized or comprehend the meaning of
stimuli including familiar objects and symbols.

Airways - any part of the respiratory tract thought which air passes during breathing.

Alveolar ducts - the smallest of the lungs airways that connect terminal bronchioles and alveolar sacs, sometimes called
bronchioles.

Alveoli - microscopic air sacs in which gas exchange between the blood and the lungs occur.

Amnesia - partial or total loss of memory for past experiences.

Anarthria - loss of the ability to form words accurately caused by brain lesion or damage to peripheral nerves that carry
impulses to the articulatory muscles.

Anemia - any condition in which the number of red blood cells, the amount of hemoglobin, and the volume of packed
red blood cells per 100 ml of blood are less that normal. It may result from increased destruction of red blood cells,
excessive blood loss or decreased production of red cells.

Aplastic anemia - anemia caused by aplasia of bone marrow or its destruction by chemical agents or physical factors.

Auto immune hemolytic - acquired disorder characterized by premature erythrocyte destruction owing to abnormalities
in the individuals own immune system.

Hemolytic - anemia caused by hemolysis of red blood cells resulting in  reduction of normal red cell life
span.
Iron-deficiency anemia - anemia resulting from a demand on stored    iron greater than can be met.
 
Megaloblastic anemia - anemia in which megaloblasts  are found in the  blood, usually due to a deficiency of folic acid or
vitamin B12.
 
Microangiopathic hymolytic -  a hemolytic process associated with thrombotic purpura, prosthetic heart valve,
and burns.  It is visualized in the peripheral blood smear by fragmentation of the red cells and other bizarre morphology.
    
Pernicious - a type of megaloblastic anemia due to a deficiency of vitamin B12, directly linked to absence of intrinsic
factor.

Sickle-cell - hereditary chronic anemia in which abnormal sickle or crescent shaped erythrocytes are present. It is due to
the presence of hemoglobin S in the red blood cells.
    
Antibody - a protein produced for body defense in response to an antigen. An antibody is a substance that appears in
the plasma or body fluids as a result of stimulation by an antigen and will react specifically with that antigen in some
observable way.

Anticoagulant - a substance such as EDTA that prevent coagulation or clotting of the blood.

Antigen - a foreign substance, usually a protein, capable of stimulating an antibody response for body defense. Any
substance that when introduced parenterally into an individual lacking the substance, stimulates the production of an
antibody that when mixed with the antibody react with it in some observable way.

Aplasia - failure of an organ or tissue to develop normally.

Asphyxia - lack of oxygen or excess of carbon dioxide in the body. Asphyxia may lead to unconsciousness, seizures,
damage to various sensory systems and death.

Asthma - a chronic condition in which constriction (spasm) of the bronchial tubes occurs in response to irritation, allergy,
or other stimuli.

Atherosclerosis - deposition of plaques of cholesterol esters in blood vessels, resulting in the narrowing of the vessel
lumen and restricting  blood flow.
Atrophy - a loss of function due to age, disuse, or disease.

Autism - mental introversion in which thinking is governed by personal needs and the world is perceived in terms of
wishes rather than reality. Extreme preoccupations with one's own thoughts and fantasies.

Autopsy - a physical examination of the corpse through dissection to determine cause of death (also
necropsy and postmortem).

Bestiality - is a sexual intercourse by a human being with a lower animal.

Biopsy - a small piece of tissue excised for the purpose of analysis.

Bite mark - a circular or oval patterned injury consisting of two opposing symmetrical. U-shaped arches separated at
their bases by open spaces. Following the periphery of the arches are a series of individual abrasions, contusions, or
lacerations reflecting the size, shape, arrangement, and distribution of the class characteristics of the contacting surfaces
of the human dentition.

Bloat - the transient phase in corpse decomposition that follows the fresh phase and is characterized  by excessive
swelling, produced by gases trapped internally.

Blood group - an immunologically distinct, genetically determined class of human erythrocyte antigens, identified as A,
B, AB, and O.A classification of red blood cell surface antigens, ABO is the best known of the blood group systems.

Blood type - a way of saying which blood group antigens are present on the persons red cells.

Bloodborne pathogen - infectious, disease causing microorganism that maybe found or transported in biological fluids.

Bloodstain - liquid blood that has dried once it has come in contact with a surface.

Body bag - a heavy waterproof bag usually closed with a zipper and used to transport a corpse.

Body dump site - the location where an offender disposes of the murder victim's body.

Bondage - the combining of sadism and masochism.

Bronchi - (singular-bronchus) large divisions of the trachea that convey air to and from the lungs.

Bronchiole - a small diameter airway branching from a bronchus.

Bronchitis - inflammation of the mucus membrane of the bronchial tubes, usually associated with a persistent cough
and sputum production.

Bronchospasm - contraction of the smooth muscle of the bronchi causing the narrowing of the bronchi. This narrowing
increases the resistance or airflow into the lungs and may cause a shortness of breath typically associated with
wheezing.

Buccal coitus - (coitus per os or sin of Gomorrah) the male organ is introduced into mouth, usually of a young child.
Cadaver dog - canines specially trained to find human decomposition scent and and alert their handlers to its location.
Cadaverine - malodorous chemical compound produced during decomposition.

Cause of death - an injury or disease that ultimately lead to death of the individual, generally determined by medical
examiner or coroner (pathologists).

Carrion - decaying animal flesh.

Cephalothorax - the anterior body region in some arthropods consisting of the fused head and thorax.

Cerebellum - the large brain mass located at the posterior base of the brain, responsible for balance and coordination of
movement.

Cerebral contusion - bruising of brain tissue marked by swelling and hemorrhage and resulting in loss of consciousness.

Cerebral edema - swelling of the brain caused by excessive buildup of fluid in the tissue.

Cerebral infarctions - is an ischemic stroke resulting from a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the
brain.

Cerebrum - the largest portion of the brain, include the cerebral hemispheres (cerebral cortex and basal ganglia)

Chronic - persistent, prolonged, repeated.

Cirrhosis - a chronic disease of the liver marked by degeneration of cells, inflammation, and fibrous thickening of the
tissue, can be cause =d by long term alcoholism, viral infections, and metabolic disease.

Clitoris - erectile tissue in female analogous to male penis, located above the urethra and covered by the clitoral hood.

Clot - a thick mass of coagulated liquid, ex. blood. A blood clot is formed by a complex mechanism involving plasma
protein, fibrinogens, platelets, and other clotting factors.

Coagulation - the process of stopping blood flow from a wound or by which blood forms clot.

Coagulophaty - a disease affecting the blood clotting process.

Code of Hammurabi - is the oldest known medico legal code.

Coma - state of profound unconsciousness from which the patient cannot be aroused.

Concussion - sudden shock to or jarring of the brain which may or may not cause a loss of consciousness.

Conjunctiva - the delicate mucous membrane that covers the exposed surface of the eyeball and lines of the eyelids.

Contact wound - a wound that results when a small weapon is fired in contact with the skin. May divided into tight or
loose contact wounds based on the amount of pressure used against the skin.
Contusion - a bruise that is either superficial or internal. An injury cause by blunt object impact without laceration with
surface discoloration due to subsurface hemorrhaging. An injury to subsurface tissue caused by a blow from a blunt
instrument that does not break the skin.
Convulsion - is a medical condition where the body muscle contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in an
uncontrolled shaking of the body.

Cornea - the transparent membrane that cover the colored part of the eye.

Coronary artery - an artery supplying blood to the heart.

Coroner - (medical examiner) (pathologists) an officer responsible for determining the manner and cause of death.

Corpse - a dead human body, also called cadaver.

Cunnilingus - is the oral stimulation of the  female genitalia.

Death - the loss of life characterized by clinically by combined failure of respiratory, cardiovascular, and nervous system
activity.

Decomposition - post mortem degenerative rotting of the corpse. Chemical breakdown, separating compounds into
their component parts, includes breakdown pf proteins by putrefaction, of carbohydrates by fermentation, and of fats
by rancidification.

Decubitus - may be seen as a bedsore that can produce an ulcer in the body caused by lying long in one position, this
pressure necrosis can be found on elderly patients.

Defense wounds - stab or incised wounds to the hands, wrists, forearms, and arms that may contain embedded
fragments of the weapon.

Delirium - extreme mental excitement marked by defective perception, impaired memory, and rapid succession of
confused and  unconnected ideas, often with illusions and hallucinations.

Delusion - firm belief opposed to reality but maintained in spite of srong evidence to the contrary.

Diatoms - are microscopic, unicellular, silica coated algae. Presence of diatoms in tissue is a sign of ante-Morten
drowning. Diatoms are examined by acid digestion technique.

Dipsomania - an irresistible desire for alcoholic drinks at periodic intervals.

Durham rule - an accused person is nor criminally responsible if his unlawful act is the product of mental disease or
mental defect.

Ecchymosis - is the medical term for a subcutaneous purpura larger than 1 centimeter or a hematoma, commonly called
a bruise.

Eclampsia - an acute disorder of pregnant and puerperal women, associated with convulsions and coma.

Embolism - obstruction of a blood vessel by foreign substances or by a blood clot.

Endemic - a disease that occurs continuously in a particular population but has a low mortality rate such as measles.

Endocarditis - inflammation of the lining membrane of the heart. Maybe due to invasion of microorganisms or an
abnormal immunologic reaction.
Epidural hemorrhage - bleeding in the space between the dura matter and skull or wall of the vertebral canal around
the spinal cord.

Epistaxis - hemorrhage from the nose, nosebleed.

Erythrocytes - red blood cells. A type of blood cell that contain a nucleus in all vertebrates but man and that has
hemoglobin in the cytoplasm.

Erythroderma - intense, widespread reddening of the skin.

Esophagus - the portion of the digestive canal extending from the throat to the stomach, also referred to as gullet.

Eunuchs - male prostitutes.

Euthanasia - (mercy killing) it means producing painless death of a person suffering from hopelessly incurable and
painful disease.

Exoskeleton - a skeleton on the outside of the body whose inner walls serves as a point for the attachment of muscles.
Feces - animal solid waste material discharged from the rectum through the anus.End product of digestion after
absorption of nutrients and re-absorption of water.

Felacio - is the oral stimulation or manipulation of the penis either by the female or male.

Fetichism - sexual satisfaction by contact with articles of opposite sex.

Forensic medicine - is the application of medical knowledge in the administration  of law and justice.

Forensic taphonomy - the study of post-mortem processes affecting human remains for the purposes of interpreting
forensic data.

Fortunato Fedele - an Italian physician who in 1602 published the first book on forensic medicine.

Frigidity - is the inability to start or to maintain the sexual arousal pattern in the female.

Frotteurism - contact with other persons to obtain sexual gratification.

Gangrene - death of tissue due to lack of blood supply.

Gastritis - inflammation of the stomach, characterized by epigastric pain or tenderness, nausea, vomiting, and systemic
electrolyte changes if vomiting persists.

Glaucoma - a disease of the eye characterized by abnormal and damaging high pressure in the eye, usually due to a
blockage of the channel that normally allows the outflow of fluid from the eye.
Hematology - branch of biology that deals with blood and blood forming organs.

Hematoma - accumulation of blood in the tissue due to internal hemorrhaging.A tumor of blood caused by leakage from
damage blood vessels, it contains enough blood to form a blood-filled space.

Hemolysis -  destruction or dissolution of red blood cells in such a manner that hemoglobin is liberated into the medium
in which the cells are suspended.
Hemolytic anemia - Any anemia resulting from destruction of red blood cells.

Hemophilia A hereditary blood disease characterized by impaired coagulability of the blood and a strong tendency to
bleed.

Hemoptysis - Coughing and spitting of blood as a result of bleeding from any part of the respiratory tract.

Hemorrhage -  Escape of whole blood from a blood vessel. Abnormal internal or external bleeding. May be venous,
arterial, or capillary from blood vessels into the tissues, or into or from the body.

Herniation - Rupture of tissue into an adjacent space due to internal pressure or swelling.

Hijrahs - castrated eunuchs.

Homosexuality - means persistent emotional and physical attraction to members of same sex.

Hymen - Thin membrane, in females, that separates the external genitalia from the vagina. The outer surface is a dry,
squamous epithelium, and the inner surface is a moist mucous membrane.

Hypothermia - Having a body temperature below normal.

Hypovolemia - Diminished blood volume.

Hypoxia - Condition in which below-normal levels of oxygen are present in the air, blood, or body tissues, short of
anoxia.

Impetigo - Highly contagious, rapidly spreading skin disorder caused by staphylococcus or streptococcus and
characterized by red blisters. Impetigo sometimes occurs as a result of poor hygiene.

Inbreeding -  Reproduction between related individuals.

Incised wound - Injury produced by a sharp instrument and characterized by lack of surface abrasion and absence of
bridging vessels, nerves, and smooth margins.

Incision - A wound produced by a sharp-edged instrument or object.

Ischemia - Obstruction of blood flow (usually by arterial narrowing) that causes lack of oxygen and other bloodborne
nutrients.

Ischemia necrosis - Death of cells as a result of decreased blood flow to affected tissues.

Invertebrate - Any species of animal lacking a back bone.

Impotence - is the inability of a person to perform sexual intercourse.

Jaundice - yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes due to an accumulation of bile pigments (e.g., bilirubin) in the
circulating blood. Another cause is liver damage caused by hepatitis.

Kleptomania - an irresistible desire to steal articles of little value.

Labia majora - Outer lips to the vagina that are covered by pubic hair after menarche (onset of menstruation).

Laceration - A wound produced by a tear in the skin due to application of blunt force in crushing or shearing.
Livor mortis - A coloration of the skin of the lower parts of a corpse caused by the settling of the red blood cells as the
blood ceases to circulate.

Lymphocyte - A general class of white blood cells that are important components of the immune system of vertebrate
animals.

Maggot - The larva of a higher fly. It sheds its skin twice and has three growth instars prior to pupariation. A legless larva
without a well-developed head capsule.

Mandible - A mouth organ of invertebrates (especially in the arthropods and insects) used for seizing, biting, and
manipulating food. With vertebrate organisms, it is recognized as the lower jaw.

Manner of death - A typology of deaths according to whether they are due to homicide, suicide, accident, or natural
causes. Death occurs in one of four manners: natural, if caused solely by disease; accidental, if it occurs without
apparent intent; suicidal, if caused by the deceased; and homicidal, if someone other than the deceased caused it.

Malingering - (shamming) means conscious, planned feigning or pretending a disease for the

Masochism - opposite of sadism, derived from the name of Leopold Von Sacher-Masoch, an Austrian novelist, being
whipped by his wife used to be a stimulant  for his literary work.

Medical jurisprudence - deals with the legal rights, privileges, duties and obligations of medical practitioner.

Meningitis - Brain infection involving an acute inflammation of the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord,
characterized by drowsiness, confusion, irritability, and sensory impairments.

Mite - Any arthropod in the order Acari. These are very small to minute animals having four pairs of legs in the adult
stage, but only three pairs in the larva. All mites have chelicerated mouth parts and lack mandibles.

Mummification - The drying, shrinking, and hardening of dead flesh due to extreme dehydration.

Mutilomania - an irresistible desire to mutilate animals.

Myiasis - The invasion of any living vertebrate animal, including people, by fly larvae, especially maggots. The description
may be further refined to indicate location affected (e.g., nasal myiasis, rectal myiasis) or the predisposing cause (e.g.,
traumatic myiasis in a suppurating wound). Myiasis may be classified as either primary or secondary (facultative).

Myocardial ischemia - Insufficient oxygen supplies to meet the metabolic demands of heart muscles.

Myocarditis - Inflammation of the muscles of the heart.

Myoclonus - Involuntary spasm or twitching of a muscle or group of muscles.

Myoglobin - The oxygen-transporting, pigmented protein of muscle resembles blood hemoglobin in function.

Myotomy -  Cutting of muscle; in forensic odontology, cutting facial muscles to release postmortem rigor mortis.
Necrophagia - necros - corpse, phagia - to eat.

Necrophilia - sexual intercourse with dead body.

Necrophilous - Having a dietary fondness for dead flesh.

Necrosis - Death of one or more cells or a portion of a tissue or organ.

Neoplasm - A new and abnormal formation of tissue such as a tumor or growth.

Neuropathy - A disorder of the nervous system; in contemporary usage, a disease involving the cranial or spinal nerves.

Neuroses - the patient suffer from emotional or intellectual disorder but does not loss touch with reality.

Osteoarthritis - deterioration in joint integrity connected with use-wear exacerbated by inflammation and related to
reduction in bone density.

Osteomyelitis - Inflammation of the bone especially the marrow caused by a pathogenic organism.

Osteoporosis - Increased porosity of the bone, seen most often in the elderly.

Paedophile - (pedophile) is an adult who repeatedly engages in sexual activities with children below the age of puberty.

Paraphilias - abnormal and unorthodox sex play using unusual objects or parts of the body.

Perimortem - At or near the time of death.

Petechiae - Pinhead-sized (red) dots which are minute hemorrhages found inside the eyelids and the facial skin;
considered by pathologists to be a sign of strangulation.

Phobia - it is an excessive or irrational fear of a particular object or situation.

Plasma -  The liquid portion of whole blood containing water, electrolytes, glucose, fats, proteins, and gases. Contains all
the clotting factors necessary for coagulation but in an inactive form. Once coagulation occurs, the fluid is converted to
serum.

Pneumonitis - Inflammation of the lungs.

Postmortem - After death, occurring after death, or pertaining to a postmortem examination, an autopsy.

Postmortem - artifact Alteration to the body that occurs after death that is not related to antemortem injury.
Postmortem interval - The period of time between death and corpse discovery.

Priapism - painful penile erection in absence of sexual desire.

Pseudo-malingering - A phenomenon whereby a mentally ill individual feigns the mental illness he or she actually has.
The behavior is considered a temporary ego-supportive device that allows the individual to feel he or she has control
over the illness.
Psychological autopsy - An attempt to determine the mode of death (whether an accident, suicide, homicide, or natural
causes) by an examination of what was known about the deceased.

Psychopath - a person who is neither insane nor mentally defective but fails to conform to normal standards of
behavior.

Psychoses - they are characterized by withdrawal from reality, living in a world of fantasy.

Pulmonary edema - Accumulation of extra vascular fluid in the lungs that impairs gas exchange; usually due to either
increased intravascular pressure or increased permeability of the pulmonary capillaries.

Putrefaction - The foul-smelling, anaerobic decomposition of moist or wet organic matter by microorganisms. The
breakdown of tissues, particularly proteins, due to enzyme action.

Pyromania - sexual stimulation while seeing flames or destruction of buildings.

Rigor mortis - The stiffness of the body after death that helps in reconstructing the time at which death occurred. The
progressive rigidity of a corpse following death, caused by an accumulation of lactic acid in dying muscle tissues. This is a
temporary condition lasting 12 to 36 h.

Sadism - sexual gratification is obtained or increased from acts of physical cruelty or causing of pain upon one's partner.
The term is derived from the name of a French nobleman Marquis de Sade, infamous for his crimes and writings. Many
of his stories were about sexuality, cruelty, and torture.

Saponification - The conversion of corpse body fat into a curdlike foul-smelling product called
adipocere.

Saprophagous - Feeding on dead or decaying plant or animal material, such as carrion, corpses, dung, or rotting wood.

Satyriasis - incessant sexual desire.

Scoliosis - A lateral curvature of the spine.

Scurvy - A deficiency disease characterized by hemorrhagic manifestations and abnormal formation of bones and teeth.

Sepsis - Pathologic state, usually febrile, resulting from the presence of microorganisms or their poisonous products in
the bloodstream.

Septicemia - Bacteria in the blood system with signs and symptoms of disease.

Sexual oralism - it is the obtaining of sexual pleasure from the application of the mouth to the sexual organs.
Sodomy - is anal intercourse between two males or between a male and female. It is also called buggery. It is also called
gerontophilia when the active agent is an adult and paederasty, when the passive agent is a young boy who is known as
catamite.

Tachycardia - Rapid heartbeat (typically greater than 100 beats per minute).

Tachypnea - Rapid breathing.

Tattooing - A characteristic pattern in the skin caused by particles of
unburned and partially burned powder from a shotgun blast at very close range. Also may be called stippling.

Tetany - Condition marked by involuntary muscle contractions or spasms.

Trauma - An injury that is the result of any force such as blunt, sharp, or penetrating.

Transvestism - trans - opposite, vesta - clothing of eonism. The term is derived from the name of Chevelier d'Eon
Beamont, a Frenchman. It is usually found in the males who derived sexual pleasure by wearing female dress.

Tribadism - female homosexuality. Sexual gratification of a woman is obtained by another woman by simple lip kissing,
generalized body contact, deep kissing, manual manipulation of breast and genitalia, genital apposition, friction of
external genital organs, etc. In some case, artificial penis or phallus may be used.

Throttling - is manual strangulation.

Undinism - sexual pleasure by witnessing the act of urination.

Vasodilation - Increased diameter of the blood vessels.

Voyeurism - (scoptophilia) peeping tom, sexual enjoyment by watching.

Wheezing - Breathing noisily and with difficulty; usually a sign of spasm or narrowing of the airways.

Zenana - eunuch with intact genitalia.

 Lie Detection and Interrogation (Polygraphy)

Polygraph - popularly referred to as lie detector. - measures and records several psychological indices such as blood
pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity while the subject is asked and answers a series of questions.
                    - literally means "many writings".
                    - is derived from two Greek words "Poly"- which means many and "Graphos"- which means writing.

  blood pressure - is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels and is one of the
principal vital signs.

 pulse - represents the tactile arterial palpitation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. It can also be measured
by listening to the heart directly using a stethoscope.

 respiration - the transport of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues and the transport of carbon
dioxide in the opposite direction.

 skin conductivity - also known as Galvanic sin response - is a method of measuring the electrical conductance of
the skin which varies with its moisture level.

 ohmmeter - is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the opposition to an electric current.

 galvanometer - an instrument for detecting and measuring electric current.

 stimuli - is applied to sensory receptor, it influences a reflex via stimulus transduction.

Personalities Who Contributed to the Development of the Polygraph Machine.

 Cesare Lombroso - he invented in 1895 a device to measure changers in blood pressure for police case.

 John Augustus Larson - a medical student at the University of California at Berkeley, invented the polygraph in
1921.The device record both blood pressure and galvanic skin response. Further work on this device was done
by Leonarde Keeler.

 Leonarde Keeler - was the co-inventor of the polygraph. He developed the so called cardio-pneumo psychogram
capable of detecting deception and worked on to produce the modern polygraph.

 William Marston - an American who used blood pressure to examine German prisoners of war.

 John Reid - In 1948, developed a device which recorded muscular activity accompanying changes in blood
pressure. He claimed greater accuracy could be obtained by making the recordings simultaneously with standard
blood pressure, pulse, and respiration recordings.

Two Types of Present Day Polygraph Instrumentation

1. Analog
2. Computerized - most polygraph examiners now used this.

Types of Questions in a Polygraph Test

1. Control Question - preliminary information question
2. Irrelevant Question -
3. Relevant Question - In a polygraph test, the types of questions alternates, the test is passed if the physiological
responses during the probable lie control questions are larger than those during the relevant question.

Lie Detection - is the practice of determining whether someone is lying.

Three Basic Approaches to The Polygraph Test

1. The Control Question Test (CQT) - this test compares the physiological response to relevant questions about the
crime with the response to questions relating to possible prior misdeeds. This test is often used to determine whether
certain criminal suspects should be prosecuted or classified as uninvolved in the crime.

2. The Directed Lie Test (DLT) - this test tries to detect lying by comparing physiological responses when the subject is
told to deliberately lie to responses when they tell the truth.

3. The Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) - this test compares physiological responses to multiple choice type questions about
the crime, one choice of which contains information only the crime investigators and the criminal would know about.

3 Phases of A Polygraph Examination

1. Pre-Test Phase - the examiner discusses with the subject the test issue, review the test questions that will be ask
during the test and assess the subjects emotional and physiological suitability to undergo the polygraph test.

2. Testing Phase - subject’s physiological responses are recorded as the subject answers a set of questions reviewed
earlier.

3. Post Test Phase - examiner reviews test data obtained and interprets the polygraph chart.

Conclusions That a Polygraph Examiner May Reach

1. Subject is telling the truth
2. Subject is not telling the truth
3. The result is inconclusive
* A polygraph test normally lasts between one and a half hours to two and a half hours.
* Polygraph test result in the Philippines is not admissible in evidence as proof of the guilt of an accused.
* Polygraph test is voluntary.
* The accuracy of polygraph test is about 90% provided the examiner is competent and the polygraph machine is in good
working condition.
* Polygraph is an investigative tool.
* The principle behind a lie detection test is that when the subject hears a questions which he or she intends to lie, the
brain interprets and triggers automatic and uncontrollable physiological changes captured by the polygraph.

Who Uses The Polygraph

1. Law Enforcement Agencies
2. Legal Community
3. Private Sector

Kinds of Errors in a Polygraph Test

1. False Positive - occurs when a truthful examinee is reported as being deceptive.
2. False Negative - when a deceptive examinee is reported as truthful.

Causes of Polygraph Errors

1. Failure of examiner to properly prepare the examinee for the examination.
2. Misreading of the physiological data on the polygraph charts.
3. Defective polygraph machine.

Reactions - changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, breathing and sweat activity.
 Forensic Ballistics

Forensic Ballistics - is the science of analyzing firearms usage in crimes. It involves analysis of bullets and bullets impact
to determine information of use to a court or other part of legal system. Separately from the ballistics information,
firearm and tool mark examinations also involves analyzing firearm, ammunition and tool mark evidence in order to
established whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of crime.

Ballistics - (ballein "to throw") - is the science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior and effects of projectiles
especially bullet, gravity bombs, rockets or the like.

Ballistic missile - is a missile, only guided during the relative brief initial powered phase of flight whose course is
subsequently governed by the laws of classical mechanics.

Flight - is the process by which an object moves through an atmosphere by generating aerodynamic lift, propulsive
thrust, aero statically using buoyancy or by ballistic movement without any direct solid mechanical support from the
ground.

Firearms identification - the identification of fired bullets, cartridge cases or other ammunition  components as having
been fired from a specific firearm.

Rifling - is the process of making helical grooves in the barrel of a gun or firearm which imparts a spin to a projectile
around its long axis. This spin stabilizes the projectile, improving its stability and accuracy.

Projectile - is any object projected into space by the exertion of a force.

Trajectory - is the path that a moving object follows through space as a function of time.

Firearm - is a weapon that launches one or many projectiles at high velocity through confined burning of a propellant.

Ballistic fingerprinting - involves analyzing firearm, ammunition and tool mark evidence in order to establish whether a
certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime.

Gun ballistic - is the work of projectile from the time of shooting to the time of impact with the target.

Four Categories of Gun Ballistics

1. Internal/Interior Ballistic - the study of the processes originally accelerating the projectile. example - the
passage of a bullet through the barrel of a rifle.

2. Transition/Intermediate Ballistic - the study of the projectiles behavior when it leaves the barrel and the
pressure behind the projectile is equalized.

3. External/Exterior Ballistic - the study of the passage of the projectile through a medium, most
commonly the earth’s atmosphere.

4. Terminal Ballistic - is the study of the interaction of a projectile with its target.

Colonel Calvin Hooker Goddard - Father of Forensic Ballistic.

Some Factors to be Considered in designing a Firearm

  1. reliability of firing
  2. accuracy of projectile
  3. force of projectile
  4. speed of firing

Characteristics of a Muzzle Loader Firearm

  1. powder and bullet loaded from top of the barrel
  2. smooth bore with a round lead ball.
  3. limited range and accuracy

Accuracy is Increased
  1. by longer bore or length of metal tube
  2. putting spiral grooves in the bore (riffling)

Breech Loading Firearm - is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the
rear portion of a barrel.

Sir Hiram Maxim - an American inventor of the machine gun or the maxim gun.

Richard Gatling - inventor of the Gatling gun, a machine gun with a six barrel capable of firing 200 rounds per minute at
the earliest stages of development.

Gatling Gun - a hand driven, crank operated multi barrel machine gun.

note: velocities of bullets are increased with the use of a jacket of a metal such as copper or copper alloys that covers a
lead core and allow the bullet to glide down the barrel more easily than exposed lead. Such bullets are less likely to
fragment on impact and are more likely to traverse through a target while imparting less energy.

Fouling - deposits of unburned powder residue in the bore of a gun.

What is the indispensable tool of the firearm examiner? Comparison Microscope.

Firearms Terminology
1. Action - the part of the firearm that loads, fires, and ejects a cartridge. Includes lever action, pump  
    action, bolt action, and semi-automatic. The first three are found in weapons that fire a single shot.
Firearms that can shoot multiple rounds "repeaters" include all these types of actions but only the semi-automatic does
not require manual operation between rounds. A truly automatic action is found on a machine gun.

2. Barrel - the metal tube through which the bullet is fired.

3. Black Powder - the old form of gun powder invented over a thousand years ago and consisting of nitrate, charcoal,
and sulfur.

4. Bore - the inside of the barrel.

5. Breech - the end of the barrel attach to the action

6. Bullets - is a projectile propelled by firearm, sling, airgun. They are shaped or composed differently for
a variety of purposes.

  round nose - the end of the bullet is blunted.

 hollow point - there is  a central cavity in the bullet nose not covered by a metal jacket that creates expansion
when a target is struck, creating more damage.
 action 4 - hollow point projectile made of non-fragmenting brass with radiopaque plastic tip.
 hydra-Shock - hollow point projectile with soft deformable anterior and hard posterior core.  
 Jacketed - the soft lead is surrounded by another metal, usually copper, that allows the bullet to penetrate a
target more easily.
 wad-cutter - the front of the bullet is flattened.
 semi-wad-cutter - intermediate between round nose and wad-cutter.

7. Butt or Buttstock - the portion of the gun which is held or shouldered.

8. Caliber - the diameter of the bore measured from land to land , usually expressed in hundredths of an inch (.22 cal) or
in millimeters (9mm).

9. Cartridge - also called a round - packages the bullet, propellant and primer into a single unit within
a containing metallic case that is precisely made to fit within the firing chamber of a firearm.
            
Parts of a cartridge
         a. bullet
         b. case/shell
         c. powder
         d. primer

10. Centerfire - the cartridge contains the primer in the center of the base where it can be struck by firing pin of the
action.

11. Chamber - the portion of the action that holds the cartridge ready for firing.
12. Choke - a constriction of a shotgun bore at the muzzle that determines the pattern of the fired shot.

13. Double Action - Pulling the trigger both cocks the hammer and fires the gun.

14. Double Barrel - two barrels side by side or one on top of the other usually on a shotgun.

15. Gauge - refers to the diameter of the barrel on a shotgun in terms of the number of lead balls the size of the bore it
would take to weigh one pound (10-gauge,12-gauge, etc) "410" gauge really refer to caliber, but it is worded as such to
refer to a shotgun.

16. Hammer - a metal rod or plate that typically drives a firing pin to strike the cartridge primer to detonate the powder.

17. Ignition - the way in which powder is ignited. Old muzzle loading weapons used flintlock or percussion caps. Modern
guns use primers that are rimfire or centerfire.

18. Lands and Grooves - lands are the metal inside the barrel left after the spiral grooves are cut to produce the rifling.

19. Magazine - this is a device for storing cartridges in a repeating firearm for loading into the chamber.
20. Magnum - for rifles and handguns, an improved version of a standard cartridge which uses the same caliber and
bullets, but has more powder, giving the fired bullet more energy. For shotgun loads, magnum shells have more powder
and may have increased length with more shot pellets.

21. Muzzle - the end of the barrel out of which the bullet comes.

22. Pistol - synonym for a handgun that does not have a revolving cylinder.

23. Powder - modern gun cartridges use smokeless powder that is relatively stable of uniform quality and leaves little
residue when ignited. For centuries black powder was used and was quite volatile (ignited at low temperature or shock),
was composed of irregularly sized grains, and left a heavy residue after ignition, requiring frequent cleaning of bore.

24. Primer - a volatile substance that ignites when struck to detonate the powder in a cartridge.
  Rimfire cartridges - have primer inside the base.
 Centerfire cartridges - have primer in a hole in the middle of the base of the cartridge case.

25. Revolver - handgun that has a cylinder with holes to contain the cartridges. The cylinder revolves to bring the
cartridge into position to be fired. This is a single action when the hammer must be cocked before the trigger can fire the
weapon. It is double action when pulling the trigger both cock and fires the gun.

26. Riffling - the spiral grooves cut inside a gun barrel that give the bullet a spinning motion. The metal
between the grooves is called a land.

27. Rimfire - the cartridge has the primer distributed around the periphery of the base.

28. Safety - a mechanism of an action to prevent firing of the gun.

29. Shotgun - a gun with a smooth bore that shoots cartridges that contain "shot" or small metal pellets of lead or steel
as the projectiles.

30. Smoothbore weapons - have no riflings, typically shotguns. Most handguns and rifles have riflings.

31. Sights - the device on top of the barrel that allow the gun to be aimed.

32. Silencer - a device that fits over the muzzle of the barrel to muffle the sound of a gunshot. Most work by baffling the
escape of gases.

33. Single Action - the hammer must be manually cocked before the trigger can be pulled to fire the gun.

 34. Smokeless Powder - refers to modern gun powder which is not really powder but flakes or nitrocellulose and other
substances. Not really smokeless but much less so than black powder.

35. Stock - a wood, metal, or plastic frame that holds the barrel and action and allows the gun to be held firmly.

Composition of Gunpowder
  1. Sulfur
  2. Charcoal
  3. Saltpeter (potassium nitrate) - gun powder first appeared in China but used primarily in firecrackers.
Different Firing Mechanisms of Firearm
  1. Matchlock - employed a burning wick on a spring that was "locked" back and released into a pan of powder upon
pulling a trigger. The powder in the pan then ignited, sending flame through a small hole into the barrel chamber of the
weapon, igniting a larger powder charge in the chamber and sending the projectile (bullet) forward.

  2. Wheellock - in the early 16th century, improvement included the wheellock mechanism in which a spinning wheel
against a metal plate showered sparks into the pan holding the priming powder.

  3. Flintlock - developed in the early 17th century, flint is released by the trigger mechanism that strikes a steel plate to
shower sparks into the pan filled with powder.

  4. Percussion - evolved in the 19th century, consisted of a hammer that was locked and when released, struck a cap
containing a volatile "primer" that ignites on impact, sending a flame through a small tube
into the barrel chamber. Next, inventors combined the individual components including the bullet, powder charge and
primer all in a single cartridge which could be introduced directly into the chamber.

Definition of Terms

Acetone - The simplest ketone. A solvent for gun powder. A highly flammable, water-soluble solvent.

Action - the action of the gun consists of all the moving parts that facilitate the loading, firing, discharging of the empty
case and unloading of the gun.

Action, revolver - a firearm, usually a handgun with a cylinder having several chambers so arrange as to rotate around
an axis and be discharge successively by the same firing mechanism.

Action, semi-automatic - a repeating firearm requiring a separate pull of the trigger for each shot fired and which uses
the energy of discharge to perform a portion of the operating or firing cycle (usually the loading portion).

Actuator - part of the firing mechanism in certain automatic firearms that slides forward and back in preparing each
cartridge to be fired. Also called trigger actuator.

Ammunition - one or more loaded cartridges consisting of a primed case, propellant and with one or more projectiles.

Anvil marks - microscopic marks impressed on the forward face of the rim of a rimfire cartridge case as it is forced
against the breech end of the barrel by the firing pin. These marks are characteristic of the breech under the firing pin
and have been used to identify firearm.

AP - abbreviation for armor-piercing ammunition.

Apogee - the maximum altitude a projectile will reach when shot in the air.

Assault rifle - automatic weapon designed to be fired by one man. Ammunition is fed from a magazine.

Automatic - a firearm capable of ejecting a cartridge casing following  discharge and reloading the next cartridge from
the magazine.

Automatic action - a firearm design that feeds cartridges, fires, and ejects cartridge cases as long as the trigger is fully
depressed and there are cartridges available in the feed system.
Auto-safety - a locking device on some firearms designed to return to the on or safe position when the firearm is
opened.

Azo dye - a result of the Griess test where nitrates from gunpowder residues are converted to an orange-red dye.
Ball ammunition - military small arms ammunition with full metal jacket bullets, also known as hard ball.

Ballistics - the study of a projectile in motion, following the projectile travel from primer ignition to barrel exit, to target
entry and until motion is stopped.

Ballistics, exterior - The study of the motion of the projectile after it leaves the barrel of the firearm.

Ballistics, Interior - the study of the motion of the projectile within the firearm from the moment of ignition until it
leaves the barrel.

Ballistics, terminal - the study of the projectiles impact on the target.

Barium - alkaline earth metal with chemical symbol Ba, atomic number 56. Present as barium nitrate in the primer.

Barium nitrate - a common oxidizer of the primer compound used in gun cartridges.

Barrel - that part of a firearm through which a projectile travels under the impetus of powder gases, compressed air, or
other like means, may be rifled or smooth.

BB - air rifle projectile of 0.177 in. diameter or a shotgun pellet of 0.18 in. diameter.

BBB shot - shotgun pellet of 0.19 in. diameter.

Beretta - is an Italian firearms manufacturer. It is the oldest active firearms manufacturer in the world.

Beveling - (external or internal) defects that occur when a projectile passes through a flat bone. The perforation in the
bone is typically larger and more cone shaped as the bullet passes from the entrance through the bone to the exit.

Bipod - is an attachment for a weapon that creates a steady plane for whatever it may be attached. A two-legged rest or
stand as for rifle or machine gun.

Black powder - the earliest form of propellant. It is a mechanical mixture of potassium nitrate or sodium nitrate,
charcoal and sulfur.

Blasting cap - a small explosive charge triggered by lighting a safety fuse or applying an electric current used to detonate
high explosives.

Blunderbuss - is a muzzle-loading firearm with a short, large caliber barrel which is flared at the muzzle and frequently
throughout the entire bore and used with shot and other projectiles of relevant quantity and/or caliber.

Bolt action - is a type of firearm action in which the weapons bolt is operated manually by opening and closing of the
breech (barrel) with a small handle most commonly placed on the right hand side of the weapon for (right hand users).
                     A firearm in which the breech closure is in line with the bore at all times. It is manually reciprocated to load,
unload and cock and is locked in place by breech-bolt lugs and engaging abutments usually in the receiver.
Bore - the interior of a barrel, forward of the chamber.
Bore brush - A brush usually having brass, nylon, or plastic bristles which is used to clean deposits from the bore of a
firearm.

Bore diameter - in a rifled barrel, it is the minor diameter of a barrel which is the diameter of a circle formed by the tops
of the lands. In a shotgun, it is the  interior dimensions of the barrel forward of the chamber but before the choke.

Brass - a slang term sometimes used for fired cartridge cases.

Breech - the part of the firearm at the rear of the bore into which the cartridge of propellant is inserted.

Breech block - the locking and cartridge head-supporting mechanism of a firearm that does not operate in line with the
axis of the bore.

Breech blot - the locking and cartridge head-supporting mechanism of a firearm that operates  in line with the axis of
the bore.

Breech face - that part of the breech block or breech bolt that is against the head of the cartridge  case or shot shell
during firing.

Breech face markings - negative impression of the breech face of the firearm found on the head of the cartridge case
after firing.

Breech-loading weapon - is a firearm in which the cartridge or shell is inserted or loaded into a chamber integral to the
rear portion of a barrel.

Broach - rifling tool consisting of a series of circular cutting tools mounted on a long rod.The rifling is cut in on pass of
the broach through the gun barrel.

Browning arms co. - is a maker of firearms founded in Utah in 1927.

Buckshot - lead pellet ranging in size from 0.20 in. to 0.36 in. diameter.

Bullet - is a projectile propelled by a firearm, sling, or air gun.

Bullet-bearing surface - that part of the outer surface of a bullet that comes into direct contact with the interior surface
of the barrel.

Bullet creep - the movement of a bullet out of the cartridge case due to the recoil of the firearm and the inertia of the
bullet. Also called bullet starting. Also known as popping.

Bullet, frangible - a projectile designed to disintegrate upon impact on a hard surface in order to minimize ricochet or
spatter.

Bullet jacket - usually a metallic cover over the core.

Bullet, lead - a standard lead bullet having a harder metal jacket over the nose formed from a lead alloy, also known as
metal-point bullet. This non spherical projectiles is for use in a rifled barrel.
Bullet recovery system - any method that will allow the undamaged recovery of a fired bullet. Water tanks and cotton
boxes are most commonly in use.

Bullet wipe - a dark ring-shaped mark made up of lead, carbon, oil and dirt brushed from a bullet as it enters the skin
and found around the entry wound. The discolored area on the immediate periphery of a bullet hole, caused by bullet
lubricant, lead, smoke bore debris or possibly, jacket material. Sometimes called burnishing or leaded edge.

Burr striations - a roughness or rough edge especially one left on metal in casting or cutting. A tool or device that raises
a burr.

Butt - in handguns, the bottom part of the grip frame. In long guns, it is the rear of shoulder end of the stock.
Caliber - the approximate diameter of the circle formed by the tops of the lands of a rifled barrel.

Cannelure - a circumferential groove generally of a knurled or plain appearance in a bullet or the head of a rimless
cartridge case.

Carbine - a rifle of short length and lightweight originally designed for mounted troops.

Cartridge - is also called a round, packages the bullet, propellant (usually smokeless powder or gun powder) and primer
into a single unit within a containing metallic case that is precisely made to fit within the firing chamber of the firearm.

Cartridge case head - the base of the cartridge case which contains the primer.

Cartridge, centerfire - any cartridge that has its primer central to the axis in the head of the case.

Cartridge, rimfire - a flange-headed cartridge containing the priming mixture inside the rim cavity.

Center of impact - the points of impact of the projectiles being dispersed about a single point.
Chamber - the rear part of the barrel bore that has been formed to accept a specific cartridge. Revolver cylinders are
multi-chambered.

Chamber mark - individual microscopic marks placed upon a cartridge case by the chamber wall because of any or all
the following 1. chambering 2. expansion during firing 3. extraction.
 
Choke - (shotgun) the constriction of the barrel of a shotgun to reduce the spread of shot as it leaves the gun to increase
its effective range.

Clip - a separate cartridge container used to rapidly reload the magazine of a firearm. Also called  stripper.

Coefficient of form - a numerical term indicating the general profile of a projectile.

Combination gun - a multiple-barreled firearm designed to handle different  sizes or types of ammunition.

Concentric fractures - patterns of cracks in glass pierced by a missile like a bullet which runs between the radial fractures
and which originate on the side of the glass from which the impact came.

Copper-clad steel - a composite structure of copper and steel used for the manufacture of certain bullet jackets. Metallic
element with the chemical symbol Cu and atomic number 29 that commonly comprises "cartridge brass" that is typically
70% copper and 30% zinc (Zn)
Centerfire - is a cartridge with a primer located in the center of the cartridge case head. Unlike rimfire cartridges, the
primer is a separate and replaceable component.

Chamber - is that portion of the barrel or firing cylinder in which the cartridge is inserted prior to being fired.

Clay pigeon shooting - (clay target shooting) formally known as inanimate bird shooting is the art of shooting at special
flying targets known as clay pigeons or clay targets with a shotgun or any type of firearm.

Cylinder - rotating chambered breech of a revolver. Damascus barrel - an obsolete barrel-making process. The barrel is
formed by twisting or braiding together steel and iron wires or bars. The resulting cable is then wound around a mandrel
and forged into a barrel tube. This type of barrel is also called a laminated barrel.

Decant - the process of pouring off the supernatant during separation from a pellet after a mixture has been centrifuged
or left to settle.

Derringer - the generic term applied to many variations of pocket size pistols either percussion or cartridge made by
manufacturers other that Henry Derringer up to present time.
Discharge - to cause a firearm to fire.

Disconnector - a device to prevent a semi-automatic firearm from firing full automatic. Some pump action shotguns also
have disconnectors.

Distance determination - the process of determining the distance from the firearm, usually the muzzle, to the target
based upon pattern of gunpowder or gunshot residues deposited upon that target. Where multiple projectiles such as
shot have been fired, the spread of those projectiles is also indicative of distance.

Double action - a gun action where the pulling of trigger to fire a round recocks the gun so that the next round is ready
to be fired.

Drawback effect - the presence of blood in the barrel of a firearm that has been drawn awkward due to the effect
created by discharged gasses. This is seen frequently in close-range contact gunshot injuries.

Driving edge, fired bullet - the driving edge of a fired bullet with a right twist is the left edge of the groove impression or
the right edge of the land impression. The driving edge of a fired bullet with left twist is the right edge of the groove
impression or the left edge of the hand impression.

Ejection - the act of expelling a cartridge or cartridge cases from a firearm.

Ejection pattern - the charting of where a particular firearm ejects fired cartridge cases.

Ejector - a portion of a firearms mechanism that ejects or expels cartridges or cartridge cases from a firearm.

Ejector marks - tool marks provided upon a cartridge or cartridge case on the head, generally at or near the rim from
contact with the ejector.

Extractor - a mechanism for withdrawing a cartridge or cartridge case from the chamber of a firearm.

Extraction mark - tool mark produced upon a cartridge or cartridge case from contact with the extractor. These are
always found on or just ahead of the rim.
Firearm identification - a discipline of forensic science that has as its primarily concern determining whether a bullet,
cartridge case or other ammunition component was fired by a particular firearm.

Firing pin - that part of a firearm mechanism that strikes the primer of a cartridge to initiate ignition. Sometimes called
hammer nose or striker.

Firing pin drag marks - the tool mark produced when a  projecting firing pin comes into contact with a cartridge case or
shot-shell during the extraction and ejection cycle.

Firing pin impression - the indentation in the primer of a centerfire cartridge case or in the rim of a rimfire cartridge case
caused when it struck by the firing pin.

Flash hole - vent leading from the primer pocket to the body of the cartridge case.

Fouling - the residual deposits remaining in the bore of a firearm after firing. Fouling can change the character of the
identifiable striations imparted to the projectile from one shot to another.

Fragment - a piece of solid metal resulting from an exploding or exploded bomb or a piece of projectile from a firearm.

Gauge - the interior diameter of the barrel of a shotgun expressed by the number or spherical lead bullets fitting it that
are required to make a pound. Thus a 12 gauge in the diameter of a round lead ball using 1/12 of a pound.

Gas cutting - an erosive effect in a firearm caused by the high velocity, high temperature propellant gases.
                  - The erosion that occurs from the hot gases on the bearing surface and base of a fired bullet.

General rifling characteristics - the number, width and direction  of twist of the rifling grooves in a barrel of a given
caliber firearm.

Granules - the individual particles of propellant powder.

Griess test - a chemical test for the detection of nitrates. It is used by firearms examiners to develop patterns of
gunpowder residues (nitrates) around bullet holes.

Grips - a pair of pieces designed to fit the frame of a weapon providing a form fit gripping, usually plastic or wood.

Groove diameter - the major diameter in a barrel that is the diameter of a circle circumscribed by the bottom of the
grooves in a rifled barrel.

Grooves - spiral cuts along the bore of a firearm that cause a projectile to spin as it travels through the barrel providing
stability in flight.

Gun cotton (nitrocellulose) - the principal ingredient of a single base and double base gun powders. Also known as
cellulose hexanitrate.

Gunpowder - any various powder used in firearms as a propellant charge.

                     An explosive consisting of a powdered mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal.

Gunpowder patterns - the spatial distribution of gunpowder  residues deposited upon a surface.
                                 - the test firing of a firearm for a muzzle to target distance determination.
Gunpowder residue - unburned gunpowder, partially burned gunpowder, and smoke from completely burned
gunpowder. Gunpowder residues are the largest part of gunshot residues.

Gunshot residue - the total residues resulting from the discharge of a firearm. It includes both gunpowder and primer
residues plus metallic residues from projectiles, fouling etc.

Gyroscopic stability - the ability of a fired bullet to remain stable in flight due to its spin.
Firearm - an assembly of a barrel and action from which a projectile is propelled by products of combustion.

Flash suppressor - also known as a flash guard, flash eliminator, flash hider, or flash cone, is  a device attached to the
muzzle of a rifle or other gun that reduces the chances that the shooter will be blinded in dark conditions.

Frame or stock -  The frame is the basic structure of the gun to which the other major parts are attached. The stock is for
rifles and shotguns. Handguns do not have a stock but rather what is called a grip.

Game - is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated.

Griess test - is a chemical analysis test which detects the presence of organic nitrate compounds.
Half-cock - the position of the hammer of a firearm when about half retracted and held by the sear so that it cannot be
operated by a normal pull of the trigger.

Hammer - a component part of the firing mechanism  that gives impulse  to the firing pin or primer.

Handguard - a wooden, plastic, or metal type of forend/forearm that generally encircles the forward portion of the
barrel to protect the hands from heat when firing.

Handgun - a firearm designed to be held and fired with one hand.

Head,(cartridge case head) - the base of the cartridge case that contains the primer.

Headspace - the distance from the face of the closed breech of a firearm to the surface in the chamber on which the
cartridge case bears.

Headspace Gage - an instrument  for measuring the distance from the breech face of a firearm to the portion of the
chamber against which the cartridge bears.

Headstamp -  numeral ,letters, and symbols or combinations thereof stamped into the head of a cartridge case or shot-
shell to identify the manufacturer, caliber, gauge, or give additional information.

Heel - the part of a rifle or shotgun stock at the top of the butt end.
- The rear portion of the bullet or its base.

Hinge frame - any of a large array of pistols, revolvers, shotguns, and rifles whose frames are hinge to facilitate loading
and ejection. Generally, the barrel pivots downward.

Holster stock - a holster, usually made of wood that attaches to the rear of the pistol grip of certain handguns and serves
as a shoulder stock.

Hydrochloric acid - a chemical reagent used in the sodium rhodizonate test for lead and other primer residues. IBIS
(integrated ballistics information system) - a database used for acquiring, storing, and analyzing images of bullets and
cartridge casings. Jacket - cylinder of steel covering and strengthening the breech end of a gun; the envelope enclosing
the lead core.

Kinetics - a dynamic process involving motion.

Lacquer - a sealant used by some ammunition manufacturers to seal the primer and/or bullet in the cartridge case. It is
used as a waterproofing agent.

Land - the raised portion between the grooves in  a rifled bore.

Land and groove impressions (right and left turn) - the negative impressions on the surface of a bullet caused by the
rifling in the barrel from which it was fired.

Lead - element with the chemical symbol (Pb) and atomic number 82.Used in the fabrication of bullet and shot for its
formability and lubrication properties.

Leading - The accumulation of lead in the bore of a firearm from the passage of lead shot or bullets. Also called metal
fouling.

Lever action - is a type of firearm action which uses a lever located around the trigger guard area (often including the
trigger guard itself) to load fresh cartridges into the chamber of the barrel when the lever is worked.

Luger - a German semi-automatic pistol widely used in Europe as a military sidearm, manufactured in various calibers
most commonly 7.65 mm and 9 mm.

Machine gun - Bipod or tripod mounted or handheld automatic weapon whose ammunition is fed from a magazine or a
belt.

Magazine - is an ammunition storage and feeding device within or attached to a repeating firearm.

Magazine clip - a container for cartridges that has a spring and follower to feed the cartridges into the chamber of a
firearm.

Mannlicher type bolt - a bolt-action rifle that was designed for the receiver bridge; has a gap at the top to allow passage
of the bolt handle.

Mercury bath - a process using mercury for the removal of lead residue from a barrel.

Metal fouling - metallic bullet material left in the bore after firing.

Microscopic marks - striae or patterns on minute lines or grooves in an object. In firearm and toolmark identification,
these marks are characteristics of the object that produced them and are the basis for identification.

Misfire - failure of the primer mixture to ignite.

Mushroom - used to describe the expansion of a projectile upon impacting a target.

Musket - is a muzzle-loading, smooth-bore long gun fired from the shoulder.

Muzzle - is the end of the barrel from which the projectile will exit.
Obliteration/Obliterated - most often used to refer to serial numbers of firearms that are no longer readable.

Obturation - the act of sealing or preventing the escape of propellant gasses from the breech of a gun.

Orient - the aligning of two bullets that were fired from the same barrel on the comparison microscope so that the land
and groove impressions on those  bullets which were produced by the same lands and grooves in the barrel are opposite
each other. Sometimes called phasing or indexing.
Parabellum - a Latin term meaning "for war" used as a cartridge designation.

Pattern - the distribution of a series of shots fired from one gun or a battery of guns under conditions as nearly identical
as possible to that which occurred at the crime scene.

Pellet - common name for the smooth, spherical projectiles loaded into shot-shells, also referred to as shot. Also a non-
spherical projectile used in air guns.

Percussion cap - a small metal cap with a priming mix that is placed on the nipple of a percussion lock.

Philadelphia derringer - is a small percussion handgun designed by Henry Derringer and a a popular concealed carry
handgun of the era.

Pinfire - is an obsolete type of metallic cartridge in which the priming compound is ignited by striking a small pin which
protrudes radially from just above the base of the cartridge.

Pistol - (automatic, semi-automatic, single-shot) a small firearm having a stock that fits in the hand and contains a short
barrel. A firearm designed to be fired with one hand and with a chamber that is integral to the barrel.

Pistol Whipping - is the act of using a handgun as a blunt weapon, wielding it as if it were a club.

Pitch, rifling - the angle at which the rifling is cut in relationship to the axis of the bore. It is usually stated as the number
of inches required for one revolution. Also known as rate of twist.

Primer - the ignition component of the cartridge; any igniter that is used to initiate the burning of a propellant.

Primer cratering - the extrusion of the primer into the firing pin hole, this phenomenon can produce identifiable marks.
Also known as primer flowback.

Primer/Fuse - any igniter that is used to initiate the burning of a propellant.

Proof mark - a stamp applied at or near the breech of a firearm after it has passed a proof test.

Proof test - the firing of a deliberate overload to test the strength of a firearm barrel and/or action.

Proof load - a cartridge loaded to specified pressure higher than service loads to test firearms barrels during
manufacture but before assembly, sometimes called blue pill.

Propellant - the chemical composition which when ignited by a primer, generates gas. The gas propels the projectile.
Also called powder, gunpowder, powder, or smokeless.

Propellant gases - the gases created by the burning powder that force the projectile from the gun.
Pump-action - is a rifle or shotgun in which the hand-grip can be pump back and forth in order to eject a spent round of
ammunition and to chamber a fresh one.
Rate of trust - the distance required for the rifling to complete one revolution.

Recoil - the backward movement of thrust  of a gun caused by the pressure of the propellant gases in the process of
pushing the projectile forward through the bore.

Recoil operation - an operating principle of automatic and semi-automatic firearms. When the weapon is fired, the
barrel and breechblock initially recoil together. After traveling a short distance, the barrel and breechblock unlock and
the breechblock continues to travel to the rear, extracting and ejecting the expended cartridge.

Reference collections - a collection of various types of firearms and ammunition used by the firearms examiner for the
purpose of test firing weapons for identification of ammunition and firearms.

Reload - a cartridge that has been reassembled with a new primer powder, projectile, or other components. Also, to
place fresh ammunition into the firearm.
Revolver - a type of pistol with a revolving cylinder in the breech chamber to hold several cartridges so that the revolver
may be fired in succession without reloading.

Ricochet - the deflection of a projectile after impact.

Rifle - a firearm having rifling in the bore and designed to be fired from the shoulder.

Rifle slug - a single projectile with spiral grooves and hollow base intended for use in shotguns. The theory of the
grooves is that after leaving the gun barrels muzzle, the slug will rotate and this reach its target much more accurately.

Rifling - is the process of making helical grooves in the barrel of a gun or firearm which imparts a spin to a projectile
around its long axis.

Rim - the flanged portion of the head of a rimfire cartridge, certain types of centerfire rifles and revolver cartridges and
shot-shells. The flanged portion is usually larger in diameter than the cartridge or shot-shells body diameter and
provides a projecting lip for the extractor to engage. In rimfire cartridge, the rim provides a cavity into which the priming
mixture is placed.

Rimfire - is a type of firearm cartridge. It is called a rimfire because instead of the firing pin of a gun striking the primer
cap at the center of the base of the cartridge to ignite it, the pin strikes the base's rim.
Sabot - a device that ensures the correct positioning of a bullet or shell in the barrel of a gun.
          - a device, “shoe" which enables a sub-caliber projectile to be fired in a larger caliber barrel.

Safety - a type of device that locks a weapon to prevent accidental discharge.

Seating lines - the circumferential striae parallel to the axis of the projectile generated on the surface of the bullet by
the cartridge case.

Semi-automatic/Self-loading firearm - is a weapon which perform all steps necessary to prepare the weapon to fire
again after firing assuming cartridges remain in the weapons feed device or magazine.
                                                               - a firearm that uses the forces of combustion to extract and eject a cartridge and to
chamber a new cartridge from the ammunition source with each pull of the trigger.
Shot - a spherical pellet used in loading shot-shells or cartridges.

Shot spread - the diameter of a shot pattern.

Shotgun - a smooth-bore shoulder firearm designed to fire shot-shells containing numerous pellets or sometimes a
single projectile.

Shot-shell - a cartridge containing projectile designed to be fired in a shotgun. The cartridge body maybe metal, plastic,
or paper.
Signatures - in forensic ballistics, represents the location of each feature and mark on an image from the bullet or
cartridge case. The acquired signatures can then be correlated with the IBIS correlation engine. These signatures which
are mathematical representations of the images are sent along with compressed images and demographics to a server
for correlation.

Silencer - a tubular device attached to the muzzle of a firearm to reduce the sound of the report.

Single-action - a type of revolver that needs to be cocked before each shot by pulling back the hammer. Requires the
firing mechanism (hammer or firing pin) to be cocked before pressure on the trigger will release the mechanism.

Skeet shooting - is a recreational and competitive activity where the participants, using shotguns attempt to break clay
discs automatically flung in the air from two fixed stations at high speed from a variety of angles.

Skid marks (slippage marks) - rifling marks formed on the bearing surface of bullets as they enter the rifling of the barrel
before rotation of the bullets starts. Skid marks are typically produced by revolvers and have the appearance of a
widening of the land impression at their beginning point.

Slippage - mark on the surface of a fired bullet made when the bullet slides along the tops of the lands on the riflings.
Slippage marks appear when the rifling is worn or when a sub-caliber bullet is fired.

Slug - is a heavy lead projectile that may have pre-cut rifling intended for use in a shotgun and often used for hunting
large game.
        - a term applied to a single projectile for shot-shells.

Smokeless powder - propellant composed of nitrocellulose (single-base powders) or nitrocellulose plus nitroglycerine
(double-base powders) Smokeless powders contain additives that increase shell life and enhance performance. They are
made in variety of shapes (rods, perforated rods,
spheres, disks, perforated disks, and flakes.

Smooth-bore - is one in which the gun barrel or bore is without a rifling.

Sporting clays - is a form of clay pigeon shooting often describe as a golf with a shotgun because a typical course
includes from 10 to 15 different shooting stations laid out over natural terrain.

Stabilizer - additive to smokeless powder that reacts with acidic breakdown products of nitrocellulose and
nitroglycerine. Diphenylamine and ethyl centralite are common stabilizers.

Stippling - disposition of fragments of gunshot powder residue into the skin as the result of a gunshot wound of
relatively close range.
Striae - in firearms/tool marks - these are lines or grooves in an object that are characteristics of the object that
produced them and are the basis for an identification.
Sulfur - a non-metallic yellow element. A constituent of blackpowder, burns easily when in powder form.
Tattooing - a characteristic pattern in the skin caused by particles of unburned and partially burned powder from a gun
blast at very close range. Also called stippling.

Test bullet - a bullet fired into a bullet recovery system in a laboratory for comparison or analysis.

Test cartridge case - a cartridge case obtained while test-firing a firearm in a laboratory that is to be used for
comparison or analysis.

Test firing - the term used to designate the actual firing of a firearm in a laboratory to obtain representative bullet and
cartridge case for comparison or analysis. Also used to test the functionality of a firearm.

TNT (trinitrotoluene) - a high explosive used as a component of some priming mixture.

Tracer bullet - a bullet that contains a pyrotechnic component ignited by the powder charge burn, leaving a visible trail
of the flight path.

Trailing edge - the edge of a land or groove impression in a fired bullet that is opposite to the driving edge of that same
land or groove impression. Also called the "following edge" when used in conjunction with the term leading edge.

Trajectory - the path of a projectile after leaving the muzzle of a firearm.

Trap shooting - is a shotgun shooting activity in which the gunner shoots at clay target discs launch single or doubly from
one location but at various angle into the range field.

Trigger guard - a protective device consisting of a curved framework surrounding the trigger.

Trigger pull - amount of force applied to the trigger of a firearm to cause it to discharge.

Trigger pull gauge - the mechanism used to release the firing pin of a firearm by applying pressure using a finger.
                           - instrument used to measure the needed amount of force to be applied to the trigger of a firearm to
cause it to fire.
Twist of rifling - inclination of the spiral grooves to the axis of the bore of a weapon; it is expressed as the  number of
calibers of length in which the rifling makes one complete turn.
Velocity - the speed of a projectile at a given point along its trajectory.
Wad, base - a cylindrical component that is assembled into the head end of a shot-shell.

Wad, shot protector - various designs of shot cups made of plastic and designed to reduce pellet deformation during
barrel travel.
Walker test - the original chemical test for the detection of the spatial distribution of nitrates in gunpowder residue.
Yaw - the angle between the longitudinal axis of a projectile and a line tangent to the trajectory at the center of gravity
of the projectile.

Yaw angle - angle between the axis of a bullet  and its trajectory.

Zwilling - European term for a double-barreled shoulder arm with one rifled barrel and one smooth-bored barrel.
 Question Document

Questioned Document - is any signature, handwriting, typewriting, or other mark whose source or authenticity is in
dispute or doubtful.

Graphology - study of the handwriting to determine personality traits.

Simulation - an attempt to disguise one's handwriting or copy someone Else's.

The following trait are considered in handwriting analysis:

1. letter form which includes curve, connections, slants, size, and angle.
2. line quality which indicated the amount of pressure used by the author.
3. Arrangement which refers to spacing, formatting and alignment.

Characteristics which indicate that a handwriting sample has been forge.

1. shaky lines
2. dark, thick starts and finish
3. numerous pen lifts
 But they may also be the result of nervousness, alcohol impairment or other factors.
 The content of what a person writes is analyzed by handwriting expert. Grammatical, style, punctuation and
word choice are included in the analysis of handwriting.
 The speed or how fast a person write is not considered in handwriting analysis though speed may affect their
formatting and letter and line forms.

Calligraphy - decorative handwriting or handwritten lettering. The art of producing decorative handwriting or lettering
with a pen or brush. From Greek "Kallos"-beauty and "Graphe"-writing.

Three Stages in the Process of Handwriting Examinations

1. Analysis - the questioned and the known items are analyzed and broken down to directly perceptible characteristics.
2. Comparison - the characteristics of the questioned item are then compared against the known standard.
3. Evaluation - similarities and differences in the compared properties are evaluated and this determines which ones are
valuable for a conclusion. This depends on the uniqueness and frequency of occurrence in the items.

Handwriting Exemplar - known standards - is a piece of writing that can be examined forensically as in a handwriting
comparison.

Two Types of Handwriting Exemplars

1. Request Writings - obtained from individual specifically for the purpose of conducting a handwriting comparison.
2. Collected Writings - samples the individual produced for some other unrelated reason generally in the course of their
day-to-day activities.

Common Questioned Documents

1. Forgery
2. Counterfeiting
3. Mail Fraud
4. Kidnapping
5. embezzlement
6. Theft
7. Robbery
8. Sex Crime
9. Murder
10.Homicide

Historical Dating - work involving the verification of age and worth of a document or object.

Indicators of Forgery
1. Blunt starts and stops
2. Pen lifts and hesitations
3. Tremor
4. Speed and Pressure
5. Patching

Definition of Terms

Alignment defect - characters that write improperly in the following respect: a twisted letter, horizontal misalignment,
vertical misalignment, or a character "off its feet" these defects can be corrected by special adjustments to the type bar
and type block of a type bar machine.

Allograph - a writing or signature made by one person for another or a style (block capital, print script, or cursive form)
of one of the 26 graphemes of the English alphabet or of the ligatures or other symbols that accompany it.

Altered document - a document that contains a change either as an addition or a deletion.

Ample letter - that which encompasses more than the standard inner space in a given letter. Characterized by
fulsomeness and expanded ovals and loops.

Archive - collection of documents and records purposely stored for a defined period of time.

Assisted writing - the result of a guided hand, produced by the cooperation of the two minds and two hands of two
persons.

Ball point pen - a writing instrument having as its marking tip a small, freely rotating ball bearing that rolls the ink into
the paper. Many of these pens use highly viscous, non-aqueous ink but in recent years construction of some pens have
been adopted to use water-based inks.

Baseline - the ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.

Big Floyd - the FBI supercomputer that contains software allowing it to search criminal records and draw conclusions
from the available information in the hunt for those responsible for an individual crime.

Bindle paper - clean paper folded  used to contain trace evidence, sometimes included as part of the packaging for
collecting trace evidence. Most of the time, white paper is used and has the consistency of butcher paper, the paper
used in deli markets.

Bitmap - a mosaic of dots or pixels defining an image, including dot matrix imprints. The smoothness of the image
contour depends upon the fineness of resolution and the number of dots or pixels per inch.
Blobbing - the accumulation of ink on the exterior of the point assembly of a ball-point pen that drops intermittently to
the surface being written upon.

Blunt ending - the effect produces on commencement and terminal strokes of letters, both upper and lower case, by the
application of the writing instrument to the paper prior to the beginning of any horizontal movement.

Boat - a dish-shape figure consisting of a concave stroke and a straight line sometimes forming the base of letters.

Body - that portion of a letter, the central part that remains when the upper and lower projections, the terminal and
initial strokes  and diacritics are omitted.

Boustrophedun - writing in which alternate lines are written in opposite directions and even have the posture as well as
the direction of reversal letters.

Bow - a vertical curve stroke as in capitals D and C.

Braille - a system of representing letter, numerals etc. by raised dots that a visually impaired person can read by touch.

Burring - a division of a written line into two or more, more or less equal portions by a non-linked area generally running
parallel to the direction of line generation but moving away from the radius of a curving stroke. Sometimes referred to
as splitting.

Carbon copy - a copy of a typewritten document made by means of carbon paper. An exact replica; duplicate.

Carbon ink - (India ink) one of the oldest form of writing ink commonly referred to as India ink even though the ink was
first used in China. In its simplest form carbon ink consists of amorphous carbon shaped into a solid cake with glue. It is
converted into a liquid for writing by grinding the cake and suspending the articles in a water-glue medium. Occasionally,
a pigmented dye is added to improve the color.

Case file - a collection of documents comprising information concerning a particular investigation.

Case records - all notes, reports, custody records, charts, analytical data, and any correspondence generated in the
laboratory pertaining to a particular case.

Character - any typed or handwritten mark, sign or insignia, abbreviation, punctuation mark, letter, or numeral whether
legible, blurred or indistinct.

Charred document - a document that has become blackened and brittle through burning or through exposure to
excessive heat.

Class characteristics - not all characteristics encountered in document examination are peculiar to single person or thing
and one that is common to a group may be described as a class characteristic.Traits that define a group of items
collectively.

Clogged (dirty) typeface - over prolonged use, the typeface becomes filled with lint, dirt, and ink particularly in letters
with closed loops such as p and g.If these condition is allowed to continue without cleaning, the printed impression will
actually print with the clogged areas shaded or solid black.

Cloth ribbon - a type of ribbon used in some models of typewriter.

Collected standards - a sample of writing made during the normal course of business or social activity not necessarily
related to the matter in dispute.
Conjoined letters - two letters that have been written in the common manner such that the terminal stroke of the first is
the initial stroke of the second.

Connecting stroke - an expression commonly used to refer to the fusion of the terminal stroke of one lower case cursive
letter and the initial stroke of another having no identifiable or describable entity of its own.

Connection subtypes

 Supported - the body of the letter rests against or retraces the stem.
 Looped - the initial stroke forms a loop with the stem of the letter.
 Unsupported - the body of the letter does not follow or retrace the stem.

Contraction - a form of word abbreviation wherein one or more letters are omitted.

Cursive - a form of continuous writing in which letters are connected to one another and designed according to some
commercial system; the most common allograph of a grapheme.

Decipher - to determine the meaning of, as hieroglyphics or illegible writing, or to translate from cipher into ordinary
characters, or to determine the meaning of anything obscure.

Defect - any abnormality of maladjustment in a typewriter that is reflected in its work and leads to its individualization
or identification.

Diacritical mark or point - a sign added to a letter or symbol to give it a particular phonetic value. An accent. Sometimes
used to refer to the dots over the letter i and J.

Didot system - a typographic measuring system used in Europe and based on the didot point, similar to the U.S., English
Pica system.

Digraph - a group of two successive letters  representing a single sound or a complex sound that is not a combination of
the sounds ordinarily represented by each in another occurrence. ex. ph in digraph and ch in chin.

Diphthong - the combination of two vowels in succession, the sound of which begins with one and ends with the other.
ex. Oil, boy, out.

Disguised writing - a deliberate attempt to alter handwriting in hopes of hiding one's identity.

Disputed document - a term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over a document. Disputed document
and Questioned document can be used interchangeably to signify a document that is under special scrutiny.

Document - any material that contains marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible, or invisible that may
ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone.

Document examiner - an individual who scientifically studies the details and elements of documents in order to identify
their source or to discover other facts concerning them. Documents examiners are often referred to as handwriting
identification experts.

Documentation - written notes, audio/video tapes, printed forms, sketches, or photographs that form a detailed record
of the scene, evidence recovered, and actions taken during the search of the crime scene.

Erasure - the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from a document. It may be accomplished by either of two
means, a chemical eradication in which the writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (liquid ink eradicator,
abrasive erasure in which the writing is effaced by rubbing with a rubber eraser) or scratching out with a knife.

Exemplar - a specimen of an identified source acquired for the purpose of comparison with an evidence sample. An
example of a person's writing, a standard for use in comparisons, a collected or a request specimen.

Facsimile - an image of printed matter that has been transmitted electronically.

Fiber-tip pen - (porous-tip pen) a modern writing instrument in which the marking element or point consists of a porous
material through which the ink can flow.

Flow-back - an increase in the density of an ink line caused by the run of excess ink along the finish of a stroke, occurring
when the pen is lifted from the paper.

Fluctuation - alternating changes of direction, positions, or conditions (ex. alternating acceleration and deceleration of
writing speed) or alternating expansion and contraction of the writing pattern.

Fluency - freedom and other like terms, referring to a generally higher grade of line quality that is smooth, consistent,
and without any evidence or tremor or erratic changes in direction of pen pressure.

Flying finish - the diminishing taper of a terminal stroke when the motion of the instrument does not stop at the
completion of a word.

Flying start - the growing taper of an initial stroke or the delicate initial hook that appears where the motion of the
instrument precedes actual writing.

Font - a complete set or collection of letters, figures, symbols, punctuation marks, and special characters that are of the
same design and size for a particular typeface.

Forced hand - a person's signature or writing executed while the hand was under the physical compulsion or control of
another person.

Forgery - (free hand imitation) a legal term that involves not only a non-genuine signature or document but also intent
on the part of its "marker" to defraud.

Fountain pen - a modern nib pen containing a reservoir of ink in a specially designed chamber or cartridge.After
complete filling, the pen maybe used to write a number of pages without refilling.

Fraudulent signature - a forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as signature by someone other than the
person without his/her permission, often with some degree of imitation.

Freehand simulation - a fraudulent signature that is produced by copying or imitating the style and size of genuine
signature without the use of physical aids or involving a tracing process.

Gooping - the accumulation of excessive amount of ink on the exterior of the point assembly of a ball-point pen as a
result of the rotation of the ball, usually transferred to the paper surface immediately after the direction of rotation is
substantially changed.

Graphoanalysis - a registered trade name that identifies the system of handwriting analysis taught by the international
graphoanalysis society inc.

Graphology - the art of attempting to interpret the character of personality of an individual from his handwriting, also
called grapho-analysis.
Graphometry - a method of characterizing a handwriting by measurement of the proportionate values of the angle and
ratio of the heights and widths of letters.

Graphonomics - the study of the science and technology of handwriting and other graphic skills (coined in 1982) or the
scientific study concerned with the systematic relationship involved in the generation and analysis of writing and
drawing movements and the resulting traces of writing and drawing instruments either on conventional media such as
paper and blackboard or on electronic equipment.

Guided-hand signature - a signature that is executed while the writer's hand or arm is steadied in any way, also known
as assisted signature. Assisted signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or in deathbed.
 
Habit - a persistently repeated element or detail of writing that occurs when the opportunity allows.

Hand lettering - (hand printing) any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately.

Haplography - the unintentional omission in writing or copying of one or more adjacent and similar letters, syllables,
words, or lines.

Hiatus - a gap in writing stroke of a letter formed when the instrument leaves the paper. An opening, an interruption in
the continuity of a line.

Holographic document - any document completely written and signed by one person.

Indented writing - writing impressed into the surface of a page of paper of pressure exerted upon the writing
instrument when used on a previous page.

Inert hand - an execution of writing in which the person holding the writing instrument exercises no motor activity
whatsoever, conscious or unconscious. The guide leads the writing instrument through the medium of the hand of the
first person. The writer may be feeble or a complete illiterate.

Infrared examination - the examination of documents employing invisible radiation beyond the red portion of the visible
spectrum. Infrared radiation can be recorded on specially sensitized photographic emulsions or it can be converted by
means of an electronic viewing device into visible light for an on the scene study of the evidence.

Infrared luminescence - a phenomenon encountered with some dyes used in inks and colored pencils that when
illuminated with a narrow band of light in the blue-green portion of the spectrum give off luminescence that can be
detected in the far red or near infrared range. The technique is useful in distinguishing between certain inks and colored
pencils and in detecting or deciphering erasures.

Ink eradicator - a chemical solution capable of bleaching ink.

Inorganic pigment - a natural or synthetic metal oxide, sulfide or other salt used as a coloring agent for paints, plastics,
and inks.

Insertion - the addition of writing and other material within a document such as between lines and paragraphs or the
addition of whole pages to a document.

Interlineation - the act of inserting writing or typewriting between two lines of writing.

Iron-gallotannate ink - this ink is found in fountain pens, was used as early as the 8th century and with substantial
improvement, is still in use today.

Joint or Juncture - the point or position at which two or more strokes meet within a letter.
Kerning - the spacing of two letters closer together than customary when their designs leave too much intercharacter
white space.

Known standard - a specimen of an identified source acquired for the purpose of comparison with an evidence sample,
synonymous with exemplar.
Lateral expansion - the horizontal dimension of writing produced by the width of letters, the space between letters and
words, and the width of margins.

Lateral writing - writing characterized by wide letters and spacing.

Left-handed curve - a stroke that is made in a counterclockwise direction.

Left-handed or wrong-handed writing - any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally used.
Sometimes referred to as "writing with the awkward hand" it is an attempt to disguise handwriting.

Legibility - the ease with which a reader recognizes individual letter and character shapes.

Letter - any drawn, written, printed, or typed character, lower case or uppercase that can be recognized as an allograph
of the alphabet of any language.

Lexical - pertaining or related to the words of a language.

Ligature - a group of connected characters treated typographically as a single character, sometimes a stroke or bar
connecting two letters.

Line quality - appearance of a written stroke determined by a combination of factors such as speed, shading, pen
position, and skill, ranges from smooth and legible to tremulous and awkward.

Machine defect - any defect in typewriting resulting from the malfunctioning of the machine rather than the typebar or
type element.

Manual typewriter - a machine whose operation depends solely upon the mechanical action set in motion by striking a
letter or character key.

Manuscript writing - a disconnected form of script or semi-script writing. This type of writing is taught to young children
in elementary schools as the first step in learning how to write.

Mirror writing - writing that runs in the opposite direction to the normal pattern, starts on the right side of the page and
proceeds from right to left with reversed order in spelling and turning of the letter images.

Moire - the impression with which the habits of the writer are executed on repeated occasions or the divergence of one
execution from another in an element of an individual's writing that occurs invariably  in the graph but may also occur in
the choice of the allograph or normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of any individual's
handwriting or in the product of any typewriter or other record making machine.

Movement - an important element in handwriting. It embraces all the factors related to the motion of the writing
instrument, skills, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremor, and the like. The manner in which the writing
instrument in moved.

Natural writing - any specimen of writing executed normally without an attempt to control or alter its identifying habits
and its usual quality of execution. It is the typical writing of an individual.

Nonaqueous ink - ink in which the pigment or dye is carried in any vehicle other than water. Inks of this class are found
in ball-point pens, typewriter ribbons, and stamp pads and are widely used in the printing industry.

Nodule - a small, rounded mass or lump of ink caused by an excessive deposit, the result of gooping in some ball-point
pens.

Nonce word - a word coined to fit a special situation.

Notes - the documentation of procedures, standard, controls and instruments used, observation made, results of test
performed, charts, graphs, photos, and other documents generated that are used to support the examiner's conclusion.

Oblique lighting examination - an examination with the illumination so controlled that it grazes or strikes the surface of
the document from one side at a very low angle, also referred to as side light examination.

Orthography - the principles by which the alphabet is set into correspondence with the speech sounds.The art of
spelling.

Patching - retouching or going back over a defective portion of a writing stroke.Careful patching is a common defect in
forgeries.

Pen - any writing instrument used to apply ink to the paper.

Pen lift - an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.

Pen position - the relationship between the pen point and the paper.Specifically, the angle between the nib of the pen
and the line of writing and between the pen point and the paper surface are the elements of pen position.

Pencil - a writing instrument in which the marking position consists of a compressed stick of graphite or colored marking
substance usually  mixed with clays and waxes.

Pencil grade - a qualitative description of the hardness or softness of a pencil.

Pencil lead - not really lead but a mixture of various types of waxes, clays, graphite, and carbon.

Permanent defect - any identifying characteristic of a typewriter that can not be corrected by simply cleaning the
typeface or replacing the ribbon.

Pica - a unit of measure of printer's type approximately1/6 in. or 12 points, typically used for vertical measurement. Also
a term used to denote conventional monotone typewriter typeface that has a fixed character width of 10 to the inch.

Point - the basic typographic unit of measurement of fonts, line spacing, rules, and borders, there are 12 points to a pica
and 72 points to the inch, typically used for vertical dimensions.

Pressure - the amount of force exerted on the point of the writing instrument, technically termed point load.

Proportional-spacing typewriter - a modern form of typewriting resembling printing in hat letters, numerals, and
symbols do not occupy the same horizontal space as they do with a conventional typewriter.

Questioned document - any document about which some issue has been raised or that is under scrutiny.

Reference collection - collections of typewriting, check-writer specimens, inks, pens, pencils, paper, etc., compiled and
organized by the document examiner as standards of the products.

Request standards - writing samples written at the request of another person.

Restoration - any processed in which erased writing is developed or brought out again on the document itself.

Retouching - going back over a written line to correct a defect or improve its appearance, synonymous with patching.

Retracing - any stroke that goes back over another writing stroke. In natural handwriting there may be many instances in
which the pen doubles back over the same course but some retracing in fraudulent signatures represents a reworking of
a letter form or stroke.

Rhythm - the element of the writing movement marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It may be classed as smooth,
intermittent, or jerky in its quality.

Ribbon condition - cloth or multiple-use typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the degree of
deterioration is a measure of the ribbon condition.

Ribbon impression - typewriting made directly through a cloth or carbon film ribbon. Original typewriting is made in this
way.

River - gaps in the writing or printing pattern that form a straggling white stream down the page.

Roller pen - a type of ball-point pen that uses aqueous ink.

Script - handwriting as distinguished from printing or lettering, cursive writing.

Secret ink - a material used for writing that is not visible until treated by a  developing process, also referred to as
sympathetic ink.

Sequence of strokes - the order in which writing  strokes are placed on the paper.

Serrations - roughness along the edges on an ink line seen under a microscope.

Shading - a widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or to the use of the stub pen.

Signatory - a signer with another or others. A person whose name is being inscribe on a document who requires
assistance in doing so.

Signature - the name of a person or mark representing it as written by himself/herself.

Significant writing habit - any characteristic of handwriting that is sufficiently uncommon and well fixed to serve as a
fundamental point in the identification.

Single-element typewriter - typewriters using either a type ball or type wheel printing device>The IBM selectric machine
was the first modern typewriter of the group.

Skill - evidence of the writer's proficiency.

Slant - the angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline.

Smeared-over writing - an obliteration accomplished by covering the original writing with an opaque substance.

Spiral - that portion of a letter executing a spiral formation, popular designs of commencement and termination in older
styles of writings.

Splicing - a term used by document examiners to denote the slight overlapping of two strokes after an interruption in
the writing. It may be part of imitated, fraudulent signatures that are prepared one or two letters at a time.

Splitting - the division of an ink line into two or more, ,ore or less equal portions by a non inked area running generally
parallel to the direction of the stroke, sometimes called burring.

Spurious signature - a fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt at simulation or imitation. It is
common form of forgeries encountered in investigations of fraudulent checks where the person passing the checks
depends on the surrounding circumstances rather than upon the quality of the signature for his success.

Synthetic dye inks - any ink consisting simply of a dye dissolved in water together with the necessary preservatives.

Traced forgery - any fraudulent signature executed by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a
writing instrument.

Transitory defect - an identifying typewriter characteristic that can be eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing
the ribbon. Clogged typefaces are the most common defects of this class.

Trash mark - mark left on a finished copy during photocopying, results from imperfections or dirt on the cover glass,
cover sheet, drum, or camera lens of a photocopy machine.

Tremor - lack of smoothness due to lack of skill, consciousness of the writing act, deliberate control of the instrument in
copying or tracing or an involuntary, roughly rhythmic, and sinusoidal movement. Wavy back and forth movement on a
written line.

Twisted letter - each character is designed to print at a certain fixed angle to the base line. Wear and damage to the
type bar and the type block may cause some letters to become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their
correct slant.

Type ball - a device containing a complete set of typeface of some single-element typewriters.

Typeface - the printing surface of the type block or type element. The name of a particular design of printed characters
and symbols.

Typeface defect - any peculiarity in typewriting resulting from actual damage to the typeface metal.

Typewriting system - typewriting device consisting of a machine, ribbon, and font.

Versal letter - those that mark important parts of the text, used for headings and words written at the beginning of
books or chapters, often distinguished by size, color, and ornamentation which tends towards curves and flourishes.

Watermark - a translucent design impressed in certain papers during the course of their manufacture. This is
accomplished by passing a wet map of fibers across a dandy roll, which is a metal cylinder containing patches of specific
pattern designs. The design patches are generally of two types, wire or screen.

Whirl - the curving upstroke usually of letters that have long loops but also on some styles of the capital "W".

Wrong-handed writing - any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally used, often referred to as
writing with the awkward hand.

Xerox - a positive photocopy made directly on plain paper.

Z-twist – a right-handed yarn twist in which the spiral slants like the middle part of the letter “Z”.
 Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology

Forensic chemistry - is the application of chemistry to criminal investigation. Focuses on the chemical analysis of
substances connected to a crime.

Forensic Science - is the use of science and technology to enforce civil and criminal laws.

Blood - a specialized body fluid that circulates in the arteries and veins of vertebrate animals, carrying oxygen to and
carbon dioxide from the tissues.

Semen - the male reproductive fluid containing spermatozoa in suspension.

Moulage - is the art of applying mock injuries for the purpose of training emergency response teams and other medical
and military personnel.

Methods of Identifying Unknown Substance

  1. Gas Chromatograph-Mass Spectrometer – useful method for the simultaneous separation, identification, and
quantization of one or more individual components of an unknown substance or mixture.

  2. Spectroscopy - is the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy.

Spectrophotometer - instrument used to aide in the identification of compound.

Gas Chromatograph - a chemical analyzer and instrument for separating chemicals in a complex sample.

Mass Spectrometry - is the analytical technique that measures the mass to charge ratio of charged particles. It is used
for determining masses of particles.

Amino Acid - the building blocks of protein coded by triplets of bases of DNA blue print.

Ammonia - a colorless gaseous alkaline compound that is very soluble in water, has characteristics of pungent odor, is
lighter than air and is formed as a result of the  decomposition of most nitrogenous organic material such as tissue from
dead bodies.

Anemia - any condition in which the number of red blood cells, the amount of hemoglobin and the volume of packed
red blood cells per 100 ml of blood are less than normal. It may result from increased destruction of red cells, excessive
blood loss or decreased production of red cells.

Aplasia - failure of an organ or tissue to develop normally.

Autolysis - the destruction of cells after death due to lack of ability to metabolize oxygen needed by enzymes for cell
activity.

Hair - any of the fine threadlike strands growing from the skin of humans, mammals, and some other animals.

What are the 3 stages of hair growth?

1. Anagen phase - the growth phase. It begins in the papilla and can last up to 8 years. The span at which the hair
remains in this stage is determined by genetics. The longer the hair stays in the anagen phase, the faster and longer it
will grow. About 85% of the hair on one's head are in this stage at any given time. The hair has a follicular tag. The root
bulb is flamed shaped.

2. Catagen Phase - also known as the transitional phase, allows the follicle to renew itself. During this time which last
about 2 weeks, the hair follicle shrinks due to disintegration and the papilla detaches and rests, cutting the hair strand
off from its nourishing blood supply while hair is not growing during this phase. The length of the terminal fibers
increases when the follicle pushes them upward. The root is elongated.

3. Telogen phase - or resting phase, the hair and follicle remain dormant anywhere from 1 to 4 months,10% to 15% of
the hairs in one's head are in these phases in any given time. The anagen phase begins again when this phase is
complete. The root is club shaped.

Shedding - the process of normal hair loss.

Alopecia - a hair loss disease that causes the hair to spontaneously fall out. It is mainly characterized by bald patches on
the scalp or other parts of the body and can ultimately cause baldness across the entire body.

Medulla - inner most layer of the hair shaft.

From which part of the body are most often used for hair comparison? Either head or pubic.

How to determine the likely race of the person from which a hair originated?
1. Caucasian - evenly distributed, fine pigmentation. Wavy with round cross section.
2. Mongoloid - continuous medullation.
3. Negroid - dense, uneven pigmentation.

Rate of speed of hair growth - 1.25 cm or .05 inches per month or about 6 inches or 15 cm. per year.

What aspect of the hair is the criminalist interested in matching?

1. Matching color
2. Length
3. Diameter
4. Presence or absence of medulla
5. Distribution, shape, and color intensity of the pigment granules in the cortex.

What types of evidence found at the crime scene are most likely to provide evidence? Forcible removed hair is most
likely to provide useful DNA evidence because they often bear follicular tags that are sources of nuclear DNA.

Hair from different parts of the body vary significantly in its physical characteristics.

Forensic Toxicology - deals with the medical and legal aspects of the harmful effects of chemicals on human beings.

Forensic - comes from the Latin word "forensis" meaning forum.

Toxicology - from the Greek word toxicos - "poisonous" and "logos".

                   - it is the study of the symptoms, mechanisms and treatments and
                     detection of poisoning.

Poison - a substance that when introduced into or absorbed by a living organism causes death or injury.

Toxin - an antigenic poison or venom of plant or animal origin especially one produced by or derived from
microorganisms and causing disease when present at low concentration in the body.
         - poisonous substance produced during the metabolism and growth of certain micro organism and some higher
plant and animal species.

Venom - poisonous fluid secreted by animals and typically injected into prey by biting or stinging or other sharp body
feature.
Acute Poisoning - is exposure to poison on one occasion or during a short period of time.

Chronic Poisoning - is long term repeated or continuous exposure to a poison where symptoms do not occur
immediately or after each exposure.

Antidote - a medicine taken or given to counter act a particular poison.

               - a substance which can counteract poisoning.

Mathieu Orfila - is considered to be the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment
in 1813 in his "traite des poisons" also called toxicologie generali.

Dioscorides - a Greek physician in the court of Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify plants according
to their toxic and therapeutic effect.

Jean Stas - a Belgian analytical chemist who in 1850 gave the evidence that the Belgian count Hypolite Visart de
Bocarme killed his brother in law by poisoning with nicotine.

Celsus - a roman physician from the first century, considered the father of toxicology. He is credited with the toxicology
maxim "all things are poison, and nothing is without poison. This is often condensed to "the dose makes the poison" or
in latin "sola dosis facit venenum".

Paracelsus - "Theophrastus Phillipus Aureleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-1541) - believe that his studies were
above and beyond the work of Celsus.

LD50 - is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after a specified test duration.

Dose - a quantity of medicine or drug taken or recommended to be taken at a particular time.

Overdose - the ingestion or application of a drug or other substance in quantities greater than are recommended.

Carcinogen - any substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue.

Corrosive substance - is one that will destroy or irreversibly damage another surface or substance with which it comes
into contact.
 Law Enforcement Administration

Law Enforcement Administration - the process involved in ensuring strict compliance, proper obedience of laws and
related statutes. Focuses on the policing process  or how law enforcement agencies are organized and manage in order
to achieve the goals of law enforcement most effectively, efficiently and productively.

Law - the system of rules that a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members and
may enforce by the imposition of penalties.

Enforcement - means to compel obedience to a law, regulation or command.

Administration - an organizational process concerned with the implementation of objectives and plans and internal
operating efficiency. Connotes bureaucratic structure and behavior, relative routine decision-making and maintenance
of the internal order.

Sir Robert Peel - considered a "Father of Law Enforcement".

Sir Robert Peels Nine Principles of Policing

1. The basic mission for which the police exist is to prevent crime and disorder.

2. The ability of the police to perform their duties is dependent upon public approval of police actions.

3. Police must secure the willing cooperation of the public in voluntary observance of the law to be able to secure and
maintain the respect of the public.
  
4. The degree of cooperation of the public that can be secured diminishes proportionally to the necessity of the use of
force.

5. Police seek and preserve public favor not by catering to public opinion but by constantly demonstrating absolute
impartial service to the law.
 
6. Police use physical force to the extent necessary to secure observance of the law or to restore order only when
    the expertise of persuasion, advice and warning is found to be insufficient.

7. Police at all times should maintain a relationship with the public that gives reality to the historic tradition; the police
are the public and the public are the police. The police being only full-time individuals charged with the duties that are
incumbent on all of the citizens.

8. Police should always direct their actions strictly towards their functions and never appear to usurp the powers of the
judiciary.

9. The test of police efficiency is the absence of crime and disorder not the visible evidence of police action in  dealing
with it.
 Administration of Police Organization

Police - one of the pillars of the criminal justice system that has the specific responsibility of maintaining law and order
and combating crime within the society.
         - comes from Latin "politia"-civil administration which itself derives from the ancient Greek police "city"

Administration - an organizational process concerned with the implementation of objectives and plans and internal
operating efficiency.

Organization - a group of persons working together for a common goal or objectives.

Police Organization - a group of trained personnel in the field of public safety administration engaged in the
achievement of goals and objectives that promotes the maintenance of peace and order, protection of life and property,
enforcement of the laws and the prevention of crimes.

Enforcement - means to compel obedience to a law, regulation or command.

Law Enforcement Agency - pertains to an organization responsible for enforcing the laws.

Objectives - refer to the purpose by which the organization was created. Refer to the goals of the organization.

Supervision - means the act of watching over the work or tasks of the members of the organization to ensure that
desired results are achieved.

Management - the process of directing and facilitating the work of people organized in formal groups in order to achieve
objectives. Judicious or wise use of resources (manpower, material, money, equipment,
supplies and time).

Hierarchy - represents the formal relationship among superiors and subordinates in any given organization. Serves as
the framework for the flow of authority downward and obedience upward, through the department.

Authority - the right to command and control the behavior of employees in lower positions within an organizational
hierarchy. Must be viewed in terms of prescribed roles rather than of individuals.

A particular position within the organization. Carries the same regardless of who occupies that position.

Management/Administrative Functions
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Directing
4. Controlling
5. Staffing
6. Reporting
7. Budgeting

Principles of efficient Management

* Division of work - work specialization can increase efficiency with the same amount of effort.

* Authority and Responsibility- authority  includes the right to command and the power to require obedience. One
cannot have authority without responsibility.

* Discipline - necessary for an organization to function effectively, however, the state of the disciplinary process
depends upon the quality of its leaders.

* Unity of Command - subordinate should receive orders from one superior only.

* Scalar Chain - the hierarchy of authority is the order of ranks from the highest to the lowest levels of the organization.
Shows the vertical hierarchy of the organization which defines an unbroken chain of units from top to bottom describing
explicitly the flow of authority.

Organizational Units in the Police Organization

1. Functional Units
   
Bureau - the largest organic functional unit within a large department; comprised of several divisions.

Division - a primary subdivision of a bureau.

Section - functional unit within a division that is necessary for specialization.

Unit - functional group within a section or the smallest functional group within an organization.

2. Territorial Units

Post - a fixed point or location to which an officer is assigned for duty.

Route - a length of streets designated for patrol purpose, also called line beat.

Beat - an area designed for patrol purposes whether foot or motorized.

Sector - an area containing two or more beat, route or post.

District - a geographical subdivision of a city for patrol purposes, usually with its own station.
 
Area - a section or territorial division of a large city each comprised of designated districts.

EVOLUTION OF THE POLICING SYSTEM

ORIGIN OF THE WORD “POLICE”

POLITEIA – Greek word which means “government of the city”

POLITIA – Roman word which means “condition of the state or government”

POLICE – French word which was later adopted by the English language

THEORIES OF POLICE SERVICE

1.  HOME RULE THEORY
    - policemen are regarded as servants of the community, who rely for the efficiency of their functions upon the express
needs of the people.
    - policemen are civil servants whose key duty is the preservation of public peace and security.
   
2. CONTINENTAL THEORY
    - policemen are regarded as state or servants of the higher authorities
    - the people have no share or have little participation with the duties nor connection with the police organization.
CONCEPTS OF POLICE SERVICE

1. OLD CONCEPT
    - police service gives the impression of being merely a suppressive machinery
    - this philosophy advocates that the measurement of police competence is the increasing number of arrests, throwing
offenders in detention facilities rather than trying to prevent them from committing crimes.

2. MODERN CONCEPT
    - regards police as the first line of defense of the criminal justice system, an organ of crime prevention
    - police efficiency is measured by the decreasing number of crimes
    - broadens police activities to cater to social services and has for its mission the welfare of the individual as well as
that of the community in general.

EARLY POLICING SYSTEM

1. KIN POLICING
    - the family of the offended individual was expected to assume responsibility for justice
    - the family of the victim was allowed to exact vengeance

2. EGYPT
    - ancient rulers had elite unit to protect them
    - created the MEDJAYS, a form of police force whose duties include guarding of the tombs and apprehending thieves
    - introduced the use of dogs as guards and protectors.

3. ROME
    - created the first organized police force called VIGILES OF ROME, or VIGILES URBANI (watchmen of the
    city), which had the primary task of firefighting and policing
    - the Vigiles acted as night watch, apprehending thieves, keeping an eye out for burglars and hunting down runaway
slaves, and were on occasion used to maintain order in the streets
    - the Vigiles dealt primarily with petty crimes and looked for disturbances of the peace while they patrolled the streets
    - created a special unit called PRAETORIAN GUARDS, a special force of guards used by Roman Emperors as the
Emperors' personal guards
    - as personal guards of the Emperor, their primary duty was to protect the Emperor from assassination and other
forms of attack against the Emperor.

4. ENGLAND

    a) FRANKPLEDGE SYSTEM/MUTUAL PLEDGE SYSTEM

    - required all males aged 12 and above to join a group of nine to form a TYTHING
    - members of the tithing are called a TYTHINGMEN
    - a CONSTABLE served as a leader of ten tithings
    - the primary task of the things was to protect their village from thieves and animals
    - tithings were later organized into SHIRES
    - a shire was headed by a leader called SHIRE REEVE, which is the origin of the word “sheriff”
    - their duty was to apprehend offenders

    b) PARISH CONSTABLES

    - a parish official charged with controlling crimes
    - appointed to serve for one year
    - duties included organizing watchmen to guard the gates
    - during trouble, the watchman would raise a “HUE AND CRY”, a call to arms where the rest of the parish would stop
what they were doing and come to the aid  of the constable.
MODERN POLICING SYSTEM

1) ENGLAND

    a. BOWSTREET RUNNERS - a group of men organized to arrest offenders.

      - organized by Henry Fielding, a magistrate in London, in 1749 in London, England.
      - the name was adopted from the name of the street where the office of Henry Fielding was located.
      - when Henry Fielding retired as magistrate, he was replaced by his blind brother, John Fielding

    b. METROPOLITAN POLICE OF ACT 1829

      - the law that created the first modern police force in London England, called the Metropolitan Police Service.
      - this law was passed through the initiative of Sir Robert Peel, a member of the Parliament
      - the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police Service is the Scotland Yard, now known as the New Scotland Yard

SIR ROBERT PEEL - recognized as the “Father of Modern Policing System”.

2. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

    a. NEW YORK POLICE DEPARTMENT

     - created in 1845 in New York, USA
     - recognized as the first modern style police department in the US.
     - the largest police force in the world
     - modeled after the Metropolitan Police Service of London

    b. BOSTON POLICE DEPARTMENT

     - the oldest police department in the US.
     - the first night watch was established in Boston in 1631.
     - formally founded in May, 1854.

AUGUST VOLLMER - recognized as the Father of Modern Law Enforcement for his contributions in the development of
the field of criminal justice in the US.
- author of the book, Police Administration, which served as the basic guide in the administration of the police
organization in the US.
- was the first police chief of Berkeley, California.

Important Personalities in the Evolution of Philippine Policing

Brig. Gen. Rafael Crame - the first Filipino Chief of the Philippine Constabulary in 1917.

Col. Antonio Torres - the first Filipino Chief of Police of the Manila Police Department in 1935.

Col. Lambert Javalera -  the first chief of police of the Manila Police Department after the Philippine Independence from
the United States of America in 1946.

Dir. Gen. Cesar Nazareno - the first chief of the Philippine National Police.

HIGHLIGHTS OF RA 6975 – THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT OF 1990
RA 8551 – THE PHILIPPINE NATIONAL POLICE REFORM AND REORGANIZATION ACT OF 1998 and RA 9708

A. THE DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT (DILG)

    - formerly Department of Local Government (DLG)
    - reorganized under RA 6975
ORGANIZATION is consist of:
a) the Department proper
b) existing bureaus and offices of the DLG
c) local government units (LGU)
    1) provincial governors
    2) city and municipal mayors
d) the National Police Commission
e) the Philippine Public Safety College
f) Philippine National Police
g) Bureau of Fire Protection
h) Bureau of Jail Management and Penology

  - the PPSC, PNP, BFP and BJMP were created under RA 6975
  - headed by the Secretary to be appointed by the President and who shall serve at the pleasure of the President.
  - the Secretary shall be assisted by two (2) Undersecretaries and three (3) Assistant Secretaries.
      a) Undersecretary for Local Government
      b) Undersecretary for Peace and Order
  - No retired or resigned military officer or police official may be appointed as Secretary within one (1) year from date of
retirement or resignation.
  - the Secretary is also the ex officio chairman of the National Police Commission.
 
POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE DILG
1. Assist the President in the exercise of general supervision over local governments;
2. Advise the President in the promulgation of policies, rules, regulations and other issuances on the general
    supervision over local governments and on public order and safety;
3. Establish and prescribe rules, regulations and other issuance's implementing laws on public order and safety, the
general supervision over local governments and the promotion of local autonomy and community empowerment and
monitor compliance thereof;
4. Provide assistance towards legislation regarding local governments, law enforcement and public safety; Establish and
prescribe plans, policies, programs and projects to promote peace and order, ensure public safety and further
strengthen the administrative, technical and fiscal capabilities of local government offices and personnel;
5. Formulate plans, policies and programs which will meet local emergencies arising from natural and man-made
disasters; Establish a system of coordination and cooperation among the citizenry, local executives, and the Department,
to ensure effective and efficient delivery of basic services to the public;
6. Organize, train and equip primarily for the performance of police functions, a police force that is national in scope and
civilian in character.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE DILG WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF NATIONAL DEFENSE (DND)

- under RA 6975, the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) was in charge with external security while the DILG was in
charge with internal security
- under RA 8551, the Armed Forces of the Philippines is now in charge with both internal and external security with the
PNP as support through information gathering and performance of ordinary police functions.

NATIONAL POLICE COMMISSION

- an agency attached to the DILG for policy coordination
- shall exercise administrative control and operational supervision over the PNP.

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE NAPOLCOM

A. Exercise administrative control and operational supervision over the Philippine National Police (PNP) which shall
mean the power to:
  1. Develop policies and promulgate a police manual prescribing rules and regulations for efficient organization,
administration, and operation, including criteria for manpower allocation distribution and
      deployment, recruitment, selection, promotion, and retirement of personnel and the conduct of qualifying entrance
and promotional examinations for uniformed members;
  2. Examine and audit, and thereafter establish standards for such purposes on a continuing basis, the performance,
activities, and facilities of all police agencies throughout the country;
  3. Establish a system of uniform crime reporting;
  4. Conduct annual self-report surveys and compile statistical data for accurate assessment of the crime situation and
the proper evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness of all police units in the country;
  5. Approve or modify plans and programs on education and training, logistical requirements, communications, records,
information systems, crime laboratory, crime prevention and crime reporting;
  6. Affirm, reverse, or modify, through the National Appellate Board, personnel administrative actions involving the
demotion or dismissal from the service imposed upon members of the Philippine National Police by the Chief of the
Philippine National Police;
  7. Exercise appellate jurisdiction through the Regional Appellate Boards, over administrative cases against policemen
and over decisions on claims for police benefits;
  8. Prescribe minimum standards for arms, equipment, and uniforms and, after consultation with the Philippine
Heraldry Commission, for insignia of ranks, awards, medals of honor;
  9. Issue subpoena and subpoena duces tecum in matters pertaining to the discharge of its own powers and duties, and
designate who among its personnel can issue processes and administer oaths in connection therewith;
  10. Inspect and assess the compliance of the PNP on the established criteria for manpower allocation, distribution and
deployment and their impact on the community and the crime situation, and thereafter formulate appropriate
guidelines for maximization of resources and effective utilization of the PNP personnel;
  11. Monitor the performance of the local chief executives as deputies of the Commission; and
  12. Monitor and investigate police anomalies and irregularities.

B. Advise the President on all matters involving police functions and administration;

C. Render to the President and to Congress an annual report of its activities and accomplishments during the thirty (30)
days after the end of the calendar year, which shall include an appraisal of the conditions obtaining in the organization
and administration of police agencies in the municipalities, cities and provinces throughout the country,
and recommendations for appropriate remedial legislations;

D. Recommend to the President, through the Secretary, within sixty (60) days before the commencement of each
calendar year, a crime prevention program; and

E. Perform such other functions necessary to carry out the provisions of R.A. 6975, as amended, other existing laws and
Presidential issuance's, and as the President may direct.

COMPOSITION OF NAPOLCOM
1. One chairperson
2. Four regular commissioners
3. The Chief PNP as ex officio member
Note:
    * shall serve a term of office of six (6) years without reappointment or extension
    * three of the four regular commissioners shall come from civilian sector and not former members of the police or
military
    * the fourth regular commissioner shall come from the law enforcement sector either active or retired
    * at least one (1) of the four regular commissioners shall be a woman
    * from among the three regular commissioners from the civilian sector, the Vice Chairperson shall be chosen
    * the Vice Chairperson shall act as the Executive Officer of the Commission
    * refer to the organizational structure of the NAPOLCOM

Important dates in the history of modern Philippine Policing

 1901 - ACT no. 175 of the Philippine Commission established the Philippine constabulary on august 8, 1901.
  1905 - the Philippine constabulary school was established at the sta.lucia barracks in Intramuros on February 17,
1905.
 1908 - the Philippine constabulary school was transferred to Baguio City.
 1916 - the Philippine constabulary school was renamed academy for officers of the Philippine constabulary.
 1917 - on December 17, 1917, Brigadier General Rafael Crame from Rizal Province, became the first Filipino chief
of the Philippine constabulary.
 1926 - the academy for officers of the Philippine constabulary was renamed Philippine Constabulary Academy.
 1936 - the Philippine Constabulary Academy became the present day Philippine Military Academy. 
 1938 - The Philippine Constabulary became the existing and organized national police force of the country
pursuant to commonwealth act no. 343 dated June 23, 1938 and EO no. 389 dated December 23, 1950. This
decree integrated local police forces into the Philippines constabulary operational and organizational set up.
 1966 - congress enacted RA no. 4864, the police act of 1966. This law also created the Police Commission
(POLCOM).
 1972 - The POLCOM was reorganized as the National Police Commission.
 1975 - PD 765 was enacted. This law is called the Police Integration Law of  1975. The Integrated National Police
was established with the Philippine Constabulary as nucleus under the Department of national Defense. The
NAPOLCOM, originally under the office of the President was transferred to the Ministry of National defense.
 1985 - The National Police Commission was returned to the office of the President pursuant to E.O 1040.
 1989 - Executive order 379 placed the Integrated national Police directly under the command, supervision and
control of the President. This order vested the NAPOLCOM with the powers of administrative control and
supervision over the Integrated National Police.
 1990 - RA 6975 was passed on December 13, 1990 establishing the Philippine National Police under a
reorganized Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG). A new National Police Commission was
created under the DILG.
 1998 - congress passed into law RA no. 8551 on February 25, 1998, otherwise known as the Philippine National
Police reform and reorganization act of 1998. This act strengthened and expanded NAPOLCOM,s authority over
the PNP to include administration of police entrance examination and conduct pre-charge investigation against
police anomalies and irregularities and summary dismissal of erring police members.

FUNCTIONS IN A POLICE ORGANIZATION

1. PRIMARY OR LINE FUNCTIONS

- functions that carry out the major purposes of the organization, delivering the services and dealing directly with the
public
- the backbone of the police department
- examples of the line functions of the police are patrolling, traffic duties, crime investigation

2. STAFF/ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS
- functions that are designed to support the line functions and assist in the performance of the line
functions
- examples of the staff functions of the police are planning, research, budgeting and legal advice

3. AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS
- functions involving the logistical operations of the organization
- examples are training, communication, maintenance, records management, supplies and equipment management

ORGANIC UNITS IN A POLICE ORGANIZATION

1. OPERATIONAL UNITS
- those that perform primary or line functions
- examples are patrol, traffic, investigation, and vice control
2. ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS
- those that perform the administrative functions examples are personnel, finance, planning and training.

3. SERVICE UNITS
- those that perform auxiliary functions
- examples are communication, records management, supplies.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
- the systematic arrangement of the relationship of   the members, positions, departments and functions or work of the
organization
- it is comprised of functions, relationships, responsibilities and authorities of individuals within the organization

KINDS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES

1. LINE
- the oldest and simplest kind; also called military
- defined by its clear chain of command from the highest to the lowest and vice versa
- depicts the line functions of the organization
- orders or commands must come from the higher level of authority before it can be carried out
- involves few departments

2. FUNCTIONAL
- structure according to functions and specialized units
- depicts staff functions of the organization
- responsibilities are divided among authorities who are all accountable to the authority above.

3. LINE AND STAFF

- a combination of the line and functional kind
- combines the flow of information from the line structure with the staff departments that service, advise, and support
them
- generally more formal in nature and has many departments

ORGANIZATIONAL PRINCIPLES

FOUR PRIMAL CONDITIONS OF AN ORGANIZATION

1. AUTHORITY
- the supreme source of government for any particular organization
- the right to exercise, to decide and to command by virtue of rank and position

2. MUTUAL COOPERATION
- an organization exists because it serves a purpose.

3. DOCTRINE
- provides for the organization’s objectives
- provides the various actions, hence, policies, procedures, rules and regulations of the organization are based on the
statement of doctrines

4. DISCIPLINE
- comprising behavioral regulations

ELEMENTS OF POLICE ORGANIZATION

1. UNITY OF COMMAND
- dictates that there should only be ONE MAN commanding the unit to ensure uniformity in the execution of orders
2. SPAN OF CONTROL
- the maximum number of subordinates that a superior can effectively supervise

Factors affecting the span of control:

a) Leadership qualities of the supervisors
b) Nature of the job and work conditions
c) Complexity of task
d) Education and skill of the employees

3. DELEGATION OF AUTHORITY
- conferring of an amount of authority by a superior position to a lower-level position.

4. HIERARCHY OF AUTHORITY
- the relationship between superiors and subordinates
- serves as the framework for the flow of authority downward and obedience upward through the department

  HIERARCHY - represents the formal relationship among superiors and subordinates in any given organization

5. SPECIALIZATION
- the assignment of particular personnel to particular tasks

SPECIALIZATION OF JOBS (AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION)

- the designation of certain activities or tasks as ones that must be performed in a highly technological, scientific or
precise manner
- areas of police specialization include undercover works, crime scene operations, legal advising, computer work, SWAT
operations and others

SPECIALIZATION OF PEOPLE (SPECIALISTS)

- the designation of particular persons as having expertise in a specific area of work
- signifies the adaptation of an individual to the requirements through extensive training

6. CHAIN OF COMMAND
- the arrangement of officers from top to bottom based on rank or position and authority.

7. COMMAND RESPONSIBILITY
- dictates that immediate commanders shall be responsible for the effective supervision and control.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINE POLICING SYSTEM

The institution of police in the Philippines formally started during the Spanish period. The establishment of the police
force was not entirely intended for crime prevention nor peacekeeping. Rather, it was created as an extension of the
colonial military establishment.

Ancient Roots

The forerunner of the contemporary police system was the practice of barangay chieftains to select able-bodied young
men to protect their barangay during the night and were not required to work in the fields during daytime. Among the
duties of those selected were to protect the properties of the people in the barangay and protect their crops and
livestock from wild animals.

Spanish Period

Carabineros de Seguridad Publica – organized in 1712 for the purpose of carrying the regulations of the Department of
State; this was armed and considered as the mounted police; years after, this kind of police organization discharged the
duties of a port, harbor and river police.

Guardrilleros/Cuardillo – this was a body of rural police by the Royal Decree of 18 January 1836, this decree provided
that 5% of the able-bodied male inhabitants of each province were to be enlisted in this police organization for
three years.

Guardia Civil – this was created by a Royal Decree issued by the Crown on 12 February 1852 to partially relieve the
Spanish Peninsular troops of their work in policing towns, it consisted of a body of Filipino policemen organized
originally in each of the provincial capitals of the central provinces of Luzon under the Alcalde Mayor.

American Period

The Americans established the United States Philippine Commission headed by General Howard Taft as its first
governor-general. On January 9, 1901, the Metropolitan Police Force of Manila was organized pursuant to Act No 70of
the Taft Commission. This has become the basis for the celebration of the anniversary of the Manila’s Finest every
January 9th.

ACT NO 175 – entitled “An Act Providing for the Organization and Government of an Insular Constabulary”, enacted on
July 18, 1901.

Henry T. Allen - Captain of the 6th US cavalry, a graduate of West Point class 1882. Father of the Philippine
Constabulary. The first chief of the Philippine Constabulary in 1901.

ACT NO 183 - created the Manila Police Department, enacted on July 31, 1901.

CAPT GEORGE CURRY - the first chief of police of the Manila Police Department in 1901.

Act No 255 – the act that renamed the Insular Constabulary into Philippine Constabulary, enacted on October 3, 1901

Executive Order 389 – ordered that the Philippine Constabulary be one of the four services of the Armed Forces of the
Philippines, enacted on December 23, 1940.

Post-American Period

RA 4864 – otherwise known as the Police Professionalization Act of 1966, enacted on September 8, 1966; created the
Police Commission (POLCOM) as a supervisory agency to oversee the training and professionalization of the local
police forces under the Office of the President; later POLCOM was renamed into National Police Commission
(NAPOLCOM).

Martial Law Period

PD 765 – otherwise known as the Integration Act of 1975,enacted on August 8, 1975; established the Integrated
National Police (INP) composed of the Philippine Constabulary (PC) as the nucleus and the integrated local police forces
as components, under the Ministry of National Defense
- transferred the NAPOLCOM from the Office of the President to the Ministry of National Defense

Post Martial Law Regime

Executive Order No 1012 – transferred to the city and municipal government the operational upervision and direction
over all INP units assigned within their locality; issued on July 10, 1985

Executive Order No 1040 – transferred the administrative control and supervision of the INP from the Ministry of
National Defense to the National Police Commission

RA 6975 – otherwise known as the Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990, enacted on December
13,1990; reorganized the DILG and established the Philippine National Police, Bureau of Fire Protection, Bureau of Jail
Management and Penology and the Philippine Public Safety College.

RA 8551 – otherwise known as the Philippine National Police Reform and Reorganization Act of 1998, enacted on
February 25, 1998; this law amended certain provisions of RA 6975.

RA 9708 - law amending the provisions of RA 6975 and RA 8551 on the minimum educational qualification for
appointment to the PNP and adjusting the promotion system; approved on 12 August 2009.
- An Act extending for five (5) years the reglementary  period for complying with the minimum educational qualification
for appointment to the PNP and adjusting the promotion system thereof, amending for the purpose pertinent provisions
of RA 6975 and RA 8551 and for other purposes.

Patrol Organization and Administration

Patrol - from French Patrouiller - to paddle, paw about, patrol.

            - keep watch over an area by regularly walking or traveling around or through it.
            - a person or group of people sent to keep watch over an area.

Patrol officers - are uniformed officers assigned to monitor specific geographical areas, that is to move through their
areas at regular intervals looking out for any signs of problems of any kind.

History of Patrol

1. Ancient China - law enforcement was carried out by prefect. Prefects were government officials appointed by local
magistrates who reported to higher authorities such as the governors who in turn were appointed by head of state
usually the emperor of the dynasty.
 
2. Ancient Greece - publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police. In Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves
(rod-bearers) was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control and also assisted with dealing with
criminal, handling prisoners and making arrests.

3. Roman empire - the army rather than dedicated police organization provided security. Local watchmen were hired by
cities to provide some extra security. Magistrates such as procurators, fiscals and quaestros investigated crime. Under
the reign of Augustus, 14 wards were created, the wards were protected by seven squads of 1000 men called vigiles who
acted as firemen and night watchmen. Their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway
slaves. The vigiles were supported by the urban cohorts who acted as a heavy duty riot force and praetorian guard if
necessary.

 Praetorian Guard - bodyguards used by roman emperors.

 Urban Cohorts - were created by Augustus to counterbalance the enormous power of the praetorian guard in
the city of Rome and serve as the police force.
 Vigiles - (watchmen of the city) - were the firefighters and police of ancient Rome.
 Ward - a subdivision of a municipality.

4. Medieval England - the Anglo-Saxon system of maintaining public order since the Norman conquest was a private
system of tithing, led by a constable to enforce the law.

 tithing - was a grouping of 10 households.

  constable - is a person holding a particular office most commonly in law enforcement. The office of constable
can vary significantly in different jurisdiction.

5. Spain - modern police in Europe has a precedent in the Hermandus or (brotherhood) - peace keeping association of
individuals, a characteristic of municipal life in medieval Spain. The first recorded case of the formation of the
hermandad occurred when the towns and the peasantry of the north united to police the pilgrim road to Santiago de
Compostela in Galicia and protect the pilgrims against robber knights.

6. France - The first police force in the modern sense was created by the government of king Louis XIV in 1667 to police
the city of Paris, then the largest city in Europe.
   
7. Britain and Ireland - in England, a system of sheriffs, reeves and investigative   juries to provide basic security and law
enforcement.

 Sheriff - is a contraction of the term "shire-reeve" - designated a royal official responsible for keeping the peace
through out a shire or county on behalf of the king.
 Reeve - a senior official with local responsibilities under the crown. ex., chief magistrate of a town or district.
 Shire - traditional term for a division of land in the UK and Australia.
 Jury - is a sworn body of people convened to render impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court or
to set a penalty or judgement.
 Thief taker - a private individual hired to capture criminal.
 Bow street runners - London's first professional police force.
 Henry Fielding - a magistrate educated at Elton college who founded the Bow street runners originally
numbered just six.
 Statute of Winchester - in 1285, obliged the authorities of every town to keep a watch at the city gates and
arrest all suspicious night walkers.
 Sir Robert Peel - prime minister of England from Dec. 1834 to April 1835 and again From Aug.1841 to June 1846.
While home secretary, help create the modern concept of the police force leading to officers being known as
bobbies in England and peelers in Ireland.
 Patrick Colquhoun - (1745 - 1820) - a Scottish merchant and a magistrate who founded the first regular
preventive police force in England, the Thames River police.

8. In the US - the first city police services were established in Philadelphia in 1751, Boston 1838 and new york 1845.

  August Vollmer - first police chief of Berkeley California. He is sometimes called the father of modern law
enforcement in the US.
               1. He was the first chief to require that police officers attain college degrees.
               2. First police chief to create a motorized force placing officers on   motorcycles and cars so that they could
patrol broader areas with greater efficiency.    
              3. He was also the first to use the lie detector in police work.

 O.W. Wilson - studied under August Vollmer. Became Chief of Police of the Fullerton police department. He also
became chief of police of the Wichita police department. He introduced the following reforms and innovations:
1. requires new policeman to have college education.
2. use of police car for patrol, mobile radios, and use of a mobile crime laboratory.
3. he believes that the use of a two way radio allowed better supervision of patrol officers.

What are the 3 main task of supervision?

1. Organize - means planning the work of the department and of the personnel in an orderly manner.
2. Delegate - means giving someone else the responsibility and authority to do something. The supervisor confers upon
a subordinate officer the same authority and responsibility that the supervisor possesses to accomplish the specific task.
The supervisor remains responsible for the completion of the delegated task.
3. Oversee - means that the supervisor ensures that the work that has been organized and delegated is satisfactorily
completed.

Community policing - is the process by which an organized group of citizens devoted a time to crime prevention within a
neighborhood. When suspecting criminal activities, members are encourage to contact the authorities and not to
intervene.

Beat patrol - the deployment of officers in a given community, area or locality to prevent and deter criminal activity and
to provide day to day services to the community.

Sting Operations - organized groups of detectives who deceived criminals into openly committing illegal acts of
conspiring to engage in criminal activity.

Hotspots of Crime - the view that a significant portion of all police calls in cities typically radiate from a relatively few
locations.

Models of Policing
1. Neighborhood Oriented Policing - a philosophy of police suggesting that problem solving is best done at the
neighborhood level, where issues originate not at a far-off central headquarters.

2. Pro Active Policing - aggressive law enforcement style in which patrol officers take the initiative against crime
instead of waiting for criminal acts to occur.

3. Problem Oriented Policing - a style of police management that stresses proactive problem solving instead of reactive
crime fighting.

4. Community Oriented Policing - programs designed to bring the police and the public closer together and create more
cooperative working environment between them.

5. Reactive Policing - the opposite of Pro Active policing where the police wait for crime to occur.

Blue Curtain - describes the secrecy and insulation from others in society that is a consequence of the police subculture.

Cynicism - the belief that most people’s actions are motivated solely by personal needs and selfishness.

Civilian Review Board - ex. PLEB - organized citizen groups that examine police misconduct.

Watchman - style of policing characterized by an emphasis on maintaining public order.

Fleeing Felon Rule - the oldest standard relating to the use of deadly force.

Beats - designated police patrol areas.

Internal Affairs - unit that investigates allegations of police misconduct.

Deadly Force - police killing of a suspect who resists arrest or presents a danger to an officer or the community.

Booking - the administrative record of an arrest listing the offenders name, address, physical description, date of birth,
time of arrest, offense and name of arresting officer. It also includes photographing and fingerprinting of the offender.

Line Up - placing a suspect in a group for the purpose of being viewed and identified by a witness.
Stop and Frisk - the situation in which police officers who are suspicious of an individual run their hands lightly over the
suspects outer garments to determine if the person is carrying a concealed weapon. Also called Inquiry of Pat Down.

Foot Patrol - police patrol that takes officer out of cars and puts them in walking beat to strengthen ties with the
community.

Excited Delirium - an overdose of adrenaline that can occur in heated confrontation with the police.

* Patrol reduces crime by creating an  impression of omnipresence.

Responding to Crime - total response time is comprised of four dimensions.

1. Discovery Time - interval between the commission of the crime and its discovery.
2. Reporting Time - interval between the discovery of the crime and when it is reported to the police.
3. Processing Time - interval between receiving the call and dispatching the officers for service.
4. Travel time - the amount of time it takes for the police to travel to the scene of the crime.

The Phantom Effect - "residual deterrence" most people believe that the police is present even when they are not in
sight.

Sworn Date - the date that a sworn employee took the oath of office for their position.

Advantages of Foot/Bicycle Patrol

1. Increased personal contact between the police and citizen.
2. Increased observation ability.
3. Increased ability to gather information
4. Economical

Advantages of Motorized Patrol

1. Increased speed and mobility
2. Increased conspicuousness
3. Availability of additional equipment
4. Increased transportation capability
5. Deceased response time
6. Communications

Basic Preventive Patrol Methods Utilized by an Officer

1. Frequent check and contact with business premises
2. Frequent check of suspicious persons
3. Fluctuating patrol patterns
4. Maintenance of visibility and personal contact
5. Daily individual patrol and community action plan

Factors to be Considered in Becoming Familiar with the Community

1. General population information
2. Appropriate geographical information
3. Recent criminal activity
4. Specific factors that may influence patrol functions (ex. location of hospitals, high crime areas,
    community habits).

How to Prepare for a Normal Patrol Shift

1. Gathering information through crime reports and briefings
2. Gathering needed materials ex. report forms, citation books
3. Obtaining and checking equipment
4. Planning work around identified priorities
5. Preparing daily patrol and community action plan

What an Officer on Night Time Patrol should be looking for

1. broken glasses
2. open doors and windows
3. pry marks
4. suspicious vehicles
5. persons on foot
6. differences in normal lighting (on or off)
7. unusual sounds
8. access to roof tops or upper floors

Definition of Terms
1. Section - a primary subdivision of a bureau with a department wide responsibility for providing a specific specialized
function.
2. Unit - a subdivision of a section usually small in size with personnel assigned to perform a specialized activity, one or
two employees performing assigned work.
3. Squad - a subdivision of a unit.
4. Detail - a subdivision of a squad.
5. Precinct -the primary geographic subdivision of the patrol operation bureau.
6. Sector - the primary geographic subdivision of a precinct, supervised by a sergeant.
7. Beat - the primary subdivision of a sector.
8. Watch/Shift - one of several tours of duty.
9. Post - a fixed geographic location usually assigned to an individual officer.
10. Task Force - an adhoc work group normally established by bureau commander to respond to a specific incident or
series of related incidents. Task Force assignment is temporary.
11. Chief of Police - overall commander of the department.
12. Chain of Command - a fundamental component of proper supervision. The chain of command requires that each
employee reports and is accountable to   only one direct supervisor.

Police Operational Planning

Police Operational Planning - the act of determining policies and guidelines for police activities and operations and
providing controls and safeguards for such activities and operations in the department. Involves strategies or tactics,
procedures, policies, or guidelines.

Operational Planning - the use of rational design or patten for all departmental undertakings rather than relying on
chance in an operational environment. The preparation and development of procedures and techniques in
accomplishing each of the primary tasks and functions of an organization.

Police Planning - an attempt by police administrators in trying to allocate anticipated resources to meet anticipated
service demands. The systematic and orderly determination of facts and events as basis for policy formulation and
decision-making affecting law enforcement management.

Planning - the determination in advance of how the objectives of the organization will be attained; involves the
determination of a course of action to take in performing a particular function or activity. The process of developing
methods or procedures or an arrangement of parts intended to facilitate the accomplishment of a definite objective. The
process of deciding in advance what is to be done and how it is to be done.

Plan - an organized schedule or sequence by methodical activities intended to attain a goal or objectives for the
accomplishment of mission or assignment. A method or way of doing something in order to attain objectives and
provides answers to the 5Ws and 1H.

Strategy - a broad design or method or a plan to attain a stated goal or objective.

Tactics - are specific design, method or a course of action to attain a particular objective in consonance with strategy.

Procedures - are sequences of activities to reach a point or to attain what is desired.

Policy - a course of action which could be a program of actions adopted  by an individual, group, organization or
government or the set of principles on which they are based.

 case operational plan (COPLAN) - a definite target - specific activity conducted in relation to an intelligence
project under which it is affected. Several case operations may fall under one intelligence project.
- refers to a preparatory plan on how to carry out a case operation which is the last resort to pursue intelligence
objectives when normal police operations fail.
 command post/holding area - area where case conferences, briefings and debriefings are being conducted by
the responding agencies.
 dragnet operation - is a police operation purposely to seal off the probable exit points of fleeing suspect from
the crime scene to prevent their escape.

Management or Administrative Functions

  1. Planning
  2. Organizing
  3. Directing
  4. Controlling
  5. Staffing
  6. Reporting
  7. Budgeting

Guidelines in Planning
  1. What - mission/objective
  2. Why - reason/philosophy
  3. When - date/time
  4. where - place
  5. How - strategy/methods

Characteristics of a Good Plan

  1. A Plan must have a clearly defined objective
  2. A Plan must be simple, direct, and clear
  3. A Plan must be flexible
  4. A Plan must be attainable
  5. A Plan must provide standards of operation
  6. A Plan must be economical in terms of resources needed for implementation.

Types of Plan
  1. Procedural/Policy Plan
  2. Operational Plan
  3. Tactical Plan
  4. Administrative/Management Plan
  5. Extra-Departmental Plan
 Intelligence and Secret Service

Intelligence Agency - is a government agency responsible for the collection, analysis or exploitation of information and
intelligence in support of law enforcement, national security, defense and foreign policy objectives.

Intelligence Officer - is a person employed by an organization to collect, compile and analyze information which is used
to that organization.

Counter Intelligence - refers to effort made by intelligence organizations to prevent hostile or enemy intelligence
organization from successfully gathering and collecting intelligence against them.

Human Intelligence - category of intelligence derived from information collected and provided by human sources.

Dead Drop/Dead Letter Box - is a method of espionage trade craft used to pass items between 2 individuals using a
secret location and thus not require to meet directly.

Live Drop - 2 persons meet to exchange items or information.

Dead Drop Spike - is a concealment device used to hide money, maps, documents, microfilm and other items.

Cut-Out - is a mutually trusted intermediary, method or channel of communication, facilitating the exchange of
information between agents.

Espionage/Spying - involves a government or individual obtaining information that is considered secret of confidential

without the permission of the holder of the information.

Agent Handling - is the management of agents, principal agents and agent networks by intelligence officers typically
known as case officers.

Case Officer - is an intelligence officer who is trained specialist in the management of agents and agent network.

Agent - acts on behalf of another whether individual, organization or foreign government, works under the direction of a
principal agent or case officer.

Cryptography - is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called
adversaries.

Eaves Dropping - Is the act of secretly listening to the private conversation of others without their consent.

Propaganda - is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or
position.

Flip - apprehended criminals who turn informants.

Snitches - jail house informants.

Means of Information Gathering

1. Overt
2. Covert

Intelligence Cycle - is the process of developing unrefined data into polished intelligence for the use of policy makers.

  1. Direction - intelligence requirements are determined by a decision maker to meet his/her objective.
  2. Collection - is the gathering of raw information based on requirements.
  3. Processing - converting the vast amount of information collected into a form usable by analyst.
  4. Analysis - conversion of raw information into intelligence. It includes:
        (1) integrating
         (2) evaluating
         (3) analyzing data and preparing intelligence product.
  5. Dissemination - is the distribution of raw or finished intelligence to the consumer whose needs initiated the
intelligence requirement.
  6. Feedback - is received from the decision maker and revised requirement issued.

Evaluation - systematic determination of merit, worth and significance of something or someone using criteria against a
set of standards.

Collation - is the assembly of written information into a standard order.

Crime Triangle
1. the offender
2. the victim
3. the location

Crime Intelligence - information compiled, analyzed and/or disseminated in an effort to anticipate, prevent, or monitor
criminal activity.

Strategic Intelligence - information concerning existing patterns or emerging trends of criminal activity designed to
assist in criminal apprehension and crime control strategies for both short and long term investigative tools. 

Tactical Intelligence - information regarding a specific criminal event that can be used immediately by operational units
to further a criminal investigation plan tactical operations and provide for officer safety.

Open Source - refers to any information that can be legitimately obtained e. free on request, payment of a fee.

Source - the place or person from which information is obtained.

Intelligence Assessment - is the development of forecasts of behavior or recommended courses of action to the
leadership of an organization based on a wide range of available information sources both overt and covert.

Intelligence Analysis - is the process of taking known information about situations and entities of strategic, operational,
or tactical importance, characterizing the known and with appropriate statements of probability. the future actions in
those situations and by those entities.

Cryptanalysis - from the Greek word Kryptos-hidden and Analyein-to loosen or to unite - is the art of defeating
cryptographic security systems and gaining access to the contents of encrypted messages without being given the
cryptographic key.
 Industrial Security Management

RA No. 5487 - (as amended by PD no. 11) - Private security agency law.

Private Detective Agency - is any person who for hire or reward or on commission conducts or carries on or holds
himself out as conducting or carrying on a detective agency or detective service.

Private Detective - any person who is not a member of a regular police agency or armed forces who does detective work
for hire, reward or commission.

PADPAO - Philippine Association of Detective and Protective Agency Operators.

Watchmen/Security Guard - person who offers or renders personal service to watch or secure either residential or
business establishment or both or any building, compound or area for hire or compensation or as an employee thereof.

Security Agency - any person, association, partnership or corporation who recruits, trains, muster ,furnishes,
solicit individuals or business firms, private or government owned or controlled corporation to engage his services or
those of its watchmen.

Who May Organize Security Agency

1. Any Filipino Citizen or a corporation, partnership, or association.
2. With a minimum capital required by law.

  In case of corporation, association, or partnership - must be 100 % owned and controlled by Filipino citizen.
 No person shall organize or have interest in more than one agency.

Qualification of an Operator or Manager of a Security Agency:

1. At least 25 years of age
2. College graduate and/or commissioned officer in the inactive service of the AFP
3. Good moral character
4. No previous record of any conviction of any crime/offense involving moral turpitude
5. Not suffering from any of the following disqualifications:
1. dishonorably discharged or separate from the AFP
2. mentally incompetent
3. addicted to the use of narcotic drugs
4. habitual drunkard
 An elective or appointive government employees who may be called upon on account of the function of their
respective offices in the implementation and enforcement of the provision of RA 5487 and person related to
such government employees by affinity or consanguinity in the third civil degree shall not hold any interest,
directly or indirectly in any security guard agency.

Basic Qualification of a security Guard

  1. Filipino citizen
  2. High school graduate
  3. Physically and mentally fit
  4. Not less than 21 nor more than 50 years old
  5. At least 5'4" in height
  6. Not suffering from any disqualification under RA 5487

 Veterans shall be given priority in employment as security guard or private detective.

 Person convicted of any crime involving moral turpitude shall not be employed as security guard or private
 detective.
 Private detective, detective agency, security guard, security agency must first obtain license from the PNP.
 Employees employed solely for clerical or manual work need not be licensed.
 The license shall be displayed at all times in a conspicuous and suitable place in the agency office.
 The PNP shall exercise general supervision over the operation of all private detective and security guard
agencies.
 The City/Municipal Mayors has the power as director of the City/Municipal civil defense to deputize private
detective and security guards to help maintain peace and order or prevent or arrest law violators in case of
emergency or in times of disaster or calamity. They shall take orders from the Chief of Police for the duration of
the fire, inundation, earthquakes, riots or other emergency.
 A security guard or security agency is entitled to possess firearms.
 Firearm must not be higher than .45 caliber.
 Agency is entitled to possess firearm not exceeding one firearm for every security guard in its employ.
 Security guard is entitled to possess not more than one riot gun or shotgun.
 Firearms shall be carried by the security guard only during his tour of duty in proper uniform within the
compound of the establishment except when he escorts big amount of cash or valuables in or out of said
compound.
 The Chief PNP shall prescribe the uniform, ornaments, equipment and paraphernalia to be worn by the security
guards.
 Uniforms must be different from the PNP/AFP.
 Salary of security guard - not lower than the minimum wage prescribes by law.

Limitations and Prohibitions on a Security Agency

1. No agency operating in the city of manila and suburbs may employ more than 1000 watchmen or
    security guards.
2. No agency operating in other cities and first-class municipalities may employ more than 500 watchmen
    or security guards.
3. No agency operating in municipalities other than first class may employ more than 200 watchmen or security guards.
4. No person, corporation, partnership, or association may organize more than one agency in any one city or
municipality.
5. No agency shall offer, render, or accept services to gambling dens or other illegal enterprises.
6. The extent of the security service being provided by any security agency shall not go beyond the whole compound or
property of the person or establishment requesting the security service except when they escort big amount of cash.

Who can Issue rules and regulations to carry out the purpose of RA 5487? The Chief PNP, in consultation with the
Philippines Association of Detective and Protective Agency Operators.

What are the penal provisions for violation of RA5487 or its implementing rules? 
1. Suspension, fine or cancellation of license to operate with the forfeiture f bond filed with the Chief PNP.
2. Imprisonment ranging from 1 to 4 years and fine, in the discretion of the courts.

Physical security - describes the measures that are designed to deny access to unauthorized personnel from physically
accessing a building, facility, stored information, and guidance on how to design structures to resist potentially hostile
acts.
                                 - a system of barriers placed between a potential intruder and the material or installation to be
protected.

Security - the predictable state or condition which is free from harm, injury, destruction, intimidation or fear. Freedom
from fear or danger or defense against crime.
Physical Security System - a barrier or system of barriers placed between the potential intruder and the matter to be
protected. Protective device against hazards, threats, vulnerability and risks.

Purpose/Goals of Physical security

1. deter potential intruders - ex. warning signs, perimeter markings

2. distinguish authorized from unauthorized people - ex. using pass card
3. delay or prevent intrusion attempt - ex. wall, door lock, safe
4. detect intrusion and monitor/record intruders - e. CCTV, intrusion alarm
5. trigger appropriate incident responses - ex. security guards

How to deter potential intruders

1. install warning signs -

2. build fences
3. put vehicle barriers
4. install vehicle height restriction
5. implement restricted access point
6. install sight lighting and trenches

How to distinguish authorized from unauthorized people - access control at the

1. gates
2. doors
3. locks

How to detect intrusion

1. install alarms
2. install intrusion detection monitor
3. install video monitoring system - ex. cctv

Vigiles (in Rome) - origin of the watchmen although their principal duty was as a fire brigade.

Notable security guards:

1.  Frank Wills - detected the Watergate burglars ultimately leading to the resignation of US president Richard
Nixon.

Target hardening - the reduction in criminal opportunity, generally through the use of physical barriers, architectural
design and enhanced security measures of a particular location.

Defensible Space - the range of mechanisms that combine to bring an environment under the control of its residents.

Demography - the study of the characteristics of population groups.

Principles of Physical Security

1. An intruder must be able to acquire access to the property in order to benefit.
2. The type of access necessary will depend upon a number of variable factors and therefore may be
    achieved in a number of ways.
3. There is no impenetrable barrier.
4. Security is built upon a system of defense in depth resulting to accumulated delay time which may lead to the
apprehension of the intruder.
5. Each installation is different from the others.

2 Kinds of Barriers
1. Natural
2. Artificial

5 Types of Barriers
1. Human
2. Animal
3. Natural
4. Energy/Electrical/Electronic
5. Structural

3 Line of Defense
1. Perimeter Barrier - 1st line of defense.
2. Building Exterior - 2nd line of defense.
3. Interior Controls - 3rd line of defense.

Perimeter Barrier - main purpose is to deny or impede access or exit of unauthorized persons.

Other Purposes
1. It defines the boundary of the property to be secured.
2. It creates a physical and psychological deterrent to unauthorized entry.
3. It delays intrusion, thus facilitating apprehension of intruders.
4. It assists in a more efficient and economical employment of guards.
5. It facilitates and improves the control of pedestrian and vehicular traffic.

Components:
1. Types of Fencing (solid/full view)
2. The top guard
3. Types of Protective Alarms Systems
4. Types of Protective and Emergency Lighting's
5. CCTV Cameras and other Electronic Security Systems/Energy Barriers

Building Exterior - Components:

1. walls
2. Doors
3. Windows
4. Roof Openings
5. Fire Escapes
6. Protective Alarm Systems
7. Protective and Emergency lightnings
8. CCTV Cameras and other Electronic Security Systems/Energy Barriers

Interior Controls - Components:

1. ID Systems
2. Protective Alarm Systems
3. Protective Emergency Lighting's
4. Communication Systems
5. CCTV Cameras and other Electronic Security Systems/Energy Barriers
6. Restricted Areas (storage areas/utilities)
7. Access Control
8. Key Control
9. Emergency Plans
10.Guards

Natural barriers or features - such as cliffs, ravines, and rivers which delay or make more difficult to entry of intruders.

Barriers - any line of boundary and separation, natural or artificial, places, or serving as limitation or obstruction.
Anything that bars, keep out, obstruct progress, or prevents encroachment or intrusion.

Structural barriers - features constructed by man regardless of their original intent that tends to delay the intruder. ex.
walls, ceilings, locks, safe, windows.

Human barriers - guards, charges of quarters, office personnel, shop workers etc. who stand between the intruder and
the matter to be protected.

Animal barriers - usually guard dog. ex. trained German shepherds used as guards, goose, and turkeys can also be
included.

Energy barriers - usually electrical or electronics devices used to provide assistance to guard personnel. ex. protective
lightnings, anti-intrusion devices.

Full view fence - it is designed primarily to prevent physical access between two areas. Constructed in such a way that
visual access is permitted through the fence.

Physical Security Features:

1. Natural Barriers - natural terrains features must be considered from the standpoint of their values to intruder as
cover and concealment. Normally the first type considered very often we must accept and work around them.

2. Fences
   a. solid fence - one is constructed in such a way that visual access through the fenced structure is denied.
   b. full view fence - constructed in such a way that usual access is permitted through the fence.

Advantages of a full view fence

1. removing patrols and stationary guards are able to keep area surrounding of the installation under observation.
2. it does not create shadows which would provide cover and concealment for the intruder.

Disadvantages of a full view fence

1. It allows visual access to the installation, its personnel, its guard and its activities.
2. It allows the intruders to become familiar with the movements and the time schedule of the guard patrols thereafter
allowing him to pick the time for attempting penetration which would most advantageous to the intruder.

Advantages of solid fence

1. Denies visual access of the installation of the intruder.
2. Denies the opportunity for the intruder to become familiar with the personnel, activities and the time schedule of the
movements of guards in the installations.

Disadvantages of solid fence

1. It prevents the guards from observing the area around the installation.
2. It creates shadows which may be used by the intruder for cover and concealment.

Minimum acceptable requirements for fence used security barriers

1. Height - 8 feet at a minimum.
2. Slack at the bottom - not to exceed 2 inches. If the fences are not tight then it should extend even closer to the
ground.
3. Wooden fence post - minimum horizontal dimension of 4X4 inches.
4. Steel fence post - the round type should at least be 2 inches at the smallest diameter.
5. Fence post - should be set in concrete or in firm soil using commercial drive anchors to a depth of 3 feet and the
maximum distance post is 10 feet.
6. Fence top (Top Guard) - there should be something on the top of the fence to deter persons attempting to go over
fence. ex. use of barb wire overhang. The arms holding the barbwire should be extended at 45-degree angle in the
direction of the expected approach.
7. Fence area - it should be declared trees and vegetation and debris of other materials which would offer concealment
of the intruder or would aid him in scaling the fence.
8. Fence Gates - gates should be limited to the no. necessary for efficient and sage operation of the installation.
9. Fence Opening - all opening in the fence in excess of 96 inches must be locked barbed or screen in such a way that
they may be interlocked and opened from the inside and only by selected personnel.
10.Multiple fence - is used should at least be 10 feet apart  and the overhang on the top of the inner fence should point
inward.

4 Basic functions that must be accomplished by the guard system

1. Detect intruders
2. Sound alarms
3. Apprehend unauthorized personnel
4. Identify authorized personnel

Personnel Control Identification

2 Types of identification
1. Personal Recognition - is the most effective
2. Artificial Identification - badges,passes etc.

System of Employment of Personnel Control Identification

1. Pass system - a method used by security to screen visitors or person admitted into building premises.
2. Single pass or Badge system - the least expensive and the least secure.
3. Group pass and Badge system - one ID for one group.
4. Multiple pass system - separate pass is required for access to various areas in need ex. color coding
5. Spot magnetized identification passes - a code may be placed in the device and when passes through a machine, the
code on the device is read, if it contains wrong code or no code at all, it will alarm.
6. Access list - it contains the names of authorized persons or personnel and is checked against identification cards such
as driver’s licenses, draft registration etc.

Visitor control - the measures used would depend on the sensibility of the installation but could include the following:
1. Escort - expensive but most secure
2. Time traveled - if there is a long delay or time lapse between the departure and arrival, the visitor may be required to
show cause for the delay.
3. Visitor’s logs - should contain identifying data, reasons of visit, time in and hour etc.
4. Visitors entrances - separate access for visitors and separate for employees .

Utility and maintenance personnel - escort system could be used. If these people visit the installations on a regular
basis some of the systems previously could be used.

Package control - there should be provisions made to check packages being taken in and taken out.

Photography - extreme caution must be exercised in areas where classified information is displayed to preclude
unauthorized taking of pictures of the installation.
Vehicular control and identification
* Most common identification is for registering at the headquarters or gates and putting of sticker on the windows of
the vehicles.
* For visitors, the following systems are used:
   1. Escort
   2. Driver pool - the most secure but the most expensive. In this system, car is driven by qualified driver employed by
the installation from the entrance to its destination and after the conclusion of the business of the visitor. Car is driven
back to the installations entrance.
   3. Time travel - used in less sensitive installations
   4. Grid system - a very complicated system. The installation is divided into grid ad squares like a map. Each square is
given a no. or letter designation. The visitor is then given a map and shown the route to take to his destination and
should not deviate from the prescribed route, otherwise he could be stopped and questioned by the guards.
  5. Search of vehicles - sign should be put at the entrance to the installation that any vehicle entering is subject to search
anytime.

Types of Protective Alarm Systems

1. Central station system - the control station is located outside the installations. When the alarm is sounded by a
subscriber, the central station notifies the police or protection agency.
2. Property system - the control system is located inside the installations with its own firefighter, law enforcer,
ambulance, or bomb disposal unit.
3. Local alarm - the signaling is near the alarm itself. When the intruder enters the installation, the alarm goes off scaring
the intruder. Purpose is just to scare not to apprehend intruder.
4. Auxiliary alarm - the installation owned the protective alarm with a unit in the nearest police station so that in case of
need, direct call is possible.
 
Kinds of Alarms
1. Intrusion alarm - any detecting devices using electric and their combinations to signal an alarm when actuated.
2. Laser beam alarm - a laser emitter floods the wall or fence with a beam so that when this beam is disturbed by a
physical object, an alarm is activated.
3. Photocell alarm - an invisible or visible beam is emitted and when disturbed, it activates an alarm or mechanical
device that opens a door or lift movable barriers, activated by light.

Basic component of an alarm system

1. Annunciation - the heart of the system of the detecting device and is the component that activates the triggering unit.
2. Transmission - it transmits what is detected.
3. Triggering device - the one which emits those aural or visual signals or both.

Security Survey - The detailed check and audit of what an installation or plant does not have in relation to its protection
from hazards.

Security Inspection - a process where physical examination is conducted to determine compliance with established
security policies and procedures as a result of security survey.

Purpose of security survey

1. To determine existing state or condition of security
2. To locate weaknesses and possible defense
3. To determine degree of protection required

Security hazards - an act or condition which result in a situation conductive to a breach of the protection system and the
subsequent loss or compromise of defense, information, company secrets, or damage to property, personnel, or
facilities.
Hazards - exposure to loss or injury.

Two General Categories of Security Hazards

1. Human hazard - caused by human action. Ex. sabotage, pilferage, theft
2. Natural Hazard - caused by natural phenomena.

Types of Human Hazards

  1. Human carelessness
  2. Accident
  3. Disaffection
  4. Disloyalty
  5. Subversion
  6. Sabotage
  7. Espionage
  8. Pilferage
  9. Theft
  10.Vandalism

Protective Security - measures taken by an installation or unit to protect against sabotage, espionage, or subversion and
at the same time provide freedom of action in order to provide the installation or unit with the necessary flexibility to
accomplish its mission.

3 Aspects of Security
   1. Physical Security - measures taken to prevent physical access or entry to an installation.
   2. Personnel Security - measures taken to ensure that only authorized personnel have access to classified documents
or information.
   3. Document and Information Security

Types of Security
   1. Physical Security - the broadest.
   2. Industrial Security - security of business installations and industrial plants.
   3. VIP Security - protection of high-level officers and important personnel.
   4. Bank Security - security of money and assets stored or in transit.
   5. Hotel Security - security for hotel guest and their personal belongings and property as well as properties of the
hotel.
   6. Document security - protection of vital records from loss or unauthorized access.
   7. Communication Security - measures to prevent or delay the unauthorized person in gaining information through
communication.

Physical Security 
  * Protective barrier - is the physical type of security.
  * Barrier - any structure or physical device capable of restricting, deterring, delaying illegal access into
     installations.
  * Perimeter barrier - a medium or structures which define the physical limits of an installation or area to restrict or
impede access thereto. Any physical barrier used to supplement the protection of the inside perimeter.
  * Inside Perimeter - a line of protection adjacent to the protected area and passing through points of possible entry
into the area. ex. doors and windows
  * Outside perimeter - a line of protection but somewhat removed from the protected area. ex. fence

Types of Perimeter Barrier Opening

  1. Gates and Doors
  2. Elevators
  3. Air intakes, Exhaust tunnels
  4. Clear Zone
  5. Top Guard
  6. Guard Control Stations
  7. Tower
  8. Barrier maintenance
  9. Sign and Notices

Protective Alarms - supplemental physical barriers in a form of sound that cause alarm installed indoors or outdoors in
an installation.

Types of Alarm Systems

  1. Metallic foil wire
  2. Ultrasonic Detection Device
  3. Vibration Detection Device
  4. Microwave Motion Detection Device
  5. Audio Detection Device
  6. Photo Electric or Electric Eye

Kinds of Alarms
  1. Bill Traps
  2. Foot Rail Activator
  3. Knee or thigh button
  4. Foot button
  5. Double squeeze button

Protective Lighting - provide illumination on areas to be secured that adds psychological deterrence.

Types of protective Lighting

  1. Stationary luminary - consist of series of fixed luminaries to flood given area continuously
       Example: glare protection types
  2. Standby Lighting - provides continuous lighting through manual operations.
  3. Movable Lighting - stationary or portable manually operated search lights.
  4. Emergency Lighting - duplication of existing lighting system that is utilized in the event of electric failure.

Types of Lighting Equipment

  1. Street lights - used in parking areas
  2. Search Lights - highly focused incandescent lamps used to pinpoint potential trouble spot.
  3. Flood Lights - project light in a concentrated beam used in boundaries and fences.
  4. Fresnel Lights - wide beam units primarily used to extend illumination in long horizontal strips to protect approaches
to perimeter barrier.

Protective Locks and Keys

  1. Lock - a mechanical, hydraulic, electrical or electronic device designed to prevent entry into a building, room,
container or hiding place and to prevent the removal of items without the consent of the owner.
  2. Padlock - portable and detachable lock having or sliding hasp that passes through a staple ring.
  3. Peterman - A term used in England for lock picker, safe cracker and penetrators of restricted areas or rooms.

Types of Locks
  1. Lever locks - used in cabinets, drawers, safe deposit box.
  2. Disc-Tumble Locks - used in car doors.
  3. Warded Locks - offer little security, used only to provide privacy.
  4. Combination Locks
  5. Card Operated Locks
  6. Electromagnetic Locks
  7. Code operated Locks

Types of Keys
  1. Master Key - a special key of opening a series locks.
  2. Grand Master Key - a key that will open everything in a system involving two or more master key groups.
  3. Change Key - a key to a single lock within a master keyed system.
  4. Sub Master Key - a key will open all lock with a particular area or grouping in a given facility.

Types of Security Cabinets

  1. Safe
  2. vault
  3. File Room

Protective Cabinets - considered as the third line of defense against unauthorized persons.

Key Control - a system of controlling keys devised and regulated for disposal, storage and withdrawals.

Close-in Security Formations

  1. One Man Security - 360 degrees coverage.
  2. Two Man Security - Each guard has 180 degrees coverage.
  3. Three Man Security - has equal areas of coverage
  4. Four Man Security
  5. Five Man Security - modified diamond.
  6. Six Man Security - (defensive circle) too much crowd requires arm lock formation.
      Note: Six Man Security is the most effective.

Defensive in Depth Barriers

  1. Outer Ring - securing sidewalks, in front of quarters or offices, covering all entrances, front, center, side and rear.
  2. Middle Ring - security covering inside quarters, office, residence, all stairways, and elevators.
  3. Inner Ring - immediately outside the high risk personnel door or the one closest to the VIP.
 Criminal Jurisprudence and Procedure
Definition of Terms

Abandonment - a parent or guardian leaving a child without adequate supervision for the child's needs for an excessive
period.

Acquittal - a verdict after a trial that a defendant in a criminal case has not been proven guilty beyond reasonable doubt
of the crime charged.

Action - lawsuit brought by one or more individuals seeking redress for or prevention of a wrong or protection of a right.

Actus reus - proof that a criminal act has occurred.

Adjudicated - settled in a court of law.

Adjudicated father - man determined by the court to be the father usually through a court action and genetic testing.

Adjudication - giving or pronouncing a judgment or decree; also the judgment given. Decision made by a court or
administrative agency with respect to a case.

Administrative documentation - records such as case-related conversations, evidence receipts, description of evidence
packaging and seals, and other pertinent information.

Administrative review - an evaluation of the case report and supporting documentation for consistency  with laboratory
policies, editorial correctness and compliance with the submission request.

Admissible - evidence that can be legally and properly introduced  in a civil or criminal trial.

Adoption - legal proceeding in which an adult takes  as his/her lawful child an individual usually a minor who is not the
adoptive parents or natural offspring.

Adversary system - trial methods in which opposing parties  are given full opportunity to present and establish their
evidence and to test by cross-examination the evidence presented by their adversaries under established rules of
procedures before an impartial judge.

Affidavit - a sworn statement by a witness.

Affirmative defense - without denying the charge, defendant raises extenuating or mitigating circumstance such as
insanity, self-defense, or entrapment to avoid civil or criminal responsibility.

Affirmed - in the practice of the appellate court, the word means that the decree or order at issue is declared valid and
will stand as rendered in the lower court.

Amicus curiae - friend of the court, a person who petitions the court for permission to provide information to the court
on a matter of law that is in doubt or one who is not a party to a lawsuit but who is allowed to introduce evidence,
arguments or authority to protect one's interest.
Appeal - a request by the losing party in a lawsuit that the judgment be reviewed by a higher court.Request to a higher
court to change the decision of a trial court, usually appeals are made and decided on questions of law only.Issues of
fact are left to the trial judge discretion.

Arraignment - in a criminal case, the proceeding in which an accused person is brought before a judge to hear the
charges filed against him or her and to enter a plea of guilty or not guilty.

Arrest - process of taking a person into custody.

Assault - intentional display of force that would give the victim reason to fear or expect immediate bodily harm.

Attest - to bear witness; to affirm as true or genuine.

Attorney-at-law - an officer in a court of justice who is employed by a party in a case to manage it for him.

Bail - money or security given to secure a person's release from custody which is at risk  should he/she subsequently fail
to appear before the court.

Bail bond - the obligation signed by the accused to secure his/her presence at the trial which he/she may lose by not
properly appearing for trial.

Bailiff - a court attendant who keeps order in the court room.

Bar - the term means the whole body of lawyer’s. Historically, the partition separating the general public from the space
occupied by the judge's, lawyer's, and other participants in a trial.

Battered woman syndrome - a collection of symptoms that are manifest in women who have suffered prolonged and
extensive abuse from their spouses.

Beyond reasonable doubt - the standard in a criminal case requiring that court be satisfied to a moral certainty that
every element of a crime has been proven by the prosecution, all reasonable doubt are removed from the mind of the
ordinary person.

Bill of Particulars - a statement used to inform the defense of the specific occurrences intended to be investigated in
trial and to limit the course of evidence to the particular scope of the inquiry.An amplification of the pleading.

Booking - the process of photographing, fingerprinting, and recording identifying data of a suspect following arrest.

Brief - a written statement prepared by one side in a lawsuit to explain to the court its view of the facts of a case and the
applicable law.

Brutalization - the proposition that the use of capital punishment actually increases the crime rate by sending a message
that it is acceptable to kill those who have wronged us.

Capital crime - a crime punishable by death.

Case law - law created as a by-product of a court decisions made in resolving unique disputes as distinguished from
statutory law.

Case records - all notes, reports, custody, records, charts, analytical data, and correspondence generated pertaining to a
particular case.

Caveat - a warning; a note of caution.

Certification - procedure by which a certifying body formally recognizes that a body or person complies with given
qualifications.

Chambers - a judge's private office.

Child abuse - act of commission that is not accidental and that harms or threatens to harm a child's physical or mental
health or welfare.

Child neglect - failure of a parent or other person legally responsible for a child's welfare to provide for the child's basic
needs and a proper level of care with respect to food, clothing, shelter, hygiene, medical attention , or supervision.Child
neglect is an act of omission.

Circumstantial evidence - that evidence that only suggests an association with a past occurrence.Any evidence in a case
for which an inference is needed to relate it to the crime.Not observed by an eyewitness.Fact from which another fact
can be reasonably inferred.

Civil commitment - the legal proceeding by which a person who is mentally ill and imminently dangerous is involuntarily
committed to a psychiatric hospital.

Closing argument - also known as final argument, attorney's final statement to the court summing up the case and the
points points proven as well as those points not proven by opposing counsel.

Common law - body of law based on judicial decisions (precedents or customs and usage) generally derived from justice,
reason and common sense rather than legislative enactments.

Competency - possession of characteristics that qualify a witness to observe, recall, and testify under oath; personal
qualification of the witness to give testimony which differs from the witness ability to tell the truth.

Complainant - the party who complain or sues, one who applies to the court for legal redress, also called the plaintiff.

Concur - to agree with the judgment of another.When one court concurs with another, it agrees with or follows the
precedent set by that court's decision.

Concurrent sentence - sentences for more than one violation that are to be served at the same time rather that one
after the other.

Confession - an oral or written statement acknowledging guilt.

Consent search - exception to the requirement for a search warrant; written or oral permission is required from a
person with authority to give it.

Conspiracy - a combination of two or more person whose purpose is to commit unlawful or criminal act or to commit a
lawful act by criminal means.

Contempt of court - willful disobedience of a judge's command or of an official court order.

Continuance - court order that postpones legal action, such as a court hearing until later time.

Conviction - a judgment of guilt against a criminal defendant.

Corpus delicti - the proof that a crime has been committed, consisting of two components 1. that each element of the
crime be satisfied 2. that someone is responsible for inflicting the injury  or loss sustained.
                      - Body of the crime.

Court martial - military tribunal that has jurisdiction over offenses against laws of the service in which the member is
engaged. Military status is not sufficient, the crime must be service connected.

Court order - directive issued by the court, and is enforceable as law; written command or directive given by the judge.

Court of Appeals - a court that hears an appeal after a trial court has made a judgment.

Criminal prosecution - process that begins with the filing of charges against a person who has allegedly violated criminal
law and includes the arraignment and trial of the defendant. Criminal prosecution may result in fine, restitution,
imprisonment, or probation.

Cross-examination - the questioning of a witness produced by the other side.

Custody hearing - legal process, usually in family and juvenile court, to determine who has the right

Damages - money awarded by a court to a person injured by the unlawful act or negligence of another person.

Dauber test - a standard for determining the reliability of scientific expert testimony in court currently adopted by many
jurisdictions. Five factors are utilized to assess the scientific theory or technique testing of theory, use of standards and
control, peer review, error rate, and acceptability in the relevant scientific community.

Decision - the judgment reached or given by a court of law.

Default judgment - a decision of the court against the defendant because of failure to respond to a plaintiff's action.

Defendant - in a civil case, the person being sued. In a criminal case, the person charged with a crime.

Deposition - oral  or written testimony under oath but outside the court room.

Detention - temporary confinement of a person by a public authority.

Diminished capacity - a variation of the insanity defense that is applicable if the defendant lacks the ability to
meaningfully premeditate the crime.

Direct evidence - proof of facts by witnesses who saw acts done or heard words spoken as distinguished from
circumstantial or indirect evidence. Information offered by witnesses who testify about their own knowledge of the
facts.

Direct examination - the first questioning of witnesses by the party in whose behalf they are called.

Direct questions - queries that are phrased in a positive and confident manner, are stated clearly and address the topic
in a forthright manner.
Discovery - a pre-trial procedure by which one party can obtain vital facts and information material to the case to assist
in preparation for the trial. The purpose of discovery is to make for a fair trial and to allow each party to know what
document and information the opponents has in its possession.

Dismissal - action by the court that removes the court's jurisdiction over a given case.

Diversion - the process of removing some minor criminal, traffic or juvenile cases from the full judicial process on the
condition that the accused undergo some sort of rehabilitation or make restitution for damages.Diversion may take
place before the trial  or its equivalent.

Docket - a list of cases to be heard by the court.

Double jeopardy - putting a person on trial more than once for the same crime.

Dying declaration - a statement made just prior to death with the knowledge of impending death.Also called ante-
Morten statement.

Element of a crime - specific factors that define a crime, every element of which the prosecution must prove beyond a
reasonable doubt in order to obtain a conviction.

Entrapment - an act by enforcement agencies that lures an individual into committing a crime not otherwise
contemplated for the purpose of prosecuting him/her.

Evidentiary standards - guidelines used in examining evidence to determine whether it has been legally collected and
whether it is factual  and legally proves or is relevant to the case being heard.

Ex-parte order - an order issued by a judge on its own.

Exclusionary rule - the rules that defines whether evidence is admissible  in a trial.

Exigent circumstances - exception to the requirement for a search warrant when there is no time to get a warrant and
failure to search will lead to destruction or concealment of evidence, injury to police or others, or escape of the suspect.

Expert testimony - statements given to the court by witnesses with special skills or knowledge in some arts, science,
profession, or technical area.Experts educate the court by assisting it in understanding the evidence or in determining an
issue of fact.

Expert witness - a legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his/her special technical training or experience
is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue or a certain aspect of the issue that is involve in a court action.

Expunge - to strike out, obliterate, or mark for deletion from the court record.

Extradition - the process by which one state surrenders to another state a person accused or convicted of a crime in the
other state.

Felony - a crime of a graver nature than a misdemeanor, usually punishable by imprisonment in a penitentiary for more
than a year or a substantial fine.

Fence - a person in the business of buying stolen goods, usually for resale; to buy or sale stolen goods.
Fraud - an intentional misrepresentation or deception employed to deprive another of property or a legal right or to
otherwise do them harm.

Frye standard - a set of standards set by the court of appeals of the district of Columbia in 1923 in  the U.S in Frye vs. the
United states. The standards in general define when a new scientific test should be admissible as evidence in the court
system.

Frye test - a test emphasizing that the subject of an expert witness's testimony must conform to a generally accepted
explanatory theory.

Gag order - a trial judge's order to attorney's and witnesses not to talk to the press about the case.

Gault decision - land mark U.S. Supreme Court decision affirming that juveniles are entitled to the same due process
rights as adults the right to counsel, the right to notice of the charges, the right to confront and cross-examine a witness,
the right to remain silent, and the right to subpoena witnesses in defense.

Habeas corpus - a writ that commands that a person be brought before a judge. A writ of habeas corpus is a legal
document that forces law enforcement authorities to produce a prisoner they are holding and to legally justify his or her
detention.

Hearing - judicial or legal examination of the issues of law and fact between the parties.

Hearsay - a statement made during a trial or hearing that is not based on the personal, first-hand knowledge of the
witness. Statement made out of court and offered in court to support the truth of the facts asserted in the statement.

Hearsay rule - the regulation making a witness's statement inadmissible if it is not based on personal knowledge unless
it falls within certain exceptions.

Holographic document - any document completely written and signed by one person. A holographic may be probated
without anyone having witnessed its execution.

Hostile witness - a witness whose testimony is not favorable to the party who calls him or her as witness.

Immunity - grant by the court in which someone will not face prosecution in return for providing criminal evidence.

Inadmissible evidence - the testimony/evidence that the judge rules as not proper and hence instructs its disregard.

Incompetency - lacking the physical, intellectual, or moral capacity or qualification to perform a required duty.

Indeterminate sentence - a sentence of imprisonment to a specified minimum and maximum period of time, specifically
authorized by statute, subject to termination by a parole board or other authorized agency after the prisoner has served
the minimum term.

Infraction - a violation of law not punishable by imprisonment. Minor traffic offenses are generally considered
infractions.

Injunction - a preventive measure by which a court orders a party to refrain from doing a particular act.A preliminary
injunction is granted provisionally until a full hearing can be held to determine if it should be made permanent.

Interrogatories - set of specialized questions sent by one attorney to another concerning requested information of their
respective clients relevant to the case. 
Judgement - the final disposition of a case.

Judgement, default - default judgment is rendered because of the defendant's failure to answer or appear.

Judgement, summary - summary judgment is given on the basis of pleadings, affidavits, and exhibits presented for the
record without any need for a trial. It is used when there is no dispute as to the facts of the case and one party is
entitled to judgement as a matter of law.

Judicial review - authority of a court to review the official actions of other branches of government, also the authority to
declare unconstitutional the actions of other branches.

Jurisdiction - the nature and scope of a court's authority to hear or decide a case. Inherent power and authority of a
particular court to hear and determine cases.

Justice - fairness, providing outcomes to  each party in line with what they deserve.

Juvenile - characteristic of youth, youth means under 18 years of age.

Juvenile court - a court which decides criminal charges brought against children under 18 years of age.

Leading question - a question that suggest the answer desired of a witness. A party generally may not ask one's own
witness leading questions, leading questions may be ask only of hostile witnesses and on cross-examination.

Legal custody - right and responsibility to make the decisions regarding the health, education and welfare of a
child/person.

Liable - responsible or answerable for some action.

Litigation - a case, controversy, or lawsuit.

Malfeasance - the commission of an unlawful, wrongful act; any wrongful conduct that affects, interrupts, or interferes
with the performance of official duties.

Malpractice - improper or unethical conduct by the holder of a professional or official position.

Mass murder - a murder incident in which several victims are killed simultaneously or within a relatively short period of
time in the same general area.

Miranda warning - requirements that police tells a suspect in their custody of his/her constitutional right before they
questions him. Result of the Miranda vs. Arizona ruling. Law enforcement procedure that forewarns suspects of their
right to remain silent when in police custody. Violation of this right makes the suspect's confession inadmissible in
evidence.

Misdemeanor - criminal offenses considered less serious than felonies. Misdemeanor are generally punishable by fine or
a limited local jail term in the local jail.

Mistrial - a trial that is terminated before its normal conclusion and declared invalid prior to judgment.

Mitigating circumstance - factors such as age, mental capacity, motivation, or duress which lessens the degree of guilt in
a criminal offense and thus the nature of the punishment.

M'naghten rule - the test applied for the defense of insanity. Under this test, an accused is not criminally responsible if
suffering from a mental disease or defect at the time of committing the act and not understanding the nature and
quality of the act or that what was done was wrong.

Moot - is one not subject to a judicial determination because it involves an abstract question or a pretended controversy
that has not yet actually arisen or has already passed.

Motion - an application for a rule or order, made to a court or judge. An application to the court requesting an order or a
rule in favor of the applicant.

Objection - the process by which one party takes exception to some statement or procedure. An objection is either
sustained or overruled by the judge. If the judge overrules the objection, the witness may answer the question. If the
judge sustain the objection, the witness may not answer the question.

Omnibus hearing - hearing held in criminal court to dispose of appropriate issues such as whether evidence is admissible
before trial so as to ensure a fair and expeditious trial and avoid a multiplicity of court appearances.

Opening statements - not part of the evidence, these orations made by the lawyers on each side gives an overview of
the evidence that will be presented during the trial.

Opinion - conclusion reported by a witness who qualified as an expert on a given subject.

Order - any written directive of a court or judge other than a judgment.

Order to show cause - order to appear in court and present reasons why a particular order should not be executed.

Overrule -  judge's decision not to allow an objection. Decision by a higher court finding that a lower court  

Pardon - a form of executive clemency removing or extinguishing criminal convictions.

Physical evidence - any tangible article that tends to prove or disprove a point in question.

Plain view - an exception to the requirement for a search warrant, when there is an evidence of a crime in plain view
by a person who sees it lawfully.

Plaintiff - the complaining party in litigation.

Plea - in a criminal proceeding, it is the defendant's declaration in open court that he or she is guilty or not guilty. The
defendant's answer to the charges made in the information.

Plea bargaining - the process through which an accused person and a prosecutor negotiate a mutually satisfactory
disposition of a case.

Preliminary hearing - in criminal law, the hearing at which a  judge determines whether there is sufficient evidence
against a person charged with a crime to warrant holding him or her for trial.

Preponderance of evidence - the standard for a judgment in a civil suit, the evidence for one side outweighs that of the
other even a slight margin.
Presumption - an inference resulting from a rule of law or the proven existence of a fact that requires such rule or action
to be established in the action.

Pre-trial conference - a meeting between the judge and the lawyers involved in a lawsuit to narrow the issues in the
suit, agree on what will be presented at the trial and make a final effort to settle the case without trial.

Prima facie evidence - evidence that, in the judgment of the law, is good and sufficient to establish a given fact or a
chain of facts making up a party's claim or defense. If such evidence is unexplained or uncontradicted, it is sufficient to
obtain a favorable judgment for the issue it supports, may be contradicted by other evidence.

Probable cause - a reasonable ground for suspicion, supported by the circumstances sufficiently strong to justify the
issuance of a search warrant or to make an arrest. Reasonable ground for believing that a crime has been committed or
that the person committed the crime.

Prosecutor - a trial lawyer representing the government in a criminal case.

Protective custody - the confinement or guardianship of an individual by law enforcement with the objective of
preventing an assault or other crimes against him/her.

Public defender - (ex. PAO)government lawyer who provides free legal defense services to a poor person accused of
crime.

Putative father - a man accused but not proven to be the biological father of an offspring.

Quid pro Quo - something for something, as in making a deal (ex. plea bargaining)

Rape - sexual intercourse between a man and a woman without the women's consent.

Reasonable doubt - doubt that arises from evidence or lack thereof and would be entertained by a reasonable or
prudent person. Reasonable doubt requires acquittal.

Reasonable suspicion - a term referring to police officer's justification for stopping  and frisking a person.A mere hunch
is not a reasonable suspicion.

Rebuttal - the presentation of evidence to counter or disprove facts previously introduced by the adverse party.

Recess - an adjournment of a trial or a hearing that is temporary and occurs after the commencement of the trial.If there
is going to be a substantial delay, it is called continuance. A temporary dismissal is called sine die.

Record - document that furnishes objective evidence of activities performed or results achieved.

Recross - to cross-examine a witness a second time after redirect examination.

Re-direct examination - opportunity to present rebuttal evidence after one's evidence has been subjected to cross-
examination.

Redirect questioning - questioning by the original attorney that follows the opposing counsel's cross-examination.

Release on recognizance - a court order releasing a defendant from custody on the defendant's written promise to
appear in court when the defendant's case is scheduled for hearing, trial or other proceeding.A defendant who is
released on recognizance is not required to deposit money or other property with the court in order to be released.

Res gestae - all of the things done or words spoken in the course of the transaction or event; A record of what was said
or done in the first moments of an investigation.

Rest - a party is said o have rest its case when it has presented all of the evidence in intends to offer.

Robbery - felonious taking of another's property from his person or immediate presence and against his will by means of
force or fear.

Rules of evidence - standards governing whether evidence in a civil or criminal case is admissible.

Search and seizure - the body of law that covers the issue of examining a persons property with the intention of finding
evidence not in plain view (search) and taking possession of that property against the will of its owner or possessor
(seizure)

Sentence - a court's determination of the punishment to be inflicted on a person convicted of a crime.

Sentencing - last stage of criminal prosecution in which a convicted defendant is imprisoned, fined, ordered to pay
restitution, or granted a conditional release from custody.

Sequestration of witnesses - also called separation of witnesses, prevents a witness from being influenced by the
testimony of a prior witness.

Statute of limitation - the time within which a lawsuit must be brought to the time within which evidence must be
analyzed.

Stipulation - an agreement by both sides of a case about some aspect of a lawsuit or criminal trial.

Subpoena - a written command summoning a specific individual to appear in court under penalty for failure to do so.

Subpoena duces tecum - a court order commanding a witness to bring certain documents or records to court.

Subrogation - substituting one creditor for another.

Summary judgment - decision made by a trial court  based on written documentation submitted before any trials occur.

Summons - a notice to the defendant that he/she has been sued and is required to appear in court.

Suppression hearing - a hearing before a judge, in which one of the attorney's argues that certain evidence should not
be admitted at trial.

Temporary restraining order - (TRO) a judge's order forbidding certain actions until a full hearing can be heard.

Testimony - evidence given by a witness under oath. does not include evidence from documents and other physical
evidence.

Trial - judicial examination and determination of issues of law and fact disputed by parties to lawsuit.

Trial court - local court that initially hears all cases in dispute.
Validation - confirmation by examination and provision of objective evidence that the particular requirements for a
specific intended use are fulfilled.

Venue - synonymous with the place of trial. 

Wanton - characterized by reckless disregard of consequences and the safety and welfare of others.

Warrant - a court order authorizing law enforcement officers to make an arrest or conduct a search.

Warrant of Arrest - an order issued by a judge for the arrest of a person.

Witness - one who testifies to what he/she has seen, heard, or otherwise experienced.

Writ - a mandatory precept issued by an authority in the name of the sovereign or the state for the purpose of
compelling a person to do something.

Criminal Law (RPC Book 1)

Criminal Law - a branch of municipal law which defines crimes, treats of their nature, and provides for their punishment.

Characteristics of Criminal Law

1. General 2. Territorial 3. Prospective

General - binding on all persons who reside or sojourn in the Philippines.

Exceptions:
1. Treaty Stipulation
2. Laws of Preferential Application
3. Principles of Public International Law
ex. 1. Sovereigns and other chief of state
2. Ambassadors, Minister resident, and charges d' affaires
Note: Consuls, Vice Consuls, and other foreign commercial representatives cannot claim the privileges and immunities
accorded to ambassadors and ministers.

Territorial - Penal laws of the Philippines are enforceable only within its territory.
Exception: Art. 2 of the RPC - binding even on crimes committed outside the Philippines.
1. Offenses committed while on a Philippine ship or airship.
2. Forging or counterfeiting any coin or currency note of the Philippines or obligations and securities issued by the
government.
3. Introduction into the country of the above mentioned obligations and securities.
4. While being public officers and employees, an offense is committed in the exercise of their functions.
5. Crimes against the National Security and the Law of the Nations.

Prospective - The law does not have any retroactive effect.

Exception: When the law is favorable to the accused.
Exception to the Exception:
1. The New Law is expressly made inapplicable to pending actions or existing causes of action.
2. Offender is a habitual criminal.
Theories of Criminal Law
1. Classical Theory - basis is man's free will to choose between good and evil, that is why more stress is placed upon the
result of the felonious act than upon the criminal himself. The purpose of penalty is retribution. The RPC is generally
governed by this theory.

2. Positivist Theory - basis is the sum of social and economic phenomena which conditions man to do wrong in spite of
or contrary to his volition. This is exemplified in the provisions on impossible crimes and habitual delinquency.

3. Mixed Theory - combination of the classical and positivist theories wherein crimes that are economic and social in
nature should be dealt in a positive manner. The law is thus more compassionate.

Construction of Penal Laws

1. Liberally construed in favor of offender.
    Example: a. The offender must clearly fall within the terms of the law.
                        b. An act is criminal only when made so by the statute.
2. In cases of conflict with official translation, original Spanish text is controlling.
3. No interpretation by analogy.

Limitations on Power of Congress to Enact Penal Laws

1. Ex Post Facto Law
2. Bill of Attainder
3. Law that violates the equal protection clause of the constitution.
4. Law which imposes cruel and unusual punishments nor excessive fines.

Criminal Law (RPC Book 2)

Title 1 - Crimes Against National Security and the Law of Nations

Title 2 - Crimes Against the Fundamental laws of the State
Title 3 - Crimes Against Public Order
Title 4 - Crimes Against Public Interest
Title 5 - Crimes Relative to Opium and Other Prohibited Drug
Title 6 - Crimes Against Public Morals
Title 7 - Crimes Committed by Public Officers
Title 8 - Crimes Against Persons
Title 9 - Crimes Against Personal Liberty and Security
Title 10 - Crimes Against Property
Title 11 - Crimes Against Chastity
Title 12 - Crimes Against the Civil Status of Persons
Title 13 - Crimes Against Honor
Title 14 - Quasi-Offenses

Criminal Procedure

Etymology:    Krimea [Greek]: meaning, “to charge a wrongdoing”

Criminal Procedure
The method prescribed by law for the apprehension and prosecution of persons accused of any criminal offense, and
their punishment, in case of conviction.

It is concerned with the procedural steps through which a criminal case passes, commencing with the initial investigation
of a crime and concluding with the unconditional release of the offender.

It is a generic term used to describe the network of laws and rules which govern the procedural administration of
criminal justice.

Criminal Jurisdiction
The authority to hear and decide a particular offense and impose punishment for it. It has three requisites, namely:

Subject matter – cases of the general class where the proceedings in question belong as determined by the nature of
the offense and by the penalty imposed by law;

Territory – the geographical limits of the territory over which the court presides and where the offense was committed;

Person of the accused – acquired thru: a) arrest [with warrant or warrantless] or b) voluntary surrender.

I. Prosecution of Offenses
How instituted?
By filing the:    1) Complaint, or 2) Information.

Complaint
A sworn written statement charging a person with an offense Executed and Subscribed by the O.P.A.O. [Offended Party,
Any peace officer, or Other public officer charged with the enforcement of the law violated].

May be filed in the prosecutor’s office or directly to the court.

Information
1.An accusation in writing
2. Subscribed by the Prosecutor
3.Filed with the court

Both are:   
1. In writing
2. In the name of the People of the Philippines
3. Directed against all persons who appear to be responsible for the offense involved.

Elements of a complaint or information:

1. Formal elements, and
2. Substantive elements.

It must be:  
1. Sufficient in form, and
2. Sufficient in substance

Thus, under Section 14, of Rule 110, a complaint or information may be amended, in form and in substance.

A complaint or information is sufficient in form if it states: [N.D.A.N.A.P.]

1. The Name of the accused
2. The Designation of the offense given by the statute
3. The Acts or omissions complained of as constituting the offense
4.The Name of the offended party
5. The Approximate date of the commission of the offense
6. The Place where the offense was committed.

A complaint or information is sufficient in substance if it doesn’t contain any of the defects which is a ground for a
motion to quash. (Section 3, Rule 117)

Note:    A motion to quash, once granted, is equivalent to dismissal (but not acquittal).

Remedy if a complaint or information is defective:

I. If defective in form
   a) court may dismiss the complaint or information motu propio or upon motion, or
   b) accused may move for a BILL OF PARTICULARS
II. If defective in substance – No obligation is imposed on the judge to point out the duplicitousness or other defect in
the indictment on which an accused is being arraigned. It is for the accused to move for a motion to quash on the
ground that the complaint or information charges more than one offense, under sanction of waiver and loss of ground of
objection (Concurring opinion of CJ Narvasa, People v. Bartulay, 192 SCRA 632)

Note: For certain classes of Actions, it is the tribunal having jurisdiction which automatically determines whether or not
the papers are in order before giving it due course, meaning, it satisfies itself if the complaint or information is sufficient
in form and in substance.

Examples:
Articles of Impeachment in an impeachment proceedings
Presidential Election Protest

This is not so in criminal proceedings. It is incumbent upon the accused to object on substantive defects (People v.
Bartulay, supra).

Query:

JP was charged for indiscriminate firing. He claimed that he has to fire his gun in self-defense because there was an
actual threat on his person and the firing of warning shots was reasonably necessary in order to prevent or repel the
unlawful aggression directed against him. Despite this, the fiscal went on to file the information in court. May JP claim
that the information, though sufficient in form, is defective in substance? Why?

No. JP cannot claim that the information is defective in substance. This is so because “self-defense” is not a ground for a
motion to quash but a matter of defense. If proven, self-defense is a basis for acquittal, not dismissal.

Any explanation or defense which the defendant may want to invoke can be properly raised during trial (Galvez v. CA,
237 SCRA 685).

Distinction between Acquittal and Dismissal:

1. Acquittal is based on MERITS of the case (substantive) ex: accused A was found innocent of killing B.
2. Dismissal is based on TECHNICALITY (procedural) ex: the crime has already prescribed.

Notes:
1. There are certain classes of offenses that cannot be prosecuted de officio – 1private offenses, i.e. adultery,
concubinage, etc. and 2private libels, i.e. defamation imputing private offenses.
2.     For some offenses, there are conditions precedents before plaintiff can repair to the courts for redress [i.e. those
requiring mediation at the “lupong tagapamayapa”]. However, non-compliance of this rule is not jurisdictional. The
failure of the plaintiff to comply with the conciliation requirement of Sec. 40 under the Local Government Code of 1991
does not affect the Court’s jurisdiction if no timely objection is made [San Miguel Village School v. Pundogar, 173 SCRA
704, Bejar v. CA, 169 SCRA 566].
3.     All criminal actions, whether commenced by filing of complaint or information, are under the direct control of the
prosecutor.

Queries:

I. A, B, C, D were charged with homicide. Preliminary investigation was conducted by the fiscal who found sufficient
evidence against all, but, according to his determination, D was the least guilty. So, the fiscal filed the information only
against A, B, and C leaving out D whom he would utilize as state witness. Is the fiscal correct?

Under the Rules of Court, the fiscal cannot exclude D without court approval. It would be a grave abuse of discretion on
the part of the court in not including D in the information because of the prosecutors finding that there is sufficient
evidence against all. There was no more necessity to utilize D as a state witness.

Exception:
Under the Witness Protection Act, the prosecutor has the discretion of discharging an accused as a state witness and no
court approval is necessary.

II. Is designation of the offense an essential element of the complaint or information? Why? Give the exception, if any.

No. Because in case of conflict between the designation of the offense and the allegations, the allegation prevails.

The exception is when the allegation is so ambiguous that it may be interpreted to mean either one or another offense,
then the designation of the offense is controlling (Case of US v. Dixon, where the designation is for trespassing but the
allegations indicates either trespassing or a possible attempted rape).

II. Prosecution of Civil Action

Basis:
Art. 100, RPC - Every person criminally liable is also civilly liable

Generally, when a person commits a crime, he offends two entities, namely:    
1) The State [whose laws he violated]; and                                
2) The individual [whose person, right, honor, chastity, or property was actually or directly injured or damaged by the
same acts or omissions].

Exception:
When the infraction falls under the class of offenses called victimless crimes like gambling, betting on illegal cock fights,
drug addiction, prostitution, etc. etc. under the theory that “the offender himself is his own victim”.

Sec. 1, Rule 111 - When a criminal action is instituted, the civil action for the recovery of civil liability is deemed
instituted with the criminal action unless the offended party:
Waives the civil action;
Reserves the right to institute it separately; or
Institutes the civil action prior to the criminal action
Principle of proferrence of criminal action over civil action:
After the criminal action has been commenced, the separate civil action arising therefrom cannot be instituted until final
judgment has been entered in the criminal action.

If the criminal action is filed after the said civil action has already been instituted, the latter shall be suspended in
whatever stage it may be found before judgments on the merits xxx.

Reason for the rule:

Criminal action is based on an offense committed against the laws of the State while civil action is based on an injury to
individual rights. Public interest is superior over private one.

Exception to the rule of proferrence of criminal action over civil action

When the independent Civil Action is based on Articles 32, 33, 34 and 2176 of the Civil Code.
When there is a prejudicial question in the civil case that must be decided first before the criminal action can proceed
because the decision in the civil action is vital to the judgment of the criminal case.

Elements of Prejudicial Question:

The previously instituted civil action involves an issue similar or intimately related to the issue raised in the subsequent
criminal action, and
The resolution of such issue determines whether or not the criminal action may proceed.

Queries:

1. Nobern married Armie on 2005. On 2006, Nobern married X. On 2007, Armie filed a criminal case for bigamy against
Nobern. On 2008, X filed a civil case for annulment against Nobern on the ground that their marriage was void ab initio
for having been contracted during the subsistence of Nobern’s prior marriage to Armie without X knowing it.

Is there a prejudicial question? Why?

2. Nobern married Armie on 2005. On 2006, Nobern married X because X threatened to kill him unless he marries X. On
2007, Nobern filed an annulment against X on the ground of threat and intimidation. On 2008, Armie filed a criminal
case for bigamy against Nobern upon learning of Nobern’s marriage to X.

Is there a prejudicial question? Why?

Note:
Prejudicial question is subject to the principle that he who comes into court must come with clean hands. The accused
cannot be permitted to use the law in order to frustrate the ends of justice. Good faith or bad faith is important.

III. Preliminary Investigation

Defined
It is an inquiry or proceeding to determine whether there is sufficient ground to engender a well-founded belief that a
crime has been committed and the respondent is probably guilty thereof, and should be held for trial.

When required?
Before the filing of complaint or information for an offense where the penalty prescribed by law is imprisonment of at
least 4 years, 2 months and 1 day, without regard to fine.

When NOT REQUIRED:

In cases where the penalty imposed by law is NOT at least 4 years, 2 month, & 1 day
In case of a valid warrantless arrest [shall proceed in inquest]

Officers authorized to conduct PI

Provincial or City Prosecutors and their assistants;
National and Regional State Prosecutors; and
Other officers as may be authorized by law [COMELEC during Election Period, Ombudsman, etc.]

Note: Effective 2004, judges of the lower court can no longer conduct Preliminary Investigations.

Rules:
1. The complaint must be sufficient in form [See notes in Prosecution of Offenses, supra]
2. Supported by affidavits of the complainant and his witnesses
3. Numbers of copies are proportionate to the number of respondents plus 2 official copies

1. Within 10 days after the filing, fiscal determines if there is prima facie case. If no – dismiss. If yes – issue subpoenas.
2. Within 10 days after receipt of subpoena with the complaint and supporting affidavits and documents – respondent
submits counter affidavits.
3. In case respondent cannot be subpoenaed or does not submit counter affidavit within 10 days – investigating officer
resolves the complaint on the basis of evidence presented by complainant.

Clarificatory hearing – if there are facts and issues to be clarified from a party or witness - within 10 days after
submission of counter affidavit. No direct examinations. Questions must be addressed to the fiscal.

Resolution – within 10 days after the investigation.

Forwarding of fiscals’ resolution to superiors – within 5 days
Superiors shall act on the resolution – within 10 days

IV. Arrest

Defined:
1. [Based on Rules of Court] The taking of a person in custody in order that he may be bound to answer for the
commission of an offense (Sec. 1, RRC)

2. [Based on Jurisprudence] A restraint on person, depriving one of his own will and liberty, binding him to become
obedient to the will of the law (Larrañaga v. CA, 92 SCAD 605)

How made:

As to the manner of enforcement, by:

    1) Actual restraint, or
    2) Submission to the custody of the person making arrest

As to the presence or absence of judicial order:

    1) By virtue of a warrant, or
    2) Warrantless arrest, in cases allowed by the Rules
As to the person arresting:
    1) Arrest by peace officer, or
    2) Citizens arrest

When warrantless arrests allowed:

1. Inflagrante Delicto arrest – when in his presence, the person to be arrested has:

Committed
Is actually committing an offense
Is attempting to commit

Translation: In flagrante delicto [latin] – Literally, “caught in the act of wrong”.

2. Hot Pursuit arrest – when an offense has Ajust been committed and Bhe has probable cause to believe based on
personal knowledge of facts or circumstances that the person arrested has committed it.

Tests in determining probable cause based on personal knowledge:

Must be based on the senses, i.e. 1) Sight, 2) Hearing, and 3) Smell

Notes:
A. The arresting officer must have personal knowledge of the commission of the crime through his senses.  He cannot
“fish” for evidence first and afterward make the arrest.
B. The term “personal knowledge” excludes hearsay as a basis for probable cause.
C. There must first be a lawful arrest before any search may be conducted. The process cannot be reversed (Dissent of
Chief Justice A. Narvasa, People v. Malmstedt). Exception: in case of valid warantless searches (Majority opinion, People
v. Malmstedt, 198 SCRA 401).
D. For purposes of arrest – Officer may break into any building or enclosure where the person to be arrested is or is
reasonably believed to be, if he is refused admittance thereto, after announcing his authority and purpose (Sec. 11,
RRC).
E. For purposes of search and seizure – he cannot break into any building or enclosure without violating the right of
privacy. Exceptions: 1) When there is consent (Dissent of Justice I. Cruz, People v. Evaristo, 216 SCRA 431). 2) When
there is a warrant.

3. Arrest of fugitives from justice – persons who has escaped from a penal establishment, place of confinement etc.
while serving sentence, temporarily confined, or case is still pending – may be arrested under the theory that “he is
engaged in the commission of a continuing offense” (Parulan v. Director of Prisons, 22 SCRA 639).

Methods of Arrest:

I. With warrant, by officer:

The officer shall inform the person of: 1) the cause of the arrest, and 2) fact that warrant exist

Exception:    1) When he flees or forcibly resist before 1 & 2 is completed

        2) When the giving of info will imperil the arrest
II. Without warrant, by an officer and  by private persons:

Inform the person of    1) authority and cause of arrest [if person arresting is police officer] or 2) intent to arrest and
cause [if person arresting is private person]

Unless when the person to be arrested is either:

1) Engaged in the commission of the offense
2) Is pursued immediately after its commission
3) Has escaped, flees or forcibly resist before the officer or the private person making the arrest has the opportunity to
inform him of 1 & 2, or
4) When the giving of info would imperil the arrest

Tests in determining lawfulness of USE OF LETHAL FORCE by the arresting officer:

1) Test of reasonability – conduct of the arresting officer is examined.

Where the precipitate action of the arresting officer resulted in the loss of a human life and there exists no
circumstances whatsoever justifying the shooting of a person who is asleep, even if he is a notorious criminal –
condemnation, and not condonation should be the rule (People v. Oanis, 74 Phil. 257).

2) Test of necessity – conduct of the person arrested is examined.

Where the arrested person attempts to flee, struck a policeman with his fists, draw a mess knife and attacked another
policeman, the arresting officer is not required to afford him a fair opportunity for equal struggle. A police officer, in the
performance of his duty, must stand his ground and cannot, like private individual, take refuge in flight. His duty requires
him to overcome the offender (US v. Mojica, 42 Phil 784).

V. Bail

Kinds of bail bonds:

1. cash bond
2. property bond
3. surety bond
4. recognizance

Defined:
The security given for the release of a person in custody of the law, furnished by him or a bondsman, to guarantee his
appearance before any court as required under the conditions of law.

Generally:
The right to bail only accrues when a person is under custody. Court must have jurisdiction over the person of the
accused either thru: 1) arrest, with or without warrant, or 2) voluntary surrender.

Exception:
When the person under investigation cannot personally appear because he is hospitalized but applies for bail through
his counsel, he is deemed to be under the constructive custody of the law (Dinapol v. Baldado, 225 SCRA 110, Paderanga
v. CA, 247 SCRA 741).

Where to apply?
In the court where the case is pending (if not yet filed, may be filed before any court).
Conditions for bail:
See Sec. 2, Rule 114

Bail, a matter of right:

1. Before or after conviction by MTC, MTCC or MCTC
2. Before conviction by RTC of an offense not punishable by death, reclusion temporal, or life imprisonment

Bail, a matter of discretion:

1. Upon conviction of RTC of an offense not punishable by death, reclusion perpetua, or life imprisonment.
2. Before conviction for capital offenses [punishable by death], or an offense punishable by reclusion perpetua or life
imprisonment, when evidence of guilt is not strong. (Bail is neither a matter of right nor a matter of discretion only in
cases where the evidence of guilt is strong).

Bail granted in capital offenses despite findings that evidence of guilt is strong (Cited in Cruz, Constitutional Law, 2003
Ed.):
De la Rama v. Peoples Court, 77 Phil. 461 – accused was granted bail due to tuberculosis that requires confinement to
the hospital.
People v. Sison, GR 398, September 19, 1946 – humanitarian reasons considered by SC.

Notes:

1. The right to bail flows from the presumption of innocence. This is so because accusation is not synonymous with guilt.

2. In deportation proceedings, bail is not a matter of right but of discretion on the part of the Commissioner of
Immigration and Deportation (Harvey v. Defensor-Santiago, 162 SCRA 398).

3. Bail is not available to military facing court martial proceedings (Commendador v. De Villa, 200 SCRA 80).

4. I extradition proceedings, bail may be granted provided the accused undertake to submit himself to the jurisdiction of
the court and provided further that he is not a flight risk (Govt. of Hong Kong v. Judge Olalia, 2007)

VI. Rights of the accused

Rights may be waived, unless the waiver is contrary to law, public order, public policy, morals, or good customs or
prejudicial to a third person with a right recognized by law (Art. 6, NCC).

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be entitled to the following rights:

Key:    [PIPTEC CoSpA]

P – resumed innocent
I – nformed of the nature of the cause and accusation
P – resent in person and by counsel
T – estify in his own behalf
E – xempt from being compelled to be a witness against himself
C – onfront witnesses
C – ompulsory process to secure attendance of witnesses and production of other evidence
S – peedy, impartial and public trial
A – ppeal

1) To be presumed innocent until the contrary is proved beyond reasonable doubt.

Hierarchy of proof [according to degree of persuasiveness]:

Absolute certainty – ultimate truth [not required in any legal proceeding]
Moral certainty – passed the test of human experience [i.e., guilt beyond reasonable doubt, conclusive presumptions]
Relative certainty – so called because a higher degree of proof exists [i.e., preponderance of evidence, probable cause,
substantial evidence, disputable or prima facie presumptions]

Notes:
The starting point is the presumption of innocence (See: Section 3, Par. (a), Rule 131, RRC)
It is incumbent upon the prosecution to demonstrate culpability. The burden of proof lies in the prosecution. Unless guilt
beyond reasonable doubt is established, the accused need not prove his innocence.
Burden of proof – the duty of the affirmative to prove what it alleges. (Africa, The Art of Argumentation and Debate).
Absolute certainty is not demanded by the law to convict but only moral certainty.

2) To be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him.

Essential to avoid surprise and to afford him the opportunity to prepare his defense accordingly.
Arraignment serves this purpose by informing him why the prosecuting arm of the state is mobilized against him.
An accused cannot be convicted of an offense unless it is clearly charged in the compliant or information. Basic rule –
you cannot prove what you did not allege.

3) To be present and defend in person and by counsel at every stage of the proceedings, from arraignment to
promulgation of judgment.

Express or Implied waiver is renunciation to be present on that particular date only.

Escape of the accused is waiver by implication to be present on said date and all subsequent trial dates. [Fact of escape
made his failure unjustified because he has, by escaping, placed himself beyond the pale and protection of the law
(People v. Salas 143 SCRA 163, cited in Cruz, Constitutional Law, 2003 Ed.)].
Right to counsel is right to effective counsel. It is not enough to simply appoint a counsel de officio. Counsel must have
no conflict of interest. Thus, a fiscal cannot be appointed as counsel de officio.
When an accused is represented by a fake lawyer who pretended to be a member of the bar, his right to counsel is
violated, unless the accused voluntarily chose him knowing him to be a non-lawyer.

4) To testify as a witness in his own behalf but subject to cross-examination on matters covered by direct
examination. His silence shall not in any manner prejudice him.

5) To be exempt from being compelled to be a witness against himself.

Right to testify in his own behalf:

Once exercised, the accused is subject to limited cross-examination.
If not exercised, no inference of guilt can be derived from his silence alone.

Right against self-incrimination:

Intended to shield the guilty & imprudent as well as the innocent & farsighted.
Based on public policy and humanity, otherwise, the accused will be placed on the strongest temptation to commit
perjury.
Notes:
A. Prohibition covers 1testimonial compulsion and 2the production of the accused of incriminating documents and
articles demanded from him.
B. Does not include compulsion to 1submit fingerprints, 2photograph, 3blood or urine samples, and 4others requiring a
mere mechanical act on the part of the accused [Villaflor v. Summers, 41 Phil. 64, US v. Tan Teng, 23 Phil. 145,
Schemerber v. California, US L.Ed. 2d 908, 89 S CT No. 658].

6) To confront and cross-examine the witnesses against him at the trial.

Reasons:
To meet the witness face to face (Bill of Rights, 1987 Constitution)
To enable the court to judge the truthfulness, deportment, and the appearance of the witness while testifying (US v,
Javier, 37 Phil 449).

Effect of absence of right to cross examine:

When there is express or implied waiver – no effect
In the absence of waiver – testimony of the witness cannot be considered as complete and therefore cannot form part
of the evidence against the accused.

Effect when witness dies:

Before he could take witness stand – inadmissible
After giving his direct testimony but before cross examination – Gen. rule: inadmissible. Exception: where the adverse
party was given adequate opportunity but failed to cross examine due to his own fault
After the defense conducted cross examination – admissible

7) To have compulsory process issued to secure the attendance of witnesses and production of other evidence in his
behalf.

“Compulsory process” refers to the issuance of the court of:

Sub-poena – for the attendance of witnesses
Sub-poena duces tecum – for the production of documents

Notes:
A. If a sub-poena or sub-poena duces tecum is issued and the person named in the sub-poena refuses to appear or
refuses to produce the required documents without justifiable reasons – court has the power to declare that person in
contempt and may order his arrest. [People v. Montejo, 21 SCRA 722].

B. The coercive powers of the court must be employed in order to give meaning to this right.

8) To have speedy, impartial and public trial.

Speed:
Justice delayed is justice as denied

Impartiality:
Every party litigant is entitled to nothing less than the cold neutrality of an impartial court (Macalintal v. Judge Teh, 280
SCRA 623).
Public trial:
So that the public may see that he is fairly dealt with and not unjustly condemned in case of conviction.
So the public may know of the fact or the basis of his innocence in case of acquittal.

Note: “Public trial” and “Trial by publicity” are two different things. They are not the same. There should be a public trial,
not trial by publicity.

9) To appeal in all cases allowed and, in the manner, prescribed by law.

The right to appeal is a statutory right but withdrawal of this right, in the absence of a valid waiver, constitutes a denial
of due process guaranteed by the Constitution (Cruz, Constitutional Law, 2003 Ed.).
It is not a natural right or inherent one. The party who seeks to avail of the said right must comply with the requirements
of the Rules. Otherwise, the right to appeal is lost (People v. Sabellano, 198 SCRA 196)

VII. Arraignment and Plea

Arraignment: The initial step in a criminal prosecution whereby the defendant is brought before the court to hear the
charges and to enter a plea (Black’s Law Dictionary).

Venue for Arraignment and Plea:

Before the court where the complaint or information was filed or is assigned for trial.

Purpose of arraignment [Key: FIG] (14 Am. Jur., p. 939, GV Jacinto, Crim. Proc.)

1) To fix the identity of the accused

2) To inform him of the charge
3) To give the accused an opportunity to plead

Note:
In order for the Court to “acquire” complete jurisdiction over the person of the accused, arraignment is essential. Unless
this procedure is completed, the court cannot commence trial in absentia.

Procedure:
Arraignment must be made in open court by the judge or the clerk
Accused must be furnished with a copy of the complaint or information
Complaint or Information must be read in a language or dialect known to him
Accused must be present
Accused must personally enter his plea

I. If under preventive detention

Raffle of case and transmittal of records – within 3 days
Arraignment – within 10 days from the date of raffle
Pre-trial conference – within 10 days after arraignment

II. If not under preventive detention

General rule – within 30 days from the date the court acquires jurisdiction
Exception – a shorter period is provided by special law or SC Circular

Rules in entering a plea:

If accused refuses to plead or makes a conditional plea – a plea of not guilty shall be entered
If accused enters a plea but presents exculpatory evidence – plea of guilty is withdrawn and a plea of not guilty shall be
entered for him. Burden of proof shifts.
If accused enters a plea to a capital offense – court shall conduct a searching inquiry into the voluntariness and full
comprehension of the consequences of his plea and shall require the prosecution to prove his guilt and the precise
degree of culpability.

Pre-trial Conference:
Private offended party shall be required to appear for purposes of:   
1)    Plea-bargaining
2)    Determination of civil liability
3)    Other matters requiring his presence

In case of failure of the offended party to appear despite due notice – conformity of prosecutor is sufficient for purposes
of pleading guilty to a lesser offense which is necessarily included in the offense charged.

Bill of particulars:
The accused may, before arraignment, move for a bill of particulars to enable him properly to plead and prepare for
trial. The motion shall specify the alleged defects of the complaint or information and the details desired.

Scope of the Bill of Particular:

Bill of Particulars is a remedy for formal defects and not substantive defects.

The remedy against an indictment that fails to allege the time of the commission of the offense with sufficient definition
is a Motion for Bill of Particulars and not a Motion to Quash (Rocaberte v. People, 192 SCRA 152).

[See discussion in: Elements of Complaint and Information, remedy in case complaint or information is defective, supra]

Modes of discovery:
Accused has a right against the suppression of evidence favorable to an accused which is material as to 1) guilt, or 2) as
to punishment (Webb v. De Leon, 247 SCRA 653).

Suppressed evidence must be of such nature as to affect the outcome of the trial (US v. Agurs, US v. Bagley)

Notes:

1) Arraignment is important for notifying the accused of the cause he is required to meet. The accused has the right to
be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation against him (Borja v. Mendoza, 77 SCRA 422).

2) The existence of a plea is an essential requisite to double jeopardy (People v. Balicas)

Criminal Evidence

I. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATION:

A. Importance of the study of Evidence in Law Enforcement:

As an element of our Criminal Justice System, it is the duty of every law enforcement agencies to provide the
prosecution with the materials and information (Evidence) necessary in order to support conviction.
Every person is entitled to be presumed innocent of a crime or wrong, unless proven otherwise. This is a prima facie
presumption which must be overcome by proof beyond reasonable doubt.

B. Connecting the chain of events through Evidence during Trial:

Trial refers to “the examination before a competent tribunal, according to the laws of the land, of the facts in issue in a
cause, for the purposes of determining such issue” (U.S. v. Raymundo, 14 Phil 416).

Evidence helps in the determination of Questions of Facts by helping the judge reconstruct the chain of events from the
conception up to the consummation of a criminal design.

C. Factum Probandum and Factum Probans

Factum Probandum – The ultimate facts to be proven. These are the propositions of law.

Examples:
•    murder was committed thru treachery
•    robbery was made through force upon things

Factum Probans – The evidentiary Facts. These addresses questions of fact.

Examples:
•    exit wounds were in front indicating that victim was shot at the back
•    destroyed locks indicative of force upon things

Thus, the outcome of every trial is determined by:

•    Propositions of law, and
•    Questions of fact.

D. Proof and Evidence

Evidence – the means to arrive at a conclusion. Under the Revised Rules of Court, evidence is defined as “the means,
sanctioned by the rules, for ascertainment in a judicial proceeding, the truth, respecting a matter of fact”.

Proof – the result of introducing evidence. The establishment of a requisite degree of belief in the mind of the judge as
to the facts in issue. It refers to the accumulation of evidence sufficient to persuade the trial court.

Quantum of evidence – the totality of evidence presented for consideration

Quantum of proof – refers to the degree of proof required in order to arrive at a conclusion.

Burden of evidence – the duty of a party of going forward with evidence.

Burden of proof – the duty of the affirmative to prove that which it alleges.

Variations on degrees of proof based on type of action:

1.    Criminal Action – proof beyond reasonable doubt [that degree of proof which produces conviction in an
unprejudiced mind]
2.    Civil Action – preponderance of evidence [evidence of greater weight or more convincing than that which is offered
to refute it]
3.    Administrative Action – sufficiency of evidence [that amount of relevant evidence which a reasonable mind might
accept as adequate to justify a conclusion]

E. Exclusionary Rule. (Fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine)

Evidence ILLEGALLY OBTAINED are inadmissible for reasons of public policy. This is so because of the constitutional
requirement of due process. Due process has been defined as “the law that hears before it condemns, which proceeds
upon inquiry, and renders judgment only after fair trial”.

As a result, jurisprudence has evolved a rule that renders inadmissible any evidence obtained in an illegal search from
being introduced in trial.

F. Principle of Chain of Custody of Evidence

If the evidence is of a type which cannot be easily recognized or can readily be confused or tampered with, the
proponent of the object must present evidence of its chain of custody. The proponent need not negate all possibilities of
substitution or tampering in the chain of custody, but must show that:
The evidence is identified as the same object which was taken from the scene;
It was not tampered with, or that any alteration can be sufficiently explained (i.e. discoloration due to the application of
ninhydrine solution, etc.); and
The persons who have handled the evidence are known and may be examined in court with regard to the object.

II. GENERAL PROVISIONS:

A. Concepts of evidence:

1.    It is a means of ascertainment – used to arrive at a legal conclusion

2.    It is sanctioned by the rules of court – meaning, not excluded by the rules on relevancy and admissibility
3.    It is used in a judicial proceeding – there is a jural conflict involving different rights asserted by different parties
4.    It pertains to the truth respecting a matter of fact – evidence represents a “claim” either for the prosecution or for
the defense where issues (clashes of view) are present.

Admissibility of Evidence:
For evidence to be admissible, it must be:   
1) relevant to the issue [relevancy test], and
2) not excluded by the law or rules of court [competency test].

Note:  To determine the relevancy of any item of proof, the purpose for which it is sought to be introduced must first be
known (There must be a formal offer).

Test of relevancy of evidence:

Whether or not the factual information tendered for evaluation of the trial court would be helpful in the determination
of the factual issue that is disputed.

When is evidence relevant?

When it has a relation to the fact in issue as to induce belief in its:   
1) existence, or 2) non-existence
In other words, evidence is relevant when it is: 1) material, and 2) has probative value

What is meant by “probative value”?

It is the tendency of the evidence to establish the proposition that it is offered to prove.

“Collateral Matters” not admissible except when it tend in any reasonable degree to establish probability or
improbability of the fact in issue.

Collateral matters – matters other than the fact in issue and which are offered as a basis for inference as to the
existence or non-existence of the facts in issue.

Collateral matters are classified into:

1.    Antecedent circumstances – facts existing before the commission of the crime [i.e. hatred, bad moral character of
the offender, previous plan, conspiracy, etc.]
2.    Concomitant circumstances – facts existing during the commission of the crime [i.e. opportunity, presence of the
accused at the scene of the crime, etc.]
3.    Subsequent circumstances – facts existing after the commission of the crime [i.e. flight, extrajudicial admission to
third party, attempt to conceal effects of the crime, possession of stolen property, etc.]

Query: Is modus operandi an antecedent, concomitant or subsequent circumstance?

B. Judicial Notice, basis of:

Judicial notice is based on necessity and expediency. This is so because what is known need not be proved.

Different kinds of judicial notices:

1.    mandatory
2.    discretionary
3.    hearing required

C. Confession and Admission, distinguished:

Confession – an acknowledgement of guilt.
Admission – an acknowledgment of facts.

Different kinds of confession/admission:

1.    Judicial
2.    Extrajudicial
3.    Oral
4.    Written
5.    Voluntary
6.    Forced

Different kinds of evidence:

1.    Relevant evidence – evidence having any value in reason as tending to prove any matter provable in an action.
2.    Material evidence – evidence is material when it is directed to prove a fact in issue as determined by the rules of
substantive law and pleadings.
3.    Competent evidence – not excluded by law.
4.    Direct evidence – proves the fact in issue without aid of inference or presumptions.
5.    Circumstantial evidence - the proof of fact or facts from which, taken either singly or collectively, the existence of a
particular fact in dispute may be inferred as necessary or probable consequence.
6.    Positive evidence – evidence which affirms a fact in issue.
7.    Negative evidence - evidence which denies the existence of a fact in issue.
8.    Rebutting evidence – given to repel, counter act or disprove facts given in evidence by the other party.
9.    Primary/Best evidence – that which the law regards as affording the greatest certainty.
10.  Secondary evidence – that which indicates the existence of a more original source of information.
11.  Expert evidence – the testimony of one possessing knowledge not usually acquired by other persons.
12. Prima facie evidence – evidence which can stand alone to support a conviction unless rebutted.
13. Conclusive evidence – incontrovertible evidence
14. Cumulative evidence – additional evidence of the same kind bearing on the same point.
15. Corroborative evidence – additional evidence of a different kind and character tending to prove the same point as
that of previously offered evidence.
16. Character evidence – evidence of a person’s moral standing or personality traits in a community based on reputation
or opinion.
17. Demeanor evidence – the behavior of a witness on the witness stand during trial to be considered by the judge on
the issue of credibility.
18. Demonstrative evidence – evidence that has tangible and exemplifying   purpose.
19. Hearsay evidence – oral testimony or documentary evidence which does not derive its value solely from the credit to
be attached to the witness himself.
20.Testimonial evidence – oral averments given in open court by the witness.
21. Object/Auotoptic proferrence/Real evidence – those addressed to the senses of the court (sight, hearing, smell,
touch, taste).
22. Documentary evidence – those consisting of writing or any material of written expression offered as proof of its
contents containing letters, words, numbers, figures, symbols or other modes 

Best Evidence Rule:

When the subject of the inquiry is the contents of a document, no evidence shall be admissible other than the original of
the document.

For exceptions, see Sec. 3, Rule 130, Revised Rules of Court.

A document is legally considered “Original” when:

1.    It is the subject of an inquiry
2.    When in two or more copies executed at or about the same time, with identical contents.
3.    When an entry is repeated in ordinary course of business, one being copied from another at or near the time of the
transaction.

Question: May a “fake” document be considered as “original” or “authentic”?

Yes. A forged or spurious document when presented in court for examination is considered as the original fake/forged
document. Thus, a mere photocopy of the allegedly forged or spurious document is only secondary to the original
questioned document.

Secondary Evidence
When the original document has been:
1.    lost,
2.    destroyed, or
3.    cannot be produced in court.
The offeror without bad faith must:
1.    prove its execution or existence, and
2.    prove the cause of its unavailability.

Secondary evidence may consist of:

1.    a copy,
2.    recital of its contents in some authentic document, or
3.    by testimony of witnesses.

When original document is in the custody of:

1.    adverse party – adverse party must have reasonable notice to produce it. After such notice and satisfactory proof of
its existence, he fails to produce it, secondary evidence may be presented.
2.    public officer – contents may be proved by certified copy issued by the public officer in custody thereof.

III. TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE:

Qualifications of witnesses:
1.    can perceive
2.    can make known their perception to others
3.    not disqualified by reason of mental incapacity, immaturity, marriage, privileged communications, or “dead man’s
statute”.

“Res Inter Alios Acta” Rule

General Rule: The rights of a party cannot be prejudiced by an act, declaration, or omission of another.
Exception:
1.    admission by a co-partner or agent
2.    admission by a conspirator
3.    admission by privies
4.    admission by silence

In the above cases, the admission of one person is admissible as evidence against another.

Testimonial Knowledge:
General Rule: A witness can testify only to those facts which he knows of his personal knowledge; that is, which are
derived from his own perception. Any statement which derives its strength from another’s personal knowledge is
hearsay and is therefore inadmissible.
Exceptions:
1.    Dying declarations (ante-mortem statements)
2.    Declaration against interest
3.    Act or declaration about pedigree
4.    Family reputation or tradition regarding pedigree
5.    Common reputation
6.    Part of the res gestae
7.    Entries in the course of business
8.    Entries in official records
9.    Commercial lists and the like
10.  Learned treatises
11.  Testimony or deposition at a former proceeding
12.  Examination of child victim/witness in cases of child abuse

IV. BURDEN OF PROOF AND PRESUMPTIONS:

Burden of proof – the duty of a party to present evidence on the facts in issue necessary to establish his claim or
defense by the amount of evidence required by law.

Presumption – an inference as to the existence of a fact not actually known, arising from its usual connection with
another which is known or a conjecture based on past experience as to what course human affairs ordinarily take.

2 kinds of presumptions:
1.    Conclusive presumptions [jure et de jure] – based on rules of substantive law which cannot be overcome by
evidence to the contrary.
2.    Disputable presumptions [prima facie presumptions, rebuttable presumptions] – based on procedural rules and
may be overcome by evidence to the contrary.

Kinds of Conclusive Presumptions:

1.    Estoppel by record or judgment – the preclusion to deny the truth of matters set forth in a record, whether judicial
or legislative, and also deny the facts adjudicated by a court of competent jurisdiction (Salud v. CA, 233 SCRA 387).
2.    Estoppel by deed – a bar which precludes a party to a deed and his privies from asserting as against the other and
his privies any right or title in derogation of the deed or denying the truth of any material fact asserted in it (Iriola v.
Felices, 30 SCRA 202).
3.    Estoppel in pais – based upon express representation or statements or upon positive acts or conduct. A party
cannot, in the course of litigation or in dealings in pais, be permitted to repudiate his representation or occupy
inconsistent positions.
4.    Estoppel against Tenant – the tenant is not permitted to deny the title of his landlord at the time of the
commencement of the relation of landlord and tenant between them.

Note: For Kinds of disputable presumptions, see Sec. 3, Rule 131 of the Revised Rules of Court.

Presentation of Evidence:
The examination of witnesses presented in a trial or hearing shall be done is open court, and under oath or affirmation.
Unless the witness is incapacitated to speak, or the question calls for a different mode of answer, the answer of the
witness shall be given orally.

Rights and Obligations of witnesses:

1. To be protected from irrelevant, improper, or insulting questions, and from harsh or insulting demeanor.
2. Not to be detained longer than the interest of justice requires.
3. Not to be examined except only as to matters pertinent to the issue.
4. Not to give an answer which will tend to subject him to a penalty for an offense unless otherwise provided by law.
5. Not to give an answer which will tend to degrade his reputation, unless it be to the very fact at issue or to the fact
from which the     fact in issue would be presumed, but a witness must answer to the facts of his previous final
conviction for an offense.

Order of Examination of individual witnesses:

Direct examination by the proponent
Cross examination by the opponent
Re-direct examination by the proponent
Re-cross examination by the opponent
Direct examination – the examination in chief of a witness by the party presenting him on the facts relevant to the issue.
Cross examination – the examination by the adverse party of the witness as to any matter stated in the direct
examination, or connected therewith, with sufficient fullness and freedom from interest or bias, or the reverse, and to
elicit all important facts bearing upon the issue.

Re-direct examination – second questioning by the proponent to explain or supplement answers given in the cross
examination.
Re-cross examination – second questioning by the adverse party on matters stated on the re-direct and also on such
matters as may be allowed by court.

Different Types of Questions:

Leading questions –It is one where the answer is already supplied by the examiner into the mouth of the witness. [Ex.
You saw Jose killed Juan because you were present when it happened, didn’t you?]
Misleading question – a question which cannot be answered without making an unintended admission. [Ex. Do you still
beat your wife?]
Compound question – a question which calls for a single answer to more than one question. [Ex. Have you seen and
heard him?]
Argumentative question – a type of leading question which reflects the examiners interpretation of the facts. [Ex. Why
were you driving carelessly?]
Speculative question – a question which assumes a disputed fact not stated by the witness as true. [Ex. The victim cried
in pain, didn’t he?]
Conclusionary question – a question which asks for an opinion which the witness is not qualified or permitted to
answer. [Ex. Asking a high school drop-out whether the gun used is a Cal. 45 pistol or 9mm pistol]
Cumulative question – a question which has already been asked and answered.
Harassing/Embarrassing question – [Ex. Are you a homosexual?]

Classes of Documents:
Documents are either public or private.

Public documents are:

    1. The written official acts, or records of the official acts of sovereign authority, official bodies and tribunals, and public
officers, whether of the Philippines, or a foreign country.
    2. Documents acknowledged before a notary public except last wills and testaments.
    3. Public records (1) kept in the Philippines, or private documents (2) required by law to be entered therein.

All other writings are private.

SOME USEFUL LATIN TERMS AND LEGAL MAXIMS:

Verba legis non est decendendum – from the words of the law there can be no departure.
Dura lex sed lex – the law may be harsh but it is the law.
Ignorantia legis neminem excusat – ignorance of the law excuses no one.
Ignorantia facti excusat – mistake of fact excuses.
Praeter intentionem – different from that which was intended.
Error in personae – mistake in identity.
Abberatio Ictus – mistake in the blow
Nulum crimen, nulla poena sine lege – there is no crime when there is no law punishing the same.
Actus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea – the act cannot be criminal where the mind is not criminal.
Actus mi invictu reus, nisi mens facit reum – an act done by me against my will is not my act.
Mens rea – guilty mind.
Actus reus – guilty act.
Res ipsa loquitor – the thing speaks for itself.
Causa Proxima – proximate cause which produced the immediate effect.
Prima facie – at first glance.
Locus Criminis – scene of the crime or crime scene.
Pro Reo – principle in Criminal Law which states that where the statute admits of several interpretations, the one most
favorable to the accused shall be adopted.
Res Gestae – the thing itself.
Falsus in unum, falsus in omnibus – false in one part of the statement would render the entire statement false (note:
this maxim is not recognized in our jurisdiction).

Definition of Terms

Admissible evidence - Evidence that is both relevant and competent.

Admissions - Any statement of fact made by a party against his interest or unfavorable to the conclusion  for  which  he 
contends or  is inconsistent with the facts alleged by him.

Best Evidence Rule - When the subject of inquiry is the contents of a document, no evidence shall be admissible other
than the original document itself.

Burden of Proof - Duty of a party to present evidence on the facts in issue necessary to establish his claim/defense by
the amount required by law.

Child Witness - Any person who at the time of giving testimony is less than 18 years old.

Circumstantial Evidence - Proof of fact/s from which, taken singly/collectively, the existence of the particular fact in
dispute may be inferred as a necessary/probable consequence. It is evidence of relevant collateral facts.

Collateral Matters - Matters other than the fact in issue and which are offered as a basis for inference as to the
existence or non-existence of the facts in issue.

Competence -  Evidence is not excluded by law or Rules of Court.

Conclusive Evidence - That class of evidence which the law does not allow to be contradicted.

Confession - A categorical acknowledgment of guilt made by an accused in a criminal case without  any  exculpatory 
statement or explanation.

Corroborative Evidence - Additional evidence of a different character to the same point.

Cumulative Evidence - Evidence of the same kind and to the same state of facts.

Direct Evidence - Proves the fact in dispute without aid of any inference or presumption.

Documentary Evidence - Writings or any material containing letters, words, numbers, figures, symbols or other modes
of written expression offered as proof of their content.
Electronic Data Message - Information generated,  sent,  received  or  stored  by electronic, optical or similar means

Electronic Document - Information or the  representation  of information/data/figures/symbols  or  other modes of

written expression described or however represented, by which a right is established or an obligation extinguished, or by
which a fact may be proved and affirmed, which is received/recorded/ transmitted/stored/processed/ retrieved/
produced electronically. It includes digitally signed documents and any print out or output, readable by sight or other
means, which accurately reflects the electronic data message or electronic document.

Electronic Signature - Any distinctive mark, characteristic and/or sound in electronic form, representing the identity of a
person and attached to or logically associated with the electronic data message  or  electronic  document  or  any
methodology/ procedure employed/adopted by a person and executed/adopted by such person with the intention of
authenticating, signing or approving an electronic data message or electronic document.

Ephemeral Electronic Communication -  Refers to telephone conversations, text messages, chatroom sessions,
streaming audio, streaming video and other electronic forms of communication the evidence of which is not
recorded/retained.

Extra Judicial Admission - Any admission other than judicial.

Factum probandum – ultimate fact or the fact sought to be established.

Factum probans – evidentiary fact or the fact by which the factum probandum is to be established.

Judicial Admissions -  Admissions, verbal or written, made by the party in the course of the proceedings in the same
case. It requires no proof.

Negative Evidence - When witness states that he did not see or know of the occurrence of a fact (total disclaimer of
personal knowledge).

Object Evidence - Directly addressed to the senses of the court. Also called real evidence.

Parol Evidence Rule - Any evidence aliunde, whether oral or written, which is intended or tends to vary or contradict  a  
complete  and  enforceable agreement embodied in a document.

Pedigree - Relationship, family genealogy, birth, marriage, death, the dates when and the places where these fast
occurred, and the names of the relatives. It also embraces facts of family history intimately connected with pedigree.

Positive Evidence - When a witness affirms that a fact did or did not occur (there is personal knowledge).

Preponderance of Evidence - The evidence adduced by one side is, as a whole, superior to or has greater weight than
that of the other. Where the evidence presented by one side is insufficient to  ascertain  the  claim,  there  is  no
preponderance of evidence.

Prima Facie Evidence - That which, standing alone, is sufficient to maintain the proposition affirmed.

Primary Evidence - (Best Evidence) - That which the law regards as affording greatest certainty of the fact in question.

Proof Beyond Reasonable Doubt - That  degree  of  proof  which produces conviction in an unprejudiced mind. It does
not mean such a degree of proof as, excluding the possibility of error, produces absolute certainty. Only moral certainty
is required – that degree of proof which produces conviction in an unprejudiced mind.

Relevance - Evidence has such a relation to the fact in issue as to induce belief of its existence or non-existence.

Res Gestae - It literally means “Things done”.

                          1) Statements made by a person while a starting occurrence is taking place or immediately prior
 or subsequent thereto, with respect to the circumstances thereof.
                          2) Statements accompanying an equivocal act material to the issue, and giving it a legal significance.

Res Inter Alios Acta - The rights of a party cannot be prejudiced by an act/declaration/omission of another.

Secondary Evidence - (Substitutionary) -  That which is inferior to the primary evidence and is permitted by law only
when the best evidence is not available.

Substantial Evidence - The amount of relevant evidence which a reasonable mind might accept as adequate to support a
conclusion.

Testimonial Evidence - Submitted to the court through the testimony or deposition of a witness.

Crime Detection, Investigation, and Prevention

Crime detection begins with the discovery of crime scene and proceeds through the process of evidence collection,
identification and analysis.

Crime prevention and detection is the major task of the police. In carrying out this task, the police cooperate with the
authorities concerned to promote public knowledge of crime prevention and they conduct investigation and collect
evidence for examination with scientific instruments and methods through legal procedures in hope that all cases
occurring could be solved promptly to ensure social security and stability.

What are the goals of policing?

1. To protect life and property
2. To maintain peace and order
3. To enforce the law
4. To prevent and detect crimes
5. To assist the public in circumstances of personal emergency

Problem Oriented Policing - police patrol personnel look at causes of crime and potential crime in particular areas rather
than just dealing with incidents.

Community Policing - crime prevention methods involving the wider community.

Deterrence by Example - a reactive form of policing and crime prevention through the sight of police officer in uniform.

Crime Prevention - is the anticipation, recognition, and appraisal of a crime risk and the initiation of action to remove or
reduce it.

Whose responsibility is crime prevention? everyone, however, law enforcement agencies such as the police are the
focal point  in community crime prevention.

Whose responsibility is crime detection? police, though special law enforcement agencies may be responsible for the
discovery of a particular types of crimes. Ex, PDEA for drug related offenses.

Whose responsibility is crime investigation?  police and other law enforcement agencies.

Crime Detection Falls Into 3 Phases

1. The discovery that a crime has been committed.
2. The identification of the suspect
3. The collection of sufficient evidence to indict the suspect before the court of justice.

Fundamentals of Criminal Investigation

Investigation - an inquiry, judicial or otherwise for the discovery and collection of facts concerning the matters involved.
                        - it is the process of inquiring, eliciting, soliciting and getting vital information, facts, circumstances in order
to establish the truth.

Criminal Investigator - a public safety officer who is tasked to conduct the investigation of all criminal cases as provided
for and embodied under the revised penal code, criminals laws and special laws which are criminal in nature.
                                      - a well trained, disciplined and experienced professional in the field of criminal investigation.
Custodial Investigation - investigation conducted by law enforcement officers after a person has been arrested or
deprived of his freedom of action.

Neighborhood Investigation - one of the most crucial steps in kidnap for ransom cases which is often overlooked. The
objective is to identify and interview in person all individuals in the area where the victim was kidnapped or last known
sighting area during the window of opportunity. (last time seen until the time discovered missing)

Crime scene - a venue or place where the alleged crime/incident/event has been committed.

Corpus delicti - (Latin for the body of the crime) - used to describe the physical or material evidence that a crime has
been committed. ex. corpse of a murder victim.

Confession - is an express acknowledgement by the accused in a criminal prosecution of the truth of his guilt as to the
offense charge.

Admission - refers to statement of facts not directly constituting an acknowledgement of guilt.

Organized criminal group - a structured group of three or more persons existing for a period of time and acting in
concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crime or offenses.

Organized crime - a combination of two or more persons who are engaged in a criminal or virtual criminal activity on a
continuing basis for the purpose of profit or power using gangland style to attain their purpose.

Physical evidence - evidenced addressed to the senses of the court that are capable of being exhibited, examined or
viewed by the court. This includes but not limited to fingerprints, body fluid, explosives, hazardous chemicals,
soil/burned debris, bombs, electronic parts used in the commission of the crime.

Victimology/victim profiling - a detailed account of the victim’s lifestyle and personality, assist in determining the
nature of the disappearance, the risk level of the victim and the type of person who could have committed the crime.
Complete information regarding the victim’s physical description, normal behavior patterns, the family dynamics and
known friends and acquaintances should be obtained as soon as possible.

Miranda vs. Arizona - Ernesto Miranda had confessed to rape and kidnapping, after two-hour interrogation. Because the
interrogators failed to inform Miranda of his right to counsel and remain silent, his conviction was overturned.

Waterboarding - refers to the practice of strapping a suspect to a board with his or her head lowered, then the face is
covered and water is poured over it causing the suspect to gag and experience the sensation of drowning.

Chinese water torture - interrogation technique, repeatedly dripping water on the forehead of the suspect. The goal is
to drive the suspect to near insanity thereby obtaining a confession.

Serial Killer - is someone who murders 3 or more people with "cooling off" periods in between.

Police Blotter - is an 18" x 12" logbook with hard bound cover that contains the daily register of all crime incident
reports, official summary of arrests and other significant events reported in a police station. A separate police blotter
shall be maintained for offenses requiring confidentiality like violence against women and children and those cases
involving a child in conflict with the law to protect their privacy pursuant to RA 9262 (anti violence against women and
children act of 2004) and RA 9344 ( juvenile justice and welfare act of 2006).

Actus Reus - proof that a criminal act has occurred.

Sketch - a rough drawing or painting, often made to assist in making a more finished picture.
Types of Sketches
  1. Floor plan (Birds Eye View)
  2. Elevation Drawing
  3. Exploded View
  4. Respective Drawings

Allan Pinkerton - a Scottish American detective who created the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, the first detective
agency in the US. Pinkerton foiled a plot to assassinate President Lincoln.

Rouges Gallery - is a police collection of pictures or photographs of criminals and suspects kept for identification
purposes. A compilation of descriptions, methods of operation having places and names of criminal and their associates.

Mugshot - is a photographic portrait taken after one is arrested.

Criminal investigation - it is the collection of facts in order to accomplish the three-fold aims:

3 Fold Aims of Criminal Investigation

1. To identify the guilty party
2. To locate the guilty party
3. To provide evidence of his guilt

6 Cardinal points of investigation

1. What specific offense was committed
2. How the offense was committed
3. Who committed it
4. Where the offense was committed
5. When it was committed
6. Why it was committed

Tools of an investigator in gathering facts

 
  1. Information - data gathered by an investigator and other
      person including the victim himself and from:
                             1. public records
                             2. private records
                             3. modus operandi file
  2. Interview - skillful questioning of witness and suspects.
  3. Instrumentation - scientific examination of real 
       evidence, application of instruments and         
       method of physical sciences in detecting crime.
                                                
Phases of investigations
  1.Phase 1 - identify the suspect through:
                      1. confession
                      2. eyewitness testimony
                      3. circumstantial evidence
                      4. associate evidence
  2. Phase 2 - locate and apprehend suspect.
  3. Phase 3 - gather and provide evidence to establish the guilt of the accused.

Composition/Organization of an investigation team:

 1. Team leader
2. Investigator/recorder
3. Photographer
4. Evidence Custodian
5. Composite illustrator/Artist

Equipment of an Investigator
1. Police line
2. Video camera
3. Voice recorder
4. Camera
5. Measuring device
6. Gloves
7. Flashlight
8. Fingerprint kit
9. Evidence bag
10. Evidence tag
11. Evidence bottles/vials
12. Investigators tickler

Investigators Tickler
1. Investigators checklist
2. Anatomical diagram form
3. Evidence Checklist
4. Turn-over receipt

Standard Methods of Recording Investigative Data:

1. Photographs
2. Sketching crime scenes
3. Written notes (what you have seen/observed)
4. Developing and lifting fingerprints found at the crime scene.
5. Gathering physical evidence
6. Plaster cast
7. Tape recording of sounds
8. Video tape recording of objects
9. Written statement of objects and witnesses.

2 Kinds of Information
  1. Regular sources - ex. citizen, company records
  2. Cultivated sources - ex. paid informant

 Interrogation or questioning witness or suspect who is reluctant to divulge or reveal information with the goal of
extracting a confession or obtaining information while an Interview is simple questioning of a person who
cooperate with the investigator.

How the Suspect is Identified
  1. Confession or Admission - is a declaration of an accused acknowledging his guilt.
  2. Eyewitness testimony
  3. Circumstantial evidence

How circumstantial Evidence Obtained

  1. Motive
  2. Opportunity
  3. Associative Evidence

Types of Interview
  1. Informal (on the scene interview) - conducted by police/investigator at the crime scene to get description of criminal
if seen.
  2. Formal - interview conducted by the investigator assigned to the case.

Types of Formal Interview

  1. Normal - for willing or cooperative witness.
  2. Group/Pretext Interview - for hostile witness or witness who refuse to cooperate.
  3. Follow Up - additional interview in addition to vital points if necessary.

Qualifications of Interviewer
  1. Salesman
  2. Actor
  3. Psychologist

Requisites of an Interview
  1. Establish rapport
  2. Forcefulness of personality
  3. Breadth of interest

Setting of Interview
  1. Background Interview - time and place of interview are not a consideration except for busy person.
  2. Routine Criminal Cases - interview should be carefully planned. Busy person can be interviewed at night, privacy is
important.
  3. Important Criminal Cases - should be conducted in places other than the subject’s home/office to prevent him/her
feeling confident. Investigator should get interviewees respect.
    4. Appropriate Time - General rule - (ASAP) as soon possible while facts are fresh in the memory of interviewees.

Methods of Crime Scene Search

  1. Strip method - the area is blocked out in the form of a rectangle. The searchers (3 person is good) proceed slowly at
the same pace along paths parallel to one side of the rectangle.
  2. Double Strip Search Method - modification of the strip search method. The rectangle is traversed first parallel to the
base then parallel to a side.
  3. Spiral Search Method - The searchers (3 person is good) follow each other along the path of a spiral beginning on the
outside and spiraling in towards the center.
  4. Zone Search Method - one searcher is assigned to each subdivision of a quadrant and then each quadrant is cut into
another set of quadrants.
  5. Wheel Search Method - the area is considered to be approximately circular. The searchers gather at the center and
proceed outward along radii or spokes. Procedure is repeated several times depending on the size of the circle and the
number of searchers.

Fire Technology and Investigation

Fire - exothermic reaction involving the oxidation of some substance (fuel) resulting in the release of energy in the form
of light and heat.

Fire Quadrangle
1. Fuel
2. Oxygen
3. Heat
4. Ignition energy

Triangles of Fire
1. Fuel
2. Oxygen
3. Heat
Note - removal of any of these results in the suppression of the fire.

Some major products of combustion

1.  water
2. carbon dioxide
3. carbon monoxide
4. oxides of sulfur
 
Definition of terms

1. Vapor Density - the density of the vapor relative to the density of air and is calculated by dividing the molecular
weight of the gas by that of air.
2. Flash point - the lowest temperature at which liquid fuel produces a flammable vapor.  

3. Fire point/flame point - the lowest temperature at which liquid fuel produces a flammable vapor in sufficient
quantity such that if a source of ignition is introduced, the vapor will ignite and is usually a few degrees above the
flash point.

4.  Ignition/auto-ignition temperature - the temperature at which a fuel will ignite on its own without any additional
      source ignition.

5.  Thermal inertia - the ease at which a material can be ignited.

6.  Heat release rate - is a measure of the amount of energy a specific type of fuel can contribute to the heat flux in a
fire.

7.  Heat transfer - the mechanism in which fire can spread from its origin to other sources of fuel.
                                                
Methods of heat transfer

1. Conductive/conduction heat transfer - heat is transferred by direct contact and the rate of transfer is dependent on
factors such as the thermal conductivity of the material and the temperature difference between the cooler and
warmer areas.
2. Convective/convection heat transfer - transfer of heat through physical movement of materials and occurs only in
liquids and gases. Hot gases rise and spread heat to nearby ceilings and walls.
3. Radiative/radiation heat transfer - heat is transferred if the form of electromagnetic energy directly from one
object to another. ex. infrared radiation from the sun.
4.   Combustion - or burning - is the sequence of exothermic chemical reaction between fuel and an oxidant
accompanied by the production of heat and conversion of chemical species. The result of the heat can result in the form
of either glowing or flame.

  Glowing combustion - occurs when solid fuels are not capable of producing sufficient quantities of gas during
pyrolysis to sustain a flame. If access to the oxidant (air) is limited, glowing combustion may result.
 Flaming combustion -commonly recognized type of fire and occurs with gaseous fuel sources only. The color of
the flame can give some indication of the composition of the fuel.
 Spontaneous combustion - the ignition of organic matter without apparent cause, typically through heat
generated internally by rapid oxidation. A process whereby a material self-heats.
 Explosive combustion - can occur when vapors, dust of gases, premixed with appropriate amount of air are
ignited. 

Definition of Terms:

Arson - intentional or malicious destruction of property by fire.

Fire analysis - the process of determining the origin, cause and responsibility as well as the failure analysis of fire or
explosion.

Fire cause - the circumstances or agencies that bring a fuel and an ignition source together with proper air or oxygen.

Fire spread - the movement of fire from one place to another.

Flash fire - a fire that spreads with extreme rapidity such as the one that races over dust, over the surface of flammable
liquids or through gases.

Fuel load - the total quantity of combustible contents of the building, spaces or fire area, including interior finish and
trim expressed in heat units or the equivalent weight in wood.

Point of origin - the exact physical location where a heat source and fuel comes in contact with each other and a fire
begins.

Rekindle - a return to flaming combustion after incomplete extinguishment of a fire reigning at some time after being
put out.

Spalling - chipping or pitting of concrete or masonry surfaces.

Definition of terms - (RA no.9514)

Abatement - any act that would remove or neutralize fire hazard.

Administrator - any person who acts as agent of the owner and manages the use of a building for him.

Blasting Agent - any material or mixture consisting of a fuel and oxidizer used to set off explosives.

Cellulose nitrate or Nitro cellulose - a highly combustible and explosive compound produced by the reaction of nitric
acid with a cellulose material.

Cellulose nitrate plastic (Pyroxylin) - any plastic substance, materials or compound having cellulose nitrate as base.
Combustible/Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of materials that are easily set on fire.

Combustible fiber - any readily ignitable and free burning fiber such as cotton, oakum, rags, waste cloth, waste paper,
kapok, hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior, and other similar materials commonly used in commerce.

Combustible liquid - any liquid having a flash point at or above 37.8 degrees Celsius or 100 degrees Fahrenheit.

Corrosive liquid - any liquid which causes fire when in contact with organic matter or with certain chemicals.

Curtain board - a vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive materials attached to and extending below the
bottom chord of the roof trusses, to divide the underside of the roof into separate compartments so that heat and
smoke will be directed upwards to a roof vent.

Cryogenic - descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of its reaction with other elements produces a
rapid drop in temperature of the immediate surroundings.

Damper -  a normally open device  installed inside an air duct system which automatically closes to restrict the passage
of smoke or fire.

Distillation - the process of first raising  the temperature to separate the more volatile from the less volatile parts and
then cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to produce as nearly purified substance.

Duct system -  a continuous passageway for the transmission of air.

Dust - a finely powdered substance which when mixed with air in the proper proportion and ignited will cause an
explosion.

Electrical arc - an extremely hot luminous bridge formed by passage of an electric current across a space between two
conductors or terminals due to the incandescence of the conducting vapor.
Ember - a hot piece or lump that remains after a material has partially burned and is still oxidizing without the
manifestation of flames.

Finishes - materials used as final coating of a surface for ornamental or protective purposes.

Fire - the active principle of burning characterized by the heat and light of combustion.

Fire Trap - a building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn easily or because it lacks adequate exits or fire escapes.

Fire Alarm - any visual or audible signal produced by a device or system to warn the occupants of the building or the
fighting element of the presence or danger of fire to enable them to undertake immediate action to save life and
property and to suppress the fire.

Fire door - a fire restrictive door prescribed for openings in fire separation walls or partitions.

Fire Hazard - any condition or act which increases or may cause an increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire or
which may obstruct, delay, hinder or interfere with firefighting operations and the safeguarding of life and property.

Fire Lane - the portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept opened and unobstructed at all times for the
expedient operations of firefighting units.

Fire Protective and Fire Safety Device - any device intended for the protection of buildings or persons to include but not
limited to built in protection system such as sprinklers and other automatic extinguishing system, detectors for heat,
smoke and combustion products and other warning system components, personal protective equipment such as fire
blankets, helmets, fire suits, globes and other garments that may be put on or worn by persons to protect themselves
during fire.

Fire Safety Constructions - refers to design and installations of   walls, barriers, doors, windows, vents, means of egress
etc. integral to and incorporated into a building or structure in order to minimize danger to life, from smoke, fire, fumes
or panic before the building is evacuated.

Flash Point - the minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in sufficient concentration to form an
ignitable mixture with air.

Forcing - a process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape or dimensions.

Fulminate - a kind of stable explosive compound which explodes by percussion.

Hazardous operation/process - any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion etc., or produces materials which are
likely to cause fires or explosions.

Horizontal exit - passage way from one building to another or through or around a wall in approximately the same floor
level.

Hose Box - a box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are stored and arranged for firefighting.

Hose Reel - a cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is connected.\.

Hypergolic fuel - a rocket or liquid propellant which consist of combinations of fuels and oxidizers which ignite
simultaneously on contact with each other.

Industrial Baking and Drying - the industrial process of subjecting materials to heat for the purpose of removing solvents
or moisture from the same and, or to fuse certain chemical salts to form a uniform glazing the surface of materials being
treated.

Jumper - a piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to bypass a safety device in an electrical system.

Occupancy - the purpose for which a building or portion thereof is used or intended to be used.

Occupant - any person actually occupying and using a building or portions thereof by virtue of a lease contract with the
owner or administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter.

Organic Peroxide - a strong oxidizing organic compound which release oxygen readily. It causes fire
when in contact with combustible materials especially under conditions of high temperature.

Overloading - the use of one or more electrical appliances or devices which draw or consume electrical current beyond
the designed capacity of the existing electrical system.

Owner - the person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a building or real property.

Oxidizing Material - a material that readily yields oxygen in quantities sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.

Pressurized or Forced Draft Burning Equipment - type or burner where the fuel is subjected to pressure prior to
discharge into the combustion chamber and /or which includes fans or other provisions for the introduction of air above
normal atmosphere pressure into the same combustion chamber.

Public Assembly Building - any building or structure where 50 0r more people congregate, gather or assemble for any
purpose.

Public Way - any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the ground to the sky, dedicated for public use.

Pyrophoric - descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when exposed to air.

Refining - a process where impurities and, or deleterious materials are removed from a mixture in order to produce a
pure element of compound. It shall also refer to partial distillation and electrolysis.

Self-Closing Doors - automatic closing doors that are designed to confine smoke and heat and delay the spread o fire.

Smelting - melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so as to separate impurities from pure metals.

Sprinkler System - an integrated network of hydraulically designed piping installed in a building, structure or area with
outlets arranged in a systematic pattern which automatically discharges water when activated by heat or combustion
products from a fire.

Standpipe System - a system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire hoses can be attached on each floor, including a
system by which water is made available to the outlet as needed.

Vestibule - a passage hall or ante chamber between the outer doors and the interior parts of a house or building.

Vertical Shaft - a enclosed vertical space of passage that extends from floor to floor as well as from the base to the top
of the building.
RA no.9514 - Revised Fire Code of the Philippines of 2008 (Dec. 19, 2008).

PD. 1185 - known as the fire code of the Philippines, was enacted into law 1977, repealed by RA no. 9514.

RA no. 9263 - Bureau of Fire Protection and Bureau of Jail Management and Penology Professionalization Act of 2004.

BFP Powers/Functions
  1. Preventions and suppression of all destructive fires on:
          a. buildings
          b. houses
          c. other structure
          d. forest
          e. land transportation vehicles
          f. ships/vessels
          g. petroleum industry installations
          h. plane crashes and similar incidents
  2. Enforcement of the Fire Code of the Philippines
  3. Investigate all causes of fire
  4. File proper complaints with the prosecutor’s office

 note: Vessel/Ship must be docked at piers or wharves or anchored in major seaport.

BFP Organization
  Headed by a Chief who shall be assisted by a Deputy Chief. It shall compose of a Provincial, District, City and
Municipal stations.
 In large provinces, district offices may   be established to be headed by a district fire Marshall.
 In large cities and municipalities, district offices may be established with subordinate fire stations headed by a
district fire Marshall.
  There shall be at least one fire station in every provincial, capital, city and municipality.
 The local government unit shall provide the site of the fire station.

BFP Key Positions

 The Chief of the Fire Bureau - rank is Director.
 The Deputy Chief of the Fire Bureau - rank is Chief Superintendent.
 Assistant Regional Director for Fire Protection - rank is Senior Superintendent.
 District Fire Marshall of NCR District Offices - rank is Senior Superintendent.
 Provincial Fire Marshall - rank is Superintendent.
 District Fire Marshall of Province - rank is Chief Inspector.
 Chief of City/Municipal Fire Station - rank is Senior Inspector.

Key Positions – Qualifications

1. Municipal Fire Marshal - should have the rank of Senior Inspector.

    a. Must have finished at least 2nd year Bachelor of Laws or earned at least 12 units in a master’s degree program in
public administration, management, engineering, public safety, criminology, or other related discipline.
    b. Must have satisfactory passed the necessary training of career courses for such position as may be established by
the fire bureau.
2. City Fire Marshal - should have the rank of Chief Inspector.
    a. Must have finished at least 2nd year Bachelor of Laws or earned at least 24 units in a master’s degree program in
public administration, management, engineering, public safety, criminology or other related disciplines.
    b. Must have satisfactory passed the necessary training or career courses for such position as may be established by
the fire bureau.
3. District Fire Marshal/Provincial Fire Marshal/Assistant Regional Director for Administration/Assistant Regional
Director for Operations/Chief of Directorial Staff - should have the rank of Superintendent.
    a. Must be a graduate of Bachelor of Laws or a holder of a Master’s degree in public administration, management,
engineering, public safety, criminology, or other related disciplines.
    b. Must have satisfactory passed the necessary training or career courses for such position as may be established by
the fire bureau.
4. District Fire marshal for the NCR/Regional Director for Fire Protection/Director of the Directorate of the National
Headquarters Office - should have at least the rank of Senior Superintendent.
    a. Must be a graduate of Bachelor of Laws or a holder of master’s degree in public administration, management,
engineering, public safety, criminology, or other related disciplines.
    b. Must have satisfactory passed the necessary training or career course for such position as may be established by
the fire bureau.
5. Deputy Chief for Administration and Deputy Chief for Operation of the Fire Bureau - should have the rank of Chief
superintendent.
    a. Must be a member of the Philippine Bar or must be a holder of a master’s degree in public administration,
management, engineering, public safety, criminology, or other related disciplines.
    b. Must have satisfactory passed the necessary training or career courses as may be established by the fire bureau.
6. Chief of the Fire Bureau - should have the rank of Director.
    a. Must be a member of the Philippine Bar or a master’s degree in public administration, management, engineering,
public safety, criminology, or other related discipline.
    b. Must satisfactory passed the necessary the training or career courses for such position as may be established by the
fire bureau.
 Traffic Operation and Incident Investigation

Traffic - may consist of pedestrians, ridden or herded animals, vehicles, street cars and other conveyances either singly
or together while using the public way for purposes of travel.

Traffic laws - laws which govern traffic and regulate vehicles.

Traffic signs/road signs - are signs erected at the side of the roads to provide information to road users.

Rules of the road - are the laws and the informal rules that may have developed overtime to facilitate the orderly and
timely flow of traffic.

Right of way - is a strip of land that is granted, through an easement or other mechanism for transportation purposes
such as for a trail, driveway, rail line or highway.
                      - the legal right, established by usage or grant, to pass along a specific route through property belonging to
another.

Traffic signal/Traffic light - a visual signal to control the flow of traffic at intersections.

Highway - any public road. A main road especially one connecting major town or cities.

Speed limit - define the maximum, minimum or no speed limit and are normally indicated using a traffic sign.

Hit and run - is the act of causing a traffic accident and failing to stop and identify oneself afterwards.

Traffic accident - occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris or other statutory
obstruction such as tree or utility pole.

Mary Ward - worlds first road traffic death including a motor vehicle, is alleged to have occurred on august 31, 1869,
when she fell out of her cousins steam car and was run over it.

Causes of traffic accidents

1.  Human factors - ex. driver behavior, visual and auditory acuity, intoxication, decision making ability and reaction
speed.
2. Motor vehicle speed.
3. Driver impairment - factors that prevent the driver at their normal level of skill. Common impairment includes,
1) alcohol use 2) physical impairment - ex. poor eyesight 3) youth - teens and early twenty aged drivers have the
highest incidence of both accidents and fatalities among all driving age group. 4) old age 5) sleep
deprivation/fatigue 6) drug use - including prescription drug.
4. Road design
5. Vehicle design and maintenance
 seat belts - wearing seat belts reduces the risk of death by two thirds.
 maintenance - a well-designed and maintained vehicle with good breaks, tires and well adjusted suspension will
be more controllable in an emergency and better equipped to avoid collision.
 center of gravity - roll overs have become common due to increased popularity of taller SUV and minivans which
have a higher center of gravity than standard passenger car.
 motorcycles - have little protection.

Skid mark - is the mark a tire makes when a vehicle wheel stop rolling and slides or spins on the surface of the road.
  skid marks are caused by rubbers deposited on the road.
 one form of trace evidence, when their size and shape can reveal much about the vehicle speed and forces of
acceleration or deceleration.
 the length of the skid mark is closely related to the vehicle speed at the instant of breaking, measuring the
marks yields an estimate of original speed.
 Locard exchange principle - was postulated by Edmond Locard in the 20th century which states that with contact
between two items, there will be an exchange. Every contact leaves a trace. Everywhere you go, you take
something with you, and you leave something behind.

Skid mark are divided into:

1. acceleration marks - created on acceleration if the engine provides more power that the tire can transmit.
2. braking marks - if the brakes "lock-up" and cause the tire to slide.
3. yaw marks - if the tire slide sideways.

RA 4136 - Land Transportation and Traffic code of the Philippines.

Coefficient of Friction - is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two
bodies and the force pressing them together.

Rail Adhesion - grip wheels of a train have on the rails.

Split Friction - dangerous condition arising due to varying friction on either side of a car.

Road Texture - affects the interaction of tires and the driving surface.

Profilograph - devised used to measure pavement surface roughness.

Tribometer - an instrument that measures friction on a surface.

Traffic Waves - "stop waves" "traffic Shocks" - are traveling disturbances in the distribution of cars on a highway.

Traffic Flow - the total number of vehicles passing a given point in a given time. Traffic flow is expressed as vehicle per
hour.

Traffic Congestion - "traffic jam" - is a condition on roads, streets or highways that occurs as use increases.

Characteristics of Traffic Congestion

1. Slow speed of vehicles
2. Longer travel time
3. Increased vehicle queuing

Classical Theories of Traffic Flow

1. Free flow
2. Congested traffic

Three-Phase Traffic Theory - is an alternative theory of traffic flow developed by Boris Kerner between 1996 and 2002.
1. Free flow
2. Synchronized flow
3. Wide moving jam

Pedestrian - is a person traveling on foot whether walking or running.

Gridlock - a traffic jam so bad that no movement is possible.

China - (Beijing-Zhangjiakou province) - is considered the world’s worst traffic jam ever as traffic congestion stretched
more than 100 kilometers including 11 days of gridlock.

Brazil - (Sao Paolo) - has the world’s worst daily traffic jams.

France - (A6 Auto-route) - between Paris and Lyon was considered the world’s longest traffic jam.

Definition of Terms

Abrasion - a condition manifested in pavement markings by gradual surface erosion, thinning, and disappearance of the
film due to wind, water, sand, and vehicle tire wear.

Acceleration - a rate of change of speed resulting in an increase in travel speed.

Acceleration lane - a speed change lane for the purpose of enabling vehicle entering a roadway to increase its speed to a
rate at which it can safely merge with through traffic, providing the necessary merging distance, and giving the main
road traffic the necessary time to make appropriate adjustment.

Acceleration marks - marks that are just opposite the skid marks. The tires are being rotated by the axle and when done
fast enough, the outside of the tire, the thread, takes time to catch up to the rest of the tire, which is being held by the
coefficient of friction between the tires and the road surface. Therefore, the acceleration marks are heavy at the
beginning and lighten up as the tire thread catches.

Access - a way of entering or traveling towards a location.

Actuation - the operation of a detector in registering the presence or passage of a vehicle or pedestrian.

Advance warning area - the first component of a work zone, upstream of the approach area,  used to alert drivers to
road work ahead.

Advisory maximum speed - an advisory speed posted when the roadway geometries result in a maximum safe speed
which is 20 km/hr or more below the operating speed and is 10 km/hr or more below the regulatory speed limit.

Advisory speed - the speed, determined to the nearest 5 km/hr at which traffic may safely negotiate a potential hazard
under favorable driving conditions.

A.I.D. - automatic incident detection.

Anti-lock braking system - (ABS) breaking system designed to break to break the vehicle in the most effective manner,
without locking up the tires and causing the tires to go into a skid. This system is used differently than standard breaks
when breaking in an emergency situation. The brake pedal is stepped on and held in place while the electronic system
takes over and modulates or applies the brakes until the wheels want to lock up and then releases and breaks again.

Base drawing - The scale drawing made of the accident scene that shows all the landmarks and detail to set the scene. It
generally does not contain any measurements or any points of impact (POI) or points of rest (POR)

Bottleneck - a highway section with reduced capacity that experiences operational problems such as congestion.

Boulevard - an improved strip of land between the roadway and the sidewalk or between two opposing roadways.

Bull nose - the area or point of divergence between two diverging roadways such as between freeway mainline lanes
and an exit ramp.

Bumper fracture - fractures that typically occur due to the impact of a vehicle on the calves of a decedent with fractures
of the tibia or fibula. They may be unilateral or lateral.

Call box - a telephone pr other communications device located a given locations along the side of the freeway. Motorists
can request various services such as police, fire, or ambulance by pressing certain buttons or using voice
communications.

Carbon dioxide - a  molecule consisting of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen, which is a major combustion
product of the burning of organic materials. Carbon dioxide is the result of complete combustion of carbon.

Carbon monoxide - a colorless, odorless, very toxic gas formed by burning carbon or organic fuels. A gaseous molecule
having the formula CO, which is the product of incomplete combustion of organic materials.

Carpool - an arrangement in which a group of people share the use and possibly the cost of a car in traveling to and from
pre-arrange destinations together.

Causeway - a bridge or raised way constructed over marshy land or water. It may be either an earth fill or bridge type
structure.

Center lane facility - a reserved lane at or near the center of the roadway.

Chemical etching - a form of texturing a mold utilizing an acid bath that erodes selective portion of the metal, leaving a
resulting texture or pattern.

Chicane - a series of curb extensions on alternating sides of a roadway, which narrow a roadway and requires vehicle to
meander to travel through the chicane. Typically, a series of three curb extensions is used.

Chop shop - a location, often an automobile repair shop or salvage yard, where a stolen car is stripped of its parts (radio,
doors, engine, etc) the remains are cut up and sold for scrap metal.

Citation - a ticket issued by an officer deputized by the LTO for violating traffic laws.

Collision - an incident resulting in property damage, personal injury or death, and involving the loss of control and/or the
striking of one or more vehicles with another vehicle, person, an animal, or an inanimate object.

Collision, primary - the impact between and another vehicle or a vehicle and a fixed object.

Collision, secondary - the impact between the occupant

Collision, tertiary - the impact between the occupant and the restraint system.

Corrosion - the degradation of metals or alloys due to reaction with the environment. The corrosive action on the metals
or alloys is accelerated by acids, bases, or heat.

Crosswalk - (pedestrian crossing) is a designated point on a road at which some means are employed to assists
pedestrians wishing to cross.

Curb - a vertical or sloping member along the edge of the roadway clearly defining the roadway edge.
Declination - the difference between true north as shown on a topographic map and magnetic north as indicated by the
magnetic needle on a compass.
Drag factor - comes from the tool used to determine the value of the coefficient of friction of the road surface. A portion
of a concrete-weighted tire is pulled or dragged along the roadbed by a "fish scale “The investigator reads the scale and
divides by the weight of the tire to determine the coefficient of friction. It is called dragged factor because it is
determined by dragging the tire.

Driveway - every entrance or exit used by vehicular traffic to or from lands or buildings abutting a highway.

DUI - driving under the influence.

DWI -driving while intoxicated.

Dyslexia - a disturbance to the ability to read.

Efface - to rub out, to strike, scratch out, or to erase.

First responder - the initial responding law enforcement officer or other public safety official or service provider arriving
at the scene prior to the arrival of the investigator in charge.

Footbridge - (pedestrian bridge) is a bridge designed for pedestrians and in some cases cyclists, animal traffic rather than
vehicular traffic.

Footpath - is a path along the side of the road.

Gross weight - the weight of the vehicle without load plus the weight of any load thereon.

Intersection - is a road junction where two or more roads either meet or cross at grade. (Same level) An intersection
maybe 3 way, T-junction, fork, 4 way, cross roads, 5 way or more.

Laned roadway - a roadway is which is divided into two or more clearly marked lanes for vehicular traffic.

Longitudinal axis - the long axis of the vehicle that runs from the front (hood) to the rear (trunk) of the vehicle.

Metallic paint - paint used for covering metal surfaces, the pigment is usually iron oxide.

Meter - the basic unit of length in the metric system.

Motor vehicle - (road vehicle) is a self-propelled wheeled vehicle that does not operate on rails such as trains or trolleys.

Overhang - that potion of a transport vehicle which extends beyond the front or rear bumper.

Pavement - (road surface) is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot
traffic such as road or walkway.

Pedestrian - is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running.

Prying tool - a tool that can be used to forcibly open a locked door/cover by applying leverage to the door/cover at one
of its edges.

R.A.4136 - Land transportation and traffic code.

Refuge island - (pedestrian island) is a small section of pavement or sidewalk completely surrounded by asphalt or other
road materials where pedestrian can stop before finishing crossing the road.
Right of way - the right of one vehicle or pedestrian to proceed in a lawful manner in preference to another vehicle or
pedestrian approaching under such circumstances of direction, speed, and proximity as to give rise to danger of
collision unless one grants precedence to the other.

Road - is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places which typically has been paved or otherwise
improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle.

Roadway - consists of a width of road on which a vehicle is not restricted by any physical barriers or separation to move
laterally.

Road junction - is a location where vehicular traffic going in different directions can proceed in a controlled manner
designed to minimize accidents.

Runabout - is type of circular intersection or junction in which road traffic is slowed and flows almost continuously in
one direction around a central island to several exits into the various intersecting roads.

Skid marks - marks left on the road surface when the tire stops rotating, locks up and skids.

Speed limit - the maximum speed at which a vehicle may legally travel on a particular stretch of road.

Stellar pattern - A bull’s-eye-type fracture of the windshield when struck by a human or anthropomorphic head during a
collision. Damage occurs in the form of a circular pattern, with cracks radiating from the center.

Stile - is a structure which provides people a passage through or over a fence or boundary via steps, ladder, or narrow
gaps.

Submarining - action of the occupant sliding forward underneath the lap belt portion of the restraint system, with the
lap belt webbing resting above the pelvic girdle.

Tint - a color that has been made lighter by the addition of white.

Tire impression - when a tire contacts a surface, it results in the transfer of the class characteristics of design and size
and possibly of wear and individual characteristics of the tire.

Tire patch - that portion of the tire that rest on the road surface. It is oval shaped and has its longest axis along the
normal direction of travel of the vehicle. When a vehicle is sliding sideways, the tire marks left on the road gets almost
twice as wide as the tires turn sideways and the short axis is in the direction of travel that makes the tire marks.

Tire thread - part of a tire that contacts the road surface and contains a design.

Traffic - may consists of pedestrians, ridden or herded animals, vehicles, streetcars, and other conveyances, either singly
or together, while using the public way for purposes of travel.

Traffic circle - is a type of intersection that has a generally circular central island.

Traffic collision - (traffic accident) occurs when a vehicle collides with another vehicle, pedestrian, animal, road debris,
or other stationary obstruction such as a tree or utility pole.

Traffic engineering - is a branch of civil engineering that use engineering techniques to achieve the safe and efficient
movement of people and goods on roadways.

Traffic light - (traffic signal) are signaling devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings, and other
locations to control competing flows of traffic.
Traffic signs - (road signs) are signs erected at the side of roads to provide information to road users.

Trails - (byway) is a path with a rough beaten or dirt/stone surface used for travel.

Tumblehome - The curvature of a vehicle body inward toward the roof. This gives the vehicle a rounder look from the
front and decreases aerodynamic drag.

VIN - vehicle identification number, the serial number that the car's manufacturer stamps on several motor vehicle parts
(many of which are inaccessible) for the purpose of tracing and identifying car ownership.

Vulcanization - a irreversible process in which a rubber compound is heated under pressure resulting in a chemical
change in its structure.

Walkway - is a composite or umbrella term for all engineered surfaces or structures which support the use of trails.

Special Crime Investigation

Special Crime Investigation - is a special study of modern techniques in the investigation of serious and specific crimes
including murder, homicide, rape, abortion, robbery, arson kidnapping, blackmail, carnapping and criminal negligence.
The emphasis is on physical evidence rather than an extra judicial confession. Special crime investigation focuses on
specific crimes which by their nature are difficult and complex to investigate.

The following are some examples of cases subject to special crime investigation.
1. Robbery
2. Arson
3. Kidnapping
4. Abortion
5. Rape
6. Murder
7. Homicide
8. Carnapping
9. Criminal Negligence, Hit and Run cases
10.Drug Cases
11.Bombing
12.Swindling
 Drug Education and Vice Control

RA no. 9165 - Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002.

RA no. 6425 - Dangerous Drugs Act of 1972 - the law that was repelled by RA no. 9165.

Dangerous Drugs Board (DDB) - the policy-making and strategy-formulating body in the planning and formulation of
policies and programs on drug prevention and control.

Duties/Function of the DDB - To develop and adopt a comprehensive, integrated, unified and balanced national drug
abuse prevention and control strategy.

Composition of the DDB

1. 3 permanent members
2. 2 regular members
3. 12 ex officio members

The 12 ex officio members are the following:

1. DOJ secretary or his/her representative
2. DOH secretary or his/her representative
3. DND secretary or his/her representative
4. DOF secretary or his/her representative
5. DOLE secretary or his/her representative
6. DILG secretary or his/her representative
7. DSWD secretary or his/her representative
8. DFA secretary or his/her representative
9. DECS secretary or his/her representative
10. CHED chairman or his/her representative
11. National Youth Commission chairman or his/her representative
12. PDEA director general
 The DDB is under the office of the President.
 The Department Secretary's representative shall in no case be lower than Under Secretary.

The Two Regular Members of the DDB are:

1.  The President of The Integrated Bar of the Philippines (IBP)
2. The Chairman or President of a non-governmental organization involved in dangerous drug campaign to be
appointed by the President of the Philippines.

Permanent Consultants of the DDB

1. Director of the NBI
2. Chief of the PNP

PDEA - implementing arm of the DDB.

Qualification of the 3 Permanent members of the DDB

- at least 7 years training and experience in the field of dangerous drugs and in any of the following fields: law, medicine,
criminology, psychology or social work. They are appointed by the President.
   The President shall designate a Chairman of the DDB from among the 3 permanent members who shall serve
for 6 years.
 The Chairman of the DDB shall have a rank of Under Secretary.
 Term of office of the permanent members of the DDB - 6 years and until their successors shall have been duly
appointed and qualified.
 The PDEA shall be headed by a Director General with the rank of undersecretary.
 The PDEA Director General shall be appointed by the President of the Philippines.

Duties/Functions of PDEA Director General

  1. Responsible for the general administration and management of the agency.
  2. Perform other duties that may be assigned to him/her by the President.

  The PDEA Director General and the 2 Deputy Director General must possess adequate knowledge, training and
experience in the field of dangerous drugs and in any of the following field: law enforcement, law, medicine,
criminology, psychology and social work.

There are 2 PDEA Deputy Director General

  1. One for Administration
  2. One for Operation

  They shall have a rank of Assistant Secretary and both are appointed by the President of the Philippines upon
recommendation of the board.

Mandatory Services of the PDEA

  1. Intelligence and Investigation
  2. International Cooperation and Foreign Affairs
  3. Preventive Education and Community Involvement
  4. Plans and Operation
  5. Compliance, Legal and Prosecution
  6. Administrative and Human Resource
  7. Financial Management
  8. Logistic Management
  9. Internal Affairs

  PDEA shall establish regional offices.

PDEA Academy - Shall be established either in Baguio City or Tagaytay City and in such other places as may be necessary.

  PDEA Academy shall be headed by a Superintendent with the rank of Director. He shall be appointed by the
PDEA Director General.

3 Pronged Approached in the Solution of Drug Problems

  1. Law enforcement activities
  2. Preventive Drug Education and Information program in school and in communities.
  3. Treatment and Rehabilitation programs for drug dependent.

Classification of Drugs according to effect

1. Depressant - "downers" - a drug reducing functional or nervous activity. Lower the level of arousal when taken.
2. Stimulants - "Uppers" - increase mental and/or physical function. A substance that raises the levels of
physiological or nervous activity in the body.
3. Hallucinogens - "psychedelics" - a drug that causes hallucinations. Psychoactive drugs that cause subjective
change in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness.
Classification of Drugs according to Pharmacology
1. Depressants
2. Narcotics
3. Tranquilizers
4. Stimulants
5. Hallucinogens
6. Solvents/Inhalants

Classifications of Drugs according to Legal Categories

1. Prohibited Drugs
2. Regulated Drugs
3. Volatile substances

Golden Triangle of Drug Trafficking

1. Laos
2. Thailand
3. Burma

The Golden Crescent

1. Afghanistan
2. Pakistan
3. Iran
4. India

Classification of Drug user/Abuser

1. Situational user - those who use drugs to keep them awake or for additional energy to perform an important
work. Such individual may or may not exhibit psychological dependence.
2. Spree user - school age user who take drugs for "kicks", adventure, daring experience or a means of fun.
3. Hardcore addicts - those whose activities revolves almost entirely around drug use and securing supplies. They
show strong psychological dependence on the drug.
4. Hippies - Those who are addicted to drugs believing that drug is an integral part of life.

Commonly abused drugs:

1. Sedatives - are depressant drugs which reduce anxiety and excitement such as barbiturates, tranquilizers, and
alcohol.
2. Stimulants - are drugs which increase alertness and activity such as amphetamine, cocaine and caffeine.
3. Hallucinogen/Psychedelics - drugs which affect sensation, thinking,self-awareness and emotion.
4. Narcotics - drugs that relieve pain and often induce sleep. This includes opium and its derivatives like morphine,
codeine, and heroin.
5. Solvents - volatile substances which are found to be the most commonly abused. 

Primary causes of drug addiction:

1. Pride - excessive feeling of self-worth or self-esteem or sense of self-importance.
2. Anger - against, himself, family, friends and society in general.
3. Lust - burning sexual desire can distort the human mind to drug abuse.
4. Gluttony - "food trip" in the lingo of junkies.
5. Greed - wealth, fame, recognition as exemplified by people under pressure in their work of art such as musician,
actors and athletes who indulge in rug abuse.
 6. Envy - to get attention from someone as sign of protest.
7. Laziness - "I can’t syndrome" incapacity to achieve is a breeding ground of drug abuse and boredom coupled
with poor self-image.

Warning Signs of Commonly Abused Drugs

 
1. Marijuana
  glassy red eye
 loud talking
 inappropriate laughter followed by sleepiness
 loss of interest, motivation
 weight gain or loss

  2. Depressant
  contracted pupils
 drunk-like
 difficulty concentrating
 clumsiness
 poor judgement

  3. Stimulants - ex. cocaine, amphetamines

  dilated pupils
 hyperactivity
 euphoria
 irritability
 anxiety
 excessive talking followed by depression or excessive sleeping
 may go long period of time without eating or sleeping
 weight loss
 dry mouth and nose

  4. Inhalants - ex. glues, aerosols, vapors

  watery eyes
 impaired vision, memory and thought
 secretions from the nose or rashes around the nose and mouth
 headaches and nausea
 appearance of intoxication
 drowsiness
 poor muscle control
 changes in appetite
 anxiety
 irritability
 lots of cans, aerosols in the trash

  5. Hallucinogens - ex. LSD, PCP

  dilated pupils
 bizarre and irrational behavior including paranoia, aggression, hallucination
  mood swings
 detachment from people
 absorption with self or other objects
 slurred speech
 confusion

  6. Heroin
  contracted pupils
 no response of pupils to light
 needle marks
 sleeping at unusual time
 sweating
 vomiting
 coughing, shiffling
 twitching
 loss of appetite

  7. Alcohol
  clumsiness
 difficulty walking
 slurred speech
 sleepiness
 poor judgement
 dilated pupils
 possession of false ID cards

  8. Tobacco/Nicotine
  smell of tobacco
 stained fingers or teeth

Analgesic - any drugs such as salicylates, morphine or opiates used primarily for the relief of pain.

Definition of Terms

Acute tolerance - The development of tolerance within the course of a single exposure to a drug.

Addiction - Implies a very severe form of dependence, one involving an overwhelming compulsion for the use of a
particular drug.

Adulterant - Material used to increase the mass of a controlled substance. Adulterants produce physiological effects and
give the illusion that more controlled substance is present than its actual content.

Alkaloid - One of a group of nitrogenous organic bases, especially one of vegetable origin, having a powerful toxic effect
on animals and man, such as nicotine, cocaine, strychnine, or morphine.

Amitriptyline - A tricyclic antidepressant drug, found to impair skilled performance and to be additive with ethanol in its
adverse effects.

Amobarbital - A barbiturate derivative used as a sedative or hypnotic; available in ampules for intravenous or
intramuscular injection for the control of seizures.

Amphetamine - A drug that is representative of a class of structurally related compounds known as phenethylamines.
Basis of a group of hallucinogenic, habit-forming drugs that affect the central nervous system. The sale and use
restricted to physicians; trade name Benzedrine.

Analgesic - Any drugs, such as salicylates, morphine, or opiates used primarily for the relief of pain.

Anaphylaxis - An allergic hypersensitivity reaction of the body to a foreign protein or drug.

Antidepressant - A drug, such as imipramine and tranylcypromine, that relieves depression by increasing central
sympathetic activity.

Antisera - Injecting human serum into various animals, such as the horse, goat, sheep, rabbit, duck, hen, or guinea pig,
can produce antihuman sera.

Antiserum - Any immune serum that contains antibodies active chiefly in destroying a specific infecting virus or
bacterium.

Barbiturate - A derivative of barbituric acid that produces depression of the central nervous system and consequent
sedation.

Benzoylecgonine - A cocaine metabolite.

Butobarbital - A short- to intermediate-acting barbiturate derivative.

Butalbital - An occasionally encountered short-acting barbiturate closely related to Talbital and less closely to
Amobarbital and Secobarbital. Intoxication can result in lethargy, confusion, disorientation, and ataxia.

Cannabidiol - A constituent of cannabis, which, upon isomerization to a

tetrahydrocannabinol, has some of the physiologic activity of marijuana.

Cannabinol - (C21H26O2) A physiologically inactive phenol formed by spontaneous dehydrogenation of

tetrahydrocannabinol from cannabis.

Cannabis - A genus of tall annual herbs in the family Cannabaccae having erect stems, with 3 to 7 elongated leaflets and
pistillate flowers in spikes along the stem. Commonly known as marijuana or sometimes referred to on the street as
grass or pot.

Chronic - Persistent, prolonged, repeated.

Chronic effect - A pathologic process caused by repeated exposures over a period of long duration.

Chronic tolerance - The gradual decrease in degree of effect produced at the same blood concentration in the course of
repeated exposure to that drug.

Cocaine - A colorless to white crystalline powder. Used as a local anesthetic (medicine or dentistry), usually as the
hydrochloride. Also known by street names, such as coke, snow, or freebase.

Codeine - A narcotic alkaloid that is used in medicine and cough syrups; highly toxic and habit-forming narcotic.

Concentration - The amount of a substance in a stated unit of a mixture or solution. Common methods of stating
concentration are percent by weight, percent by volume, or weight per unit volume. Amount of a drug in a unit volume
of biological fluid, expressed as weight/volume.

Confirmatory test - Second test by an alternative chemical method for unambiguous identification of a drug or
metabolite.

Crack - Concentrated form of cocaine, which is used in vapor form. It is smoked or inhaled through crack pipes. It is a
highly addictive drug that causes psychotic behavior, which is often violent. Almost pure form of the drug cocaine
hydrochloride, obtained from a shrub native to Bolivia and Peru. It can cause increased alertness and energy, runny
nose, and decreased appetite when snorted, injected, or smoked.

Cut-off concentration - Concentration of a drug in a specimen or sample used to determine whether the specimen or
sample is considered positive or negative. In some circumstances it is recommended that the cut-off concentration
should be set equal to the limit of detection.

Depressants - Drugs that depress the action of the central nervous system such as phenobarbital, pentobarbital, and
alcohol.

Designer drugs - Drugs that are produced illicitly by means of chemical technology. They can cause uncontrollable
tremors, chills, or sweating and faintness and paranoia when injected or taken in pill form.

Diazepam - (valium) The second benzodiazepine derivative to have been approved for human usage has been one of the
most frequently prescribed drugs in the United States. It is administered as an antianxiety agent, muscle relaxant, or
anticonvulsant.

Drug - Any natural or synthetic substance that is administered to produce specific physiological or psychological effects.

Drug abuse - The nonmedicinal use of a drug in a manner that is not socially acceptable.

Drug dependence - The primary hazard of the abusive use of drugs is the likelihood for some individuals to develop a
“need” or compulsive desire that may occur as a result of a psychological or a physical craving.

Hallucinogens - Drugs like marijuana, LSD, PSP, and ecstasy that produce changes in mood, thought and perception.

Hashish - Purified resin prepared from the flowering tops of the female cannabis plant and smoked or chewed as a
narcotic or an intoxicant.

Impramine - The prototype of the tricyclic antidepressant drugs.

Marijuana - Popular name for the dried flowers and leaves of Cannabis sativa.

Meperidine hydrochloride - A fine, white, odorless, crystalline powder; very soluble in water, soluble in alcohol, and
used in medicine as a narcotic.

Methadone hydrochloride - A synthetic narcotic. Used medicinally as a sedative and also useful in treating heroin
addiction.

Methamphetamine - Colorless, volatile liquid; characteristic strong odor and slightly burning taste. Highly toxic,
flammable, as well as a dangerous fire risk. Basis of a group of hallucinogenic, habit-forming drugs that affect the central
nervous system.

Morphine - White crystalline alkaloid, slightly soluble in water, alcohol, and ether; highly toxic, narcotic, habit-forming
drug.
Mushroom - (Drugs) Umbrella-shaped fungus, some varieties of which contain a drug that can cause hyperventilation,
tremors, and hyperactivity when the fungus is chewed, smoked, or ground and infused in water and drunk as a tea.

Narcotic - Pharmacologically, any substance that produces narcosis, a stuporous state resembling sleep, and
characterized by loss of sensation. Addictive substance that reduces pain, alters mood and behavior, and usually induces
sleep or stupor.

Opiates - Natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic substances with morphine-like effects in the body. They are primarily
employed as analgesics and can be considered narcotic in their effects.

Opium - A highly toxic plant alkaloid that is a habit-forming narcotic; one source of opium is morphine.

Overdose - An excessive dose of medicine or narcotic substance.

Peyote - The common name for the small Mexican cactus, Lophophora williamsii, which contains the hallucinogen,
mescaline.

Pharmacodynamics - The study of the relationship of drug concentration to drug effects.

Pharmacokinetics - The study of the time course of the processes (absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion) a
drug undergoes in the body.

Pharmacologic - Relating to the study of drugs and their origin, natural properties, and effects on living organisms.

Phencyclidine (PCP) - Has an anesthetic activity and is manufactured legitimately for use as a veterinary anesthetic. It
has no legitimate use in humans because of its hallucinogenic actions. The effects on humans
are considered euphoric, but at times depression or anxiety and aggressive behavior are produced. Common street
names are PCP, peace pill, hog, and angel dust.

Picking - Adherence of a drug to the face of the punch used to produce a tablet. Picking creates holes in the surfaces of
pressed tablets, usually near letters such as A or R.

Propoxyphene - A mildly effective narcotic analgesic, somewhat less potent than codeine, that bears a close structural
relationship to methadone.

Qualitative test - A test that determines the presence or absence of specific drugs or metabolites, proteins, or enzymes
in the specimen or sample.

Quinine - Bulky, white, amorphous powder or crystalline alkaloid; very bitter taste; odorless and levorotatory. Used in
medicine as an antimalarial drug.

Secobarbital - A barbiturate derivative of short duration of action; used as either a sedative or hypnotic.

Solvent - A substance capable of dissolving another substance (solute) to form a uniformly dispersed mixture (solution)
at the molecular or ionic size level.

Stimulants - Drugs that increase the activity of the central nervous system, creating feelings of confidence and energy. A
drug that produces a temporary increase of functional activity or efficiency. A drug that increases alertness and motor
activity and, at the same time, reduces fatigue, allowing the individual to remain awake for an extended period of time.
It can cause weight loss, increased respiration and heart rate, blurred vision, and anxiety when snorted, injected,
smoked, or swallowed in capsule, tablet, or pill form.

Strychnine - An alkaloid found together with the less active brucine in the seed of Strychnos nux-vomica, a tree
indigenous to India. It is a potent central nervous system stimulant and convulsant, acting by the selective blockage of
postsynaptic neuronal inhibition.

Substance abuse - Use of alcohol or drugs that results in adverse effects on the user. Substance abuse is a major health
and social problem in the United States among adolescents.

Tolerance - A state that develops after long-term exposure to a drug. Metabolic tolerance infers a faster removal and
oxidation by the liver. Functional tolerance infers a change in sensitivity of the organ to the effects of the drug.

Police Report Writing (Technical English)

Definition of Terms:

Affidavit - summary judgment. The kind of affidavit necessary to support a summary judgement is that affidavit from
which it may be clearly drawn that certain facts pleaded by either party are certain, undisputed, and indubitable which
dispense with the hearing or trial of the case. (PNP definition).

After operation report - it is a report that may be rendered after any successful police operation that leads to the arrest
of any member or some members of syndicated crime group.

After soco report - it is a report rendered by the team leader of the SOCO that conducted the scene of the crime
operations, processing or investigation.

Agent’s report - it is a report rendered by a documented agent who answers an intelligence requirement.

Agreement - Proposal. A proposal remains an offer even if not answered and irrespective of the length of time that has
passed. It only becomes an agreement when accepted by the other party. (PNP definition).

Book of account - a book containing charges and showing a continuous dealing with persons generally. To be admissible
in evidence, it must be kept as an account book and the charges made in the usual course of business.

Case officer - the person responsible for and in charge of the investigation of the case.

Police blotter - a record or log where all types of operational and under cover dispatches shall be recorded containing
the 5 "W" and 1 "H"(Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How of an information.

Spot report - refers to an immediate initial investigative or incident report addressed to higher headquarters pertaining
to the commission of the crime, occurrence of natural or man-made disaster or unusual incidents involving loss of lives
and damage of properties.

Tactical interrogation report - the report rendered by an interrogator which contain the following information: 1.
Personal and family background 2. Educational background 3. Professional background 4. Criminal activities,
associates/armaments 5. Plans

Summary of information (SOI) - an intelligence report rendered regarding any illegal activity or violation of laws being
observed by intelligence operatives within a given area of responsibility. This is the usual basis of case operations hence,
information received should be cared, validated, countered checked, analyzed and evaluated.

Police Report - report made by the police containing the initial statement made by the victim at the time she or he
reported the crime. A police report consists of a testament, specific details of the event and names of people involved.
Index Crime - are very serious crimes that happen frequently or regularly that they can serve as index of the crime
situation. Index Crime is basically anything that is physically pursued by the person committing the crime while non
index crimes consist of non-physical confrontation.

Non-Index Crime - refers to all crime not classified as index crime. These crimes are mostly victimless.

Crime Solution Efficiency - means the number of crimes solved after the arrest of the suspects and filing of charges
against them.

Crime Clearance Efficiency - means the number of crimes considered solved because the suspects have been identified
and charged but they remain at large.

Crime Incidence - the number of crimes reported as index or non-index crimes within a given period.

Crime Volume - is a basic indicator of the frequency of known criminal activity. It represents the number of reported
offenses.

Crime Trend - represents the percentage change in crime based on data reported in a prior equivalent period.

Crime Rate - the measure that gives an index of crime occurring in a particular jurisdiction for a specific time period.
 Institutional Corrections

The Correctional System in the Philippines is composed of six agencies under three distinct and separate departments
of the national government. That three departments of the national government are the following:
1. The Department of Justice
2. The Department of the Interior and Local Government
3. The Department of Social Welfare and Development

Bureau of Corrections - is an agency under the Department of Justice mandated to carry out institutional rehabilitation
programs of the government for national offenders, those sentenced to more than three years and to ensure their safe
custody. It is composed of seven operating institutions located all over the country to accept national prisoners. The
central office is located in the New Bilibid Prison, Muntinlupa City, Metro Manila, where the director, the assistant
director and the general administration staff are holding official functions.

Bureau of Correction Mandate - The rehabilitation of national prisoners.

Bureau of Correction Slogan - bringing back the dignity of man.

Bureau of Correction Principles

- accomplishing its mandated objectives and performing its assigned functions.
1. To confine prisoners by giving them adequate living spaces as the first conditions to be met before any effective
rehabilitation programs can be undertaken.
2. To prevent prisoners from committing crime while in custody.
3. To provide humane treatment by affording them human basic needs in the prison environment and prohibiting cruel
methods and provide a variety of rehabilitation program.

Bureau of Corrections Operating Institutions

1. New Bilibid Prisons - Muntinlupa City
2. Correctional Institution for Women - Mandaluyong City
3. Iwahig Prison and Penal Farm - Puerto Princesa City
4. Davao Prison and Penal Farm - Davao del Norte
5. Sablayan Prison and Penal farm - Occidental Mindoro
6. San Ramon Prison and Penal Farm - Zamboanga City
7. Leyte Regional Prison - Leyte

Institutional Programs
1. Inmate work program
2. Health care
3. Education and skills training
4. Recreation and Sports
5. Religious guidance and behavior modification using the therapeutic community approach.

Penal Management

Corrections - is typically carried out by government agencies and involves the punishment, treatment, and
supervision of persons who have been    convicted of crimes.               
                      
Penology - The study of the punishment of crime and prison management. Is a section of criminology that deals with the
philosophy and practice to repress criminal activities via an appropriate treatment and supervision of persons convicted
of criminal offenses.
                   
Punishment - is the infliction or imposition of a penalty as retribution for an offense. “The penalty inflicted".
                        
Prison reform - is the attempt to improve conditions inside prisons and aiming a a more effective penal system.

Prison - is a place in which people are physically confined and usually deprived of a range of personal freedoms.
             
Jail - is a short term detention facility.

Halfway house - also called recovery house or sober house - is a place to allow people to begin the process of
reintegration with society while still providing monitoring and support; this is generally believed to reduce the risk of
recidivism or   relapse when compared to a   release directly into society.

Rehabilitation - it came from Latin word "habilis" literally fit or suitable. Its meaning was expanded to mean "restore to
sound operation" or "to establish the good reputation".
                                                                                      
Solitary confinement - is a special form of imprisonment in which a prisoner is isolated from any human contact, though
often with the exception of members of prison staff.

Jail Prison

 a place of detention; a place where a person  a place of long term confinement for those
convicted or suspected of a crime is convicted of serious crimes.
detained.  Bureau of Corrections
 BJMP  DOJ
 DILG  holds people convicted of crimes; sentenced for
 holds people awaiting trial and people a longer term.
sentenced for a short duration.

Zebulon Reed Brockway - regarded as the father of prison reform in the United States. Believed that the primary reason
to have a prisoner in custody was to rehabilitate and not simply to punish. Warden at the Elmira reformatory from 1876
to 1900. He introduced the following:
1. a program of education
2. training in useful trades
3. physical activity
4. indeterminate sentence
5. inmate classification
6. incentive program.

Alexander Maconochie - (1787 -1860) - a Scottish naval officer, geographer and penal reformer. His two basic principle
of penology were that:
1. as cruelty debases both the victim and society, punishment should not be vindictive but should aim at the
reform of the convict to observe social constraints.
2. a convict’s imprisonment should consist of task, not time sentences with release depending on the performance
of a measurable amount of labor.

Modern Form/Method of Punishment

1. Execution - for capital offenses. ex. death by lethal injection
 2. Imprisonment/Incarceration
3. Fines
4. Probation and Parole
5. House Arrest - is a measure by which a person is confined by the authorities to his or her residence. Travel is
usually restricted if allowed at all.

Ancient Form/Method of Punishment

1. shame punishment
2. exile/banishment
3. payment to the victim
4. branding - (Stigmatizing) - is the process by which a mark is burned into the skin of a living person.
5. flogging - (flagellation) - is the act of methodically beating or whipping the human body.
6. mutilation - (maiming) - is the act of physical injury that degrades the appearance or function of any living body
usually without causing death.
7. burning
8. beheading
9. torture

* In the Philippines so far, 17 persons were executed by hanging, 84 persons were executed by electric chair, 7 persons
were executed by lethal injection.

* Majority of inmates confined in national prison did not finish high school, 6% never went to school or were illiterate
and 3% earned a college degree.

Probation Law of the Philippines PD 968

Probation - a disposition under which a defendant after conviction and sentence is released subject to conditions
imposed by the court and to the supervision of a probation officer.

Who can apply for Probation? any first time convicted offender who is 18 years old or above.

Is probation a right? No, it is a mere privilege for adult offenders. Under RA 9344 (Juvenile Justice and Welfare Act of
2006) a child in conflict with the law (CICL) is granted the right to probation as an alternative to imprisonment if qualified
under the Probation law.

Where shall an application for Probation be filed? the application shall be filed with the court that tried and sentenced
the offender.

What will happen if the application for Probation is denied? the offender will be sent by the sentencing court to prison
to serve his sentence.

When should an application for Probation be filed? any time before the offender starts serving his sentence but within
15 days from the promulgation of notice of judgment of conviction. Under section 42 of RA 9344, The Juvenile Justice
and Welfare Act of 2006, the court may after it shall have sentenced a child in conflict with the law and upon application
at anytime placed the child on probation in lieu of service of his sentence.

May an offender be released from confinement while his application for Probation is pending? yes, the applicant may
be released under the bail he filed in the criminal case or under recognizance.
How many times can one be granted Probation? only once.
RULES ON GRANT OF PROBATION

1. After having convicted and sentenced a defendant, the trial court may suspend the execution of the sentence
and place the defendant on probation, upon application by the defendant within the period for perfecting an
appeal.
2. Probation may be granted whether the sentenced imposed a a term of imprisonment or fine only.
3. No application for probation shall be entertained or granted if the defendant has perfected an appeal.
4. Filing of application for probation operate as a waiver of the right to appeal.
5. The order granting or denying probation shall not be appealable.
6. Accessory penalties are deemed suspended once probation is granted.
7. The convict is not immediately put on probation. There shall be a prior investigation by the probation officer and
a determination by the court.
 
Will Probation be automatically granted to one whose sentence is 6 years or less? ans. no, the applicant may be denied
by the court if:
1. The offender would be better rehabilitated if he/she is sent to prison to serve his/her sentence.
2. There is undue risk that the offender will likely commit another crime.
3. Probation will depreciate the seriousness of the offense committed.

  Under section 70 of RA 9165, the Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act of 2002, the court may in its discretion,
placed the accused under probation even if the sentence provided under section 11 of the act is higher than that
provided under the probation law.

What will happen if a probationer violates the conditions of probation?

1. The court may modify the conditions of probation or revoke the same.
2. If the violation is serious, the court may order the probationer to serve his prison sentence.
3. The probationer may also be arrested and criminally prosecuted if the violation is a criminal offense.

 The court order shall not be subject to appeal.

 Probation is not coterminous with its period. There must be an order issued by the court discharging the
probationer. Upon finding that he has fulfilled the terms and conditions of his probation, the court may order
the final discharge of the probationer. This shall have the following effects:
       a. case is deemed terminated.
       b. all civil rights suspended or lost are restored.          
                 c. offender's liability for any fine imposed is discharged.

Who are disqualified from the benefits of probation: 

1. Those sentenced to serve a prison term of more 6 years.
2. Those convicted of any crime against the national or the public order.
3. Those previously convicted of an offense which is punished by imprisonment of not less than one month and one day
imprisonment and/or a fine of not less than P200.
4. Those who have been placed on probation once.
5. Those serving sentence.
6. Those whose conviction is on appeal.
7. Those convicted of an offense against the omnibus election code, insurgency law, wage rationalization act.

There are two kinds of conditions imposed upon the offender under probation:
 
1. Mandatory or general – once violated, the probation is cancelled.
      1) To report to the probation officer within 72 hours after he receives the order of the court
           granting probation.
      2) To report to his probation officer at least once a month.
      3) not to commit any other offense while on probation.
     
2. Discretionary or special – additional conditions which the court may additionally impose for the probationer’s
correction and rehabilitation outside      prison. The enumeration is not exclusive, as long as the probationer’s
Constitutional rights are not jeopardized.
     
How long is the period of probation? ans.
1. not more than 2 years if the sentence of the offender is 1 year or less.
2. not more than 6 years if the sentence is more than one year.
3. When the penalty is a fine only and the offender is made to serve subsidiary imprisonment, probation
shall be twice the total number of days of subsidiary imprisonment.

What is Parole? it is the release of a prisoner from prison after serving the minimum period of his indeterminate
sentence.

Who cannot be granted parole? generally, those sentenced to a term of imprisonment of one year or less or to a
straight penalty or to a prison sentence  without a minimum term of imprisonment.

Who may grant parole to a prisoner? the board of pardon and parole, an agency under the Department of Justice.

When may a prisoner be granted parole? whenever the board of pardon and parole finds that there is a reasonable
probability that if released, the prisoner will be law abiding and that his release will not be incompatible with the
interest and welfare of society and when a prisoner has already served the minimum penalty of his/her indeterminate
sentence of imprisonment.

What happens if a parolee violates the conditions of his parole? he shall be rearrested and recommitted or returned to
prison to served the unexpired portion of the maximum period of his sentence.

What is executive clemency? it refers to the commutation of sentence, conditional pardon and absolute pardon may be
granted by the president upon recommendation of the board.

What is commutation of sentence? it is the reduction of the period of a prison sentence.

What is conditional pardon? it is the conditional exception of a guilty offender for the punishment imposed by a court.

What is absolute pardon? it is the total extinction of the criminal liability of the individual to whom it is granted without
any condition whatsoever resulting to the full restoration of  his civil rights.

Who may file a petition for conditional pardon? a prisoner who has served at least one half of the maximum of the
original indeterminate and/or definite prison term.

Who may grant commutation of sentence and pardon? the president.

Who may file a petition for commutation of sentence? the board may review the petition of a prisoner
for commutation of sentence if he/she meets the following minimum requirement:

  at least 1/2 (one half) of the minimum of his indeterminate and/or definite prison term or the aggregate
minimum of his determinate and/or prison terms.
 at least 10 years for prisoners sentenced to one reclusion perpetua or one life imprisonment, for
crimes/offenses not punishable under RA 7659 and other special law.
  at least 12 years for prisoners whose sentences were adjusted to 40 years in accordance with the provisions of
article 70 of the RPC as amended.
 at least 15 years for prisoners convicted of heinous crimes as defined in RA 7659 committed on or after January
1, 1994 and sentenced to one reclusion perpetua or one life imprisonment.
 at least 17 years for prisoners sentenced to 2 or more reclusion perpetua of life imprisonment even if their
sentences were adjusted to 40 years in accordance with the provision of article  70 of the RPC as amended.
 at least 20 years for those sentenced to death which was automatically commuted or reduced to reclusion
perpetua.

Who may file a petition for absolute pardon? one may file a petition for absolute pardon if he had served his maximum
sentence or granted final release and discharge or court termination of probation.

Is a prisoner who is released on parole or conditional pardon with parole conditions placed under supervision? yes,
the prisoner is placed under the supervision of a probation and parole officer.

PD 968 - Probation law of 1976 - this is the title of the decree/law. It took effect July 24, 1976.

Purpose of the law

1. promote the correction and rehabilitation of an offender by providing him with individualized treatment.
2. provide an opportunity for the reformation of a penitent offender which might be less probable if he were to
serve a prison sentence.
3. prevent the commission of offenses.

Probationer - a person placed on probation.

Probation officer - one who investigates for the court a referral for probation or supervises a probationer or both.

  The Probation administration shall be headed by the Probation administrator who shall be appointed by the
president of the Philippines.
 There shall be an assistant probation administrator who shall assist the administrator perform such duties as
may be assigned to him by the latter and as may be provided by law.

Qualifications of the Administrator and Assistant Probation Administrator.

1.  at least 35 years of age
2. holder of a master’s degree or its equivalent in either criminology, social work, corrections, penology,
psychology, sociology, public administration, law, police science, police administration or related field.
3. at least 5 years of supervisory experience or be a member of the Philippine bar with at least 7 years of
supervisory experience. 

Regional Probation officer and Assistant regional Probation Officer - appointed by the president upon the
recommendation of the Secretary of Justice.

Provincial and City Probation officer - appointed by the Secretary of justice upon the recommendation of the
administrator and in accordance with civil service law and rules.

Qualifications of Regional, Assistant Regional, Provincial and City Probation officers.

1. Bachelor’s degree with a major in social work, sociology, psychology, criminology, penology, corrections, police
science, administration, or related fields.
2. at least 3 years in work requiring any of the above mentioned disciplines or is a member of the Philippine bar
with at least 3 years of supervisory experience.
 when practicable, the provincial or city probation officer shall be appointed from among qualified residents of
the province or city where he will be assigned to work.