UNIT-1

PARTIAL FRACTION
An algebraic fraction can be broken down into simpler parts known as “partial fractions“.
Consider an algebraic fraction, (3x+5)/(2x2-5x-3). This expression can be split into simple form
like (2)/(x-3) – (1)/(2x+1).
The simpler parts [(2)/(x-3)]-[(1)/(2x+1)] are known as partial fractions.
This means that the algebraic expression can be written in the form of:
(3x+5)/(2x2-5x-3) = ((2)/(x-3))-((1)/(2x+1))
Note: The partial fraction decomposition only works for the proper rational expression (the
degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator). In case, if the rational
expression is in improper rational expression (the degree of the numerator is greater than the
degree of the denominator), first do the division operation to convert into proper rational
expression. This can be achieved with the help of polynomial long division method.

PARTIAL FRACTION FORMULA

The procedure or the formula for finding the partial fraction is:

1. While decomposing the rational expression into the partial fraction, begin with the proper
rational expression.
2. Now, factor the denominator of the rational expression into the linear factor or in the
form of irreducible quadratic factors (Note: Don’t factor the denominators into the
complex numbers).
3. Write down the partial fraction for each factor obtained, with the variables in the
numerators, say A and B.
4. To find the variable values of A and B, multiply the whole equation by the denominator.
5. Solve for the variables by substituting zero in the factor variable.
6. Finally, substitute the values of A and B in the partial fractions.

PARTIAL FRACTIONS FROM RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Any number which can be easily represented in the form of p/q, such t hat p and q are integers
and q≠0 is known as a rational number. Similarly, we can define a rational function as the ratio
of two polynomial functions P(x) and Q(x), where P and Q are polynomials in x and Q(x)≠0.
A rational function is known as proper if the degree of P(x) is less than the degree of Q(x);
otherwise, it is known as an improper rational function. With the help of the long division
process, we can reduce improper rational functions to proper rational functions. Therefore, if
P(x)/Q(x) is improper, then it can be expressed as:
P(x)Q(x)=A(x)+R(x)Q(x)
Here, A(x) is a polynomial in x and R(x)/Q(x) is a proper rational function.
We know that the integration of a function f(x) is given by F(x) and it is represented by:
∫f(x)dx = F(x) + C
Here R.H.S. of the equation means integral of f(x) with respect to x.

PARTIAL FRACTIONS DECOMPOSITION

In order to integrate a rational function, it is reduced to a proper rational function. The method in
which the integrand is expressed as the sum of simpler rational functions is known as
decomposition into partial fractions. After splitting the integrand into partial fractions, it is
integrated accordingly with the help of traditional integrating techniques. Here the list of Partial
fractions formulas is given.

PARTIAL FRACTION OF IMPROPER FRACTION

An algebraic fraction is improper if the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to that of
the denominator. The degree is the highest power of the polynomial. Suppose, m is the degree of
the denominator and n is the degree of the numerator. Then, in addition to the partial fractions
arising from factors in the denominator, we must include an additional term: this additional term
is a polynomial of degree n − m.
Note:

 A polynomial with zero degree is K, where K is a constant

 A polynomial of degree 1 is Px + Q
 A polynomial of degree 2 is Px2+Qx+K
Type: 1
2. Solve 3x+1/(x-2)(x+1) into partial fractions

3. Resolve 1/x2-1 into partial fractions

Type: 2

Type 3:
 LOGARITHMS

The logarithmic function is an inverse of the exponential function. It is defined as:

y=loga x, if and only if x=ay; for x>0, a>0, and a≠1.
Natural logarithmic function: The log function with base e is called natural logarithmic function
and is denoted by loge.
f(x) = logex
The questions of logarithm could be solved based on the properties, given below

Product rule: logb MN = logb M + logb N

Quotient rule: logb M/N = logb M – logb N

Power rule: logb Mp = P logb M

Zero Exponent Rule: loga 1 = 0

Change of Base Rule: logb (x) = ln x / ln b or logb (x) = log10 x / log10 b

Solved Examples:
1. Express 53 = 125 in logarithm form.
Solution:
53 = 125
As we know,
ab = c ⇒ logac=b
Therefore;
Log5125 = 3
2. Express log101 = 0 in exponential form.
Solution:
Given, log101 = 0
By the rule, we know;
logac=b ⇒ ab = c
Hence,
100 = 1
3. Find the log of 32 to the base 4.
Solution: log432 = x
4x = 32
(22)x = 2x2x2x2x2
22x = 25
2x=5
x=5/2
Therefore,
log432 =5/2
4. Find x if log5(x-7)=1.
Solution: Given,
log5(x-7)=1
Using logarithm rules, we can write;
51 = x-7
5 = x-7
x=5+7
x=12

5. If logam=n, express an-1 in terms of a and m.

Solution:
loga m=n
an=m
an/a=m/a
an-1=m/a
6. Solve for x if log(x-1)+log(x+1)=log21
Solution: log(x-1)+log(x+1)=log21
log(x-1)+log(x+1)=0
log[(x-1)(x+1)]=0
Since, log 1 = 0
(x-1)(x+1) = 1
x2-1=1
x2=2
x=± √2
Since, log of negative number is not defined.
Therefore, x=√2
7. Express log(75/16)-2log(5/9)+log(32/243) in terms of log 2 and log 3.
Solution: log(75/16)-2log(5/9)+log(32/243)
Since, nloga m=loga mn
⇒log(75/16)-log(5/9)2+log(32/243)
⇒log(75/16)-log(25/81)+log(32/243)
Since, loga m-logan=loga(m/n)
⇒log[(75/16)÷(25/81)]+log(32/243)
⇒log[(75/16)×(81/25)]+log(32/243)
⇒log(243/16)+log(32/243)
Since, loga m+logan=loga mn
⇒log(32/16)
⇒log2
8. Express 2logx+3logy=log a in logarithm free form.
Solution: 2logx+3logy=log a
logx2+logy3=log a
logx2 y3=log a
x2 y3 =log a
9. Prove that: 2log(15/18)-log(25/162)+log(4/9)=log2
Solution: 2log(15/18)-log(25/162)+log(4/9)=log2
Taking L.H.S.:
⇒2log(15/18)-log(25/162)+log(4/9)
⇒log(15/18)2-log(25/162)+log(4/9)
⇒log(225/324)-log(25/162)+log(4/9)
⇒log[(225/324)(4/9)]-log(25/162)
⇒log[(225/324)(4/9)]/(25/162)
⇒log(72/36)
⇒log2 (R.H.S)
10. Express log10(2+1) in the form of log10x.
Solution: log10(2+1)
=log102+log101
=log10(2×10)
=log1020
11. Find the value of x, if log10(x-10)=1.
Solution: Given, log10(x-10)=1.
log10(x-10) = log1010
x-10 = 10
x=10+10
x=20
12. Find the value of x, if log(x+5)+log(x-5)=4log2+2log3
Solution: Given,
log(x+5)+log(x-5)=4log2+2log3
log(x+5)(x-5) = 4log2+2log3 [log mn=log m+log n]
log(x2-25) = log24+log32
log(x2-25) = log16+log9
log(x2-25)=log(16×9)
log(x2-25)=log144
x2-25=144
x2=169
x=±√169
x=±13

13. Solve for x, if log(225/log15) = log x

Solution: log x = log(225/log15)
log x=log[(15×15)]/log15
log x = log 152/log 15
log x = 2log 15/log 15
log x = 2
Or
log10x=2
102=x
x=10×10
x=100

Solved Examples

(i)Sol:
(ii)sol:
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS

UNIT-V

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Definition:

A differential equation is an equation in which differential coefficients occur.

Differential equations are of two types(i) Ordinary and (ii) Partial.

An ordinary differential equation is one which a single independent variable enters, either
explicity or implicity. For example,
dy d 2x
sin x, 2 m 2 x
dx dr
2
d y dy in x
x2 2 xy
dx dx

are ordinary differential equations.

Variable separable.
Suppose an equation is of the form f ( x)dx F ( y)dy .
We can directly integrate this equation and the solution is f ( x)dx F ( y)dy , where
c is an arbitrary constant.
1
2 2
dy 1 y
Problem: Solve 0
dx 1 x2

Solution:

dy dy
We have .
2
1 y 1 x2

Integrating, sin-1 y + sin-1x = c .

dy
Problem: Solve tany = cotx.
dx

dy
Solution: tany = cotx
dx

tany dy = cotx dx
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
tan y dy cot x dx

log secy = log sinx + logc

log secy – log sinx = logc
sec y
log = log c
sin x

sec y
=c.
sin x
Problem: Solve tanx sec2 y dy + tany sec2x dx = 0
Solution:
tanx sec2 y dy = - tany sec2x dx
sec 2 y sec 2 x
dy dx
tan y tan x
sec 2 y sec 2 x
dy dx
tan y tan x
put t = tany put u = tanx
dt = sec2 y dy du = sec2x (- dx)
log t = - log u + log c
log t + log u = log c
log (tu) = log c
tu = c
tan y tan x = c.
Problem: Solve secx dy + secy dx = 0

Solution: secx dy = - secy dx

dy dx
sec y sec x
cos y dy cos x dx

sin y = - sin x + c

sin x + sin y = c.
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
Linear Equation:

A differential equation is said to be linear when the dependent variable and its derivatives
occur only in the first degree and no products of these occur.
The linear equation of the first order is of the form dy
y Q , where P and Q are
dx
functions of x only.

dy
Problem: Solve (1 + x2) + 2xy = 4x2.
dx

Solution:

Divided by 1 + x2
(1 + x 2 ) dy 2xy 4x 2
(1 + x 2 ) dx 1 2 1 2
dy 2xy 4x 2
dx 1 2 1 2

dy
This is of the form y Q.
dx

2x 4x 2
P= and Q =
1 x2 1 2
Pd x Pd x
The solution is y e Q e dx c
2x 2x
2
dx 4x 2 dx
ye 1
e 1
dx  (1)
1 2
2x
Pdx dx
1 x2
e =e

put t = 1 + x2

dt = 2x dx
2x dt
dx
1 x2 t
=e

= e logt

= t
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
2x
dx
e 1 x
= 1 + x 2.  (2)

Using (2) in (1),

4x 2
y (1 + x2) = (1 2
)dx
1 2

y (1 + x2) = 4x 2 dx

3
y (1 + x2) = 4 x .
3

dy
Problem: Solve + y sec x = tan x.
dx

Solution:

dy
This is of the form y Q.
dx
Pd x Pd x
The solution is y e Qe dx c

P = sec x & Q = tan x

sec x dx sec x dx
ye tan x e dx c (1)
sec x dx t an x )
Now e e lo g(sec x
sec x tan x
(1)  y (secx + tanx) = tan x (secx + tanx) dx

an x secx dx + an 2 x dx
sec x (1 sec 2 x)dx
sec x dx sec 2 xdx
sec x an x .
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
dy
Problem: Solve - tan xy = -2 sin x.
dx

Solution:

dy
This is of the form y Q.
dx
Pd x Pd x
The solution is y e Qe dx c

P = - tan x & Q = -2 sin x

t an x dx t an x dx
ye 2 sin x e dx c (1)
t an x dx
Now e e lo gsec x
sec x
- y sec x = 2 sin x ( sec x)dx c

= 2 sin x sec x dx c

sin x
= 2 dx c
cos x

= 2 tan x dx c

- y sec x = 2 log secx + c.

dy
Problem: Solve cos 2 x + y = tan x.
dx

Solution:

Divided by cos2x .
cos 2 x dy y tan x
cos x dx cos x cos 2 x
2 2

dy 2
sec 2 x an x sec x
dx
P ec 2 x & Q an x sec 2 x
Pd x Pd x
The solution is y e Qe dx c
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
ec 2 x dx ec2 x dx
ye an x sec 2 x e dx 1)
ec2 x dx t an x
Now e

y etanx = tan x sec 2 x e t an x dx

put t = tanx

dt = sec2x dx
y et = e t dt

= t . et - et

= et (t – 1) + c

y etanx = etanx ( tanx – 1) + c

dy
Problem: Solve (1 + x2) + 2xy = cosx.
dx

Solution:

Divided by 1 + x2
(1 + x 2 ) dy 2xy cos x
2 2
(1 + x ) dx 1 1 2
dy 2xy cos x
2
dx 1 1 2
dy
This is of the form y Q.
dx

2x cos x
P= 2
and Q =
1 x 1 x2
Pd x Pd x
The solution is y e Q e dx c
2x 2x
2
dx cos x dx
ye 1
e 1
dx  (1)
1 2
2x
Pdx dx
1 x2
e =e

put t = 1 + x2
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
dt = 2x dx
2x dt
dx
1 x2 t
=e

= e logt

= t
2x
dx
e 1 x
= 1 + x 2.  (2)

Using (2) in (1),

cos x
y (1 + x2) = (1 2
)dx
1 2
y (1 + x2) = cos x dx

y (1 + x2) = sin x .

LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS

Problem: Solve (D2 + 5D + 6) y = ex.

Solution:

To find the C.F. solve (D2 + 5D + 6) y = 0.

The auxiliary equation is m2 + 5m + 6 = 0.

Solving, m = -2 and -3.

C.F. = A e-2x + B e-3x.

1
P.I. = 2 ex
D D

1 x
= e on replacing D by 1.
12
1 x
y = A e-2x + B e-3x + e .
12
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
Problem: Solve (D – 2mD + m ) y = emx.
2 2

Solution:

To find the C.F. solve (D2 – 2mD + m2) y = 0.

The auxiliary equation is k2 - 2mk + m2 = 0.

i.e., (k – m)2 = 0 , k = m twice.

C.F. = emx (A + Bx).
1
P.I. = emx
(k - m) 2

x2 mx
= e
2
x
y = emx (A + Bx + ).
22

Problem: Solve (D2 - 3D + 2) y = sin 3x.

Solution:

To find the C.F. solve (D2 + 5D + 6) y = 0.

The auxiliary equation is m2 - 3m + 2 = 0.

Solving, m = 2 and 1.

C.F. = A e2x + B ex.

sin 3x
P.I. =
D2 D

= sin 3x
, put D2 = - a2 = -9
D

sin 3x 7 D
=
D 7 D

7 sin 3x D(sin 3x)

=
9 D2

7 sin 3x (3 cos 3x)

=
9 ( )
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
7 sin 3x cos 3x
=
9 1

7 sin 3x cos 3x
=
30

7 sin 3x 9 cos 3x
=
130
y = C.F. + P.I.

7 sin 3x 9 cos 3x
= A e2x + B ex .
130
d2
Problem: Solve dy
y x2 .
y dx dx
2

Solution:

(D2 + 2D + 3) y = 5x2

To find the C.F. solve (D2 + 2D + 3) y = 0.

The auxiliary equation is m2 + 2m + 3 = 0.

22 .1.3
m=
2.1

4 2
=
2

=
2

i 2
=
2

= -1 i 2

α=-1, β= 2

C.F. = e-x (A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x)

5x 2
P.I. =
D2 D
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
5x 2
=
3 D D2

5x 2
=
2D D2
31
3

5 D D
= x2
3 3

5 2D D 2D D2
= ......... x 2
3 3 3

5 2D D 4D 2 D3 D4
= ......... x 2
3 3 9
5 2D D 4D 2
= x2 (Neglecting Higher Powers)
3 3 9
5 2 2D(x 2 ) D 2 (x 2 ) 4D 2 ( x 2 )
= x
3 3 9
5 2 2(2x) 2 4(2)
= x
3 3 9
5 2 4x 2 8
= x
3 3 9

5 2 4x 2 8
= x
3 3 3 9

5 2 4x 2
= x
3 3 9

y = C.F. + P.I.

5 2 4x 2
= e-x (A cos 2 x + B sin 2 x) + x .
3 3 9
 ALGEBRA AND CALCULUS
2 2x
Problem: Solve (D + 4) y = e sin 2x.

Solution:

The auxiliary equation m2 + 4 = 0.

m2 = -4

m=

m= 2i.

C.F. = e0x (A cos2x + B sin2x)

= A cos2x + B sin2x
e 2 x sin 2 x
P.I. =
D2

e 2 x sin 2 x
= , replace D by D+2
D 22 4

e 2 x sin 2 x
=
D2 D
2x
e sin 2x
= , replace D2 by -4
D

e 2 x sin 2x D
=
4D 4D
2x
e [4D(sin 2 x) sin 2 x] e 2 x [4D(sin 2x) sin 2x]
= 2
=
16D 6 16( ) 6

4e [2 cos 2x in 2x]
=
0

y = C.F. + P.I.
4e 2 x [2 cos 2x in 2x]
= A cos2x + B sin2x .
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