SKELETAL SYSTEM
Anatomy and Physiology Lecture, 09/14/2022
Instructor: Ma’am Catherine Gem Villareal
Skeletal System
● Organ system that provides an internal
framework for the human body
● Came from the Greek word “skeleton”
which means “dried up body”
● Consists of BTCL (bones, tendons,
ligaments, cartilages)
● Osteology - study of bones
○ An adult has 206 bones
○ An infant has 300+ bones
Functions of the Skeletal System
● Protection - protects organs (examples:
skull - brain, vertebrae - spinal cord, rib
cage - lungs and heart)
● Movement - tendons attach bone to
muscle, ligaments attach bone to bone
● Storage - stores CPL (calcium,
phosphorus, lipids)
● Blood cell production - hematopoiesis
(blood cell formation or origin of RBC,
WBC, and platelets)
● Support - bears body weight, supports
tissues
Tendons
● Attaches a bone to a muscle
● Made up of collagen
Ligaments
● Attaches a bone to another bone
● Made up of collagen
Cartilage
● Made up of collagen and proteoglycans
● Reduces friction
● Model for bone formation
Extracellular Matrix
● Collagen - rope-like
● Proteoglycans - can attract and retain
large amounts of water between
polysaccharides, responsible
smoothness and resilience of the bone
Bone Marrow
● Yellow BM - fats
● Red BM - blood
Bone Shapes
● Long
○ More long than wide
○ Located in the upper and lower
limbs
○ Examples: tibia, fibula, femur
● Short
○ More wide than long
○ Located in the wrist and ankle
○ Examples: tarsal, carpal, phalange
● Flat
○ Usually encloses and protects the
organs
○ Examples: ribs, skull, sternum
● Irregular
○ Has special functions
○ Examples: vertebrae and facial
bones
Structure of a Long Bone
● Epiphysis - “growing upon”, site of growth,
spongy bone tissue
○ Articular Cartilage - dark part,
covers the end of epiphysis
● Medullary Cavity - center of diaphysis,
usually contains YBM or RBM
● Periosteum - membrane around the outer
surface of the bone
● Endosteum - membrane that lines the
medullary cavity
● Diaphysis - shaft or middle part of bone,
compact bone tissue
Histology of a Bone
● Osteoblasts - bone-forming cell,
responsible for bone formation, repair, and
remodeling
● Osteocytes - bone cell, maintains bone
tissue
● Osteoclasts - bone-destroying cell,
resorbs bone
for ● Osteogenic Cells - stem cell
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
● Involves 3 hormones (PVC): PTH, Vitamin
D in Active Form, and Calcitonin
 ● PTH (parathyroid hormones) is secreted
when blood calcium levels are too low
○ Stimulates osteoclasts to break
down bones and releases calcium
to blood
● Active Vitamin D is secreted when blood
calcium levels are too low
● Calcitonin is secreted when blood calcium
levels are high
○ Secreted by thyroid gland, inhibit
osteoclasts and promote
osteoblasts
Bone Formation
● Bone Ossification - formation of bone by
osteoblasts
○ Intramembranous Ossification -
bone formation that occurs within
connective tissue membranes
(skull), happens to a 12-week fetus
○ Endochondral Ossification - bone
formation that occurs inside the
hyaline cartilage (all bones except
the skull)
● Primary Formation - diaphysis formation
● Secondary Formation - epiphysis
formation
Bone Repair
● Clot formation / hematoma
● Formation of callus
● Callus ossification
● Bone remodeling
Bone Remodeling
● Removal of existing bone by osteoclasts,
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
● Responsible for changes in bone shape,
repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
calcium ion regulation
● Occurs in all bones
Bone Anatomy
● Axial Skeleton
○ Upper part of the body
○ Consists of the skull, vertebral
column, and bony thorax
● Appendicular Skeleton
○ Lower part of the body
○ Consists of the girdles, arms, legs
Axial Skeleton (80 BONES)
● Cranial Bones - 8, PESTOF
○ Parietal (2) - sides and roof of
cranium
○ Ethmoid (1) - anterior portion of
cranium, including medial surface
of eye orbit and roof of nasal cavity
■ Resembles a honeycomb
○ Sphenoid (1) - forms part of
cranium floor, lateral posterior
portions of eye orbits, lateral
portions of cranium anterior to
temporal bones
■ Resembles a butterfly
○ Temporal (2) - inferior to parietal
bones on each side of the cranium
○ Occipital (1) - posterior portion and
floor of cranium
○ Frontal (1) - anterior part of
cranium
● Facial Bones - 14, VAIN MM PLZ
○ Vomer (1) - midline of nasal cavity,
nasal septum
○ Inferior Nasal Conchae (2) - nasal
cavity
○ Nasal (2) - nose bridge
○ Mandible (1) - lower jaw
○ Maxillae (2) - upper jaw
○ Palatine (2) - hard palate
○ Lacrimal (2) - medial surfaces of
eye orbits
○ Zygomatic (2) - cheekbone
● Auditory Ossicles - 6 (one in each ear),
MIS
○ Malleus - hammer-shaped
○ Incus - anvil-shaped
○ Stapes - smallest bone in the body
● Hyoid Bone - 1
○ U-shaped
○ Only bone that does not articulate
with another bone
○ Point of attachment to the tongue
and several other muscles
● Vertebral Column - 26, 7AM Breakfast,
12PM Lunch, 5PM Dinner
○ Cervical Vertebra (7)
 ■ C1 is the atlas, which holds
the head
■ C2 is the axis, which
rotates the head
○ Thoracic Vertebra (12)
○ Lumbar Vertebra (5)
○ Sacrum (1)
○ Coccyx (1) - tailbone
● Sternum - 1, MBX
○ Resembles a sword
○ Manubrium - “handle”
○ Body - “blade”
○ Xiphoid Process - “tip”
● Rib Cage - 24
○ True Ribs (pairs 1-7) - connected
to the sternum
○ False Ribs (pairs 8-12) - not
connected to the sternum,
connected by cartilages
■ Floating Ribs (pairs 10-12)
- at the back of the rib
cage, connected to the
spine
Appendicular Skeleton (126 BONES)
● Pectoral Girdle - 4
○ Attaches upper limbs to the body
■ Scapula / Shoulder Blade
(2)
■ Clavicle / Collar Bone (2)
● Upper Limb - 60
○ Consists of the bones of the arm,
forearm, wrist, and hand
■ Humerus (2) - longest bone
in the arm / upper limb
■ Radius (2) - runs parallel to
the ulna, on the thumb side
of the forearm
■ Ulna (2) - medial bone of
the forearm, on the pinky
side of the forearm
■ Carpals (16) - bones of the
wrist, “so long to pinky,
here comes the thumb”
■ Metacarpals (10) - bones of
the palm
■ Phalanges (28) - distal and
proximal, “holding a sword”
● Each finger has
three phalange
bones, except for
the pollex which
only has two
● Pelvic Girdle - 2
○ Attaches lower limbs to the body
■ Coxal (2) - hip bones
● The ilium, ischium,
and pubis unite in
early adulthood to
form the coxal
bones
● Ilium - fan-shaped
bone
○ Male pelvic girdle is narrow and
deeper; angle of pubic arch is less
than 90°
○ Female pelvic girdle is larger and
wider because of childbirth; angle
of pubic arch is greater than 90°
● Lower Limb - 60
○ Consists of the thigh, leg, ankle,
and foot
■ Femur (2) - longest bone in
the body, thigh
■ Patella (2) - knee cap
■ Tibia (2) - large lower leg
■ Fibula (2) - small lower leg
■ Tarsals (14) - bones of the
ankle, “cally called nate that
milk is like cream”
■ Metatarsals (10) - bones of
the foot
■ Phalanges (28) - bones of
the toes
● Each toe has three
phalange bones,
except for the hallux
which only has two
Joints / Articulations
● Named according to the bones or portion
of bones that join together
○ Functional - according to degree of
motion (SAD)
■ Synarthrosis - non-movable
joint (example: skull)
 ■ Amphiarthrosis - slightly
movable joint (example:
vertebral column)
■ Diarthrosis - movable joint
(examples: wrist, knee,
elbow)
○ Structural - according to the type of
connective tissue (FCS)
■ Fibrous Joint - fibrous
tissue
■ Cartilaginous - cartilage
■ Synovial - synovial fluid

Types of Movement
● Flexion - bending
● Extension - straightening
● Abduction - movement away from midline
● Adduction - movement toward the midline
● Pronation - rotation of the forearm with
palms down
● Supination - rotation of the forearm with
palms up
● Rotation - movement of a structure about
the long axis

Abnormalities in the Curvature of the Spine

● Kyphosis - abnormal posterior curvature of
the spine; hunchback
● Lordosis - abnormal anterior curvature of
the spine; swayback
● Scoliosis - abnormal lateral curvature of
the spine; letter “S”

Types of Sutures
● Lambdoid - between occipital and parietal
bones
● Coronal - between the frontal and parietal
bones
● Sagittal - between two parietal bones
● Squamous - between temporal and
parietal bones

Types of Fontanels
● Anterior
● Posterior
● Anterolateral
● Posterolateral
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Anatomy and Physiology Lecture, 09/24/2022
Instructor: Ma’am Catherine Gem Villareal
Muscular System
● Has four functions:
○ Body Movement - contraction of
the muscles is responsible for the
overall movement of the body
○ Posture and Muscle Tone - skeletal
muscles constantly maintain
posture and tone, which allow us to
stand erect or sit down
○ Stabilization of Joints - muscles
contribute to the overall support
and stability of joints
○ Heat Generation - when muscles
contract, heat is given off as a
byproduct
● Can be classified into three: skeletal,
smooth, and cardiac (refer to slide 3 -
table comparing and contrasting the three
types of muscles)
Trivia
● Longest muscle: Sartorius
● Smallest muscle: Stapedius
● Biggest muscle: Gluteus Maximus
● There are 640 muscles in the body
○ Muscles comprise 40% of a male’s
body mass
○ Muscles comprise 32% of a
female’s body mass
Characteristics of Muscles
● Muscles have myofilaments (muscle cell
equivalent to the microfilaments of the
cytoskeleton) that are elongated
○ Muscle Fiber - single muscle cell
○ Fiber - made up of fibrils
○ Myofibrils - made up of thin and
thick filaments
● Prefixes “myo-“ and “mys-“ refer to
muscle, while the prefix “sarco-” refers to
flesh
● Muscles are attached to at least two
points:
○ Origin - stationary bone
○ Insertion - movable bones
■ Belly - fleshy part of a
muscle between tendons of
origin and insertion
Major Functional Characteristics of Muscle
● Irritability - ability to receive and respond
to stimulus
● Contractility - ability to shorten when an
adequate stimulus is received
● Extensibility - ability to extend / stretch
● Elasticity - ability to recoil / return to
normal shape when tension is released
Smooth Muscle
● Located in various internal structures
including the digestive tract, uterus and
blood vessels such as arteries
● Movement is involuntary
Cardiac Muscle
● Muscle specific to the heart
● Contracts and relaxes involuntarily
● When viewed under the microscope, it
resembles a piece of steak
Skeletal / Striated Muscle
● Specialized tissue attached to bones
● Allows movement
● Movement is voluntary
Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle
● Sarcolemma - specialized plasma
membrane
● Sarcoplasmic Reticulum - specialized
smooth ER, stores calcium in the muscle
● Myofibril - bundles of myofilaments, has
two types
○ Thick / Myosin / I Band - 2 globular
ends (cross bridges), has enzyme
called ATPase
■ Z Disc - in the middle of I
band
○ Thin / Actin / A Band - 2 strands of
globular actin molecules twisted
into a helix, have binding sites for
myosin cross bridges
■ Sarcomere - contractile unit
of muscle fiber
Fascicle Arrangement of Skeletal Muscles
● Parallel - strap-like (example: sartorius)
 ● Fusiform - spindle-shaped (example:
biceps)
● Pennate - feather-shaped
○ Unipennate - (example: extensor
digitorum longus)
○ Bipennate - (example: rectus
femoris)
○ Multipennate - (example: deltoid)
● Convergent - (example pectoralis major
and pectoralis minor)
● Circular - (example: orbicularis oris)
Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal
Muscles
● Endomysium - CT around a single muscle
fiber
● Perimysium - CT around a fascicle
● Epimysium - CT that covers an entire
skeletal muscle
● Fascia - CT outside the epimysium,
extends beyond the end of the muscle to
become a tendon
Types of Muscles
● Prime Mover - a muscle with a major
responsibility for a certain movement
● Antagonist - a muscle that reverses a
prime mover
● Synergist - a muscle that aids a prime
mover, prevents rotation or unwanted
movement
● Fixator - a muscle that stabilizes the origin
of a prime mover in order to use all
tension to move the insertion bone
● Levator - a muscle that raises a body part
Naming of Skeletal Muscles
● Direction of muscle fibers (examples:
rectus - straight, oblique - slanted)
● Relative size of the muscle (examples:
maximus - large, minimus - short, longus -
long)
● Location of the muscle (example:
temporalis - near the temporal bone)
● Number of origins (examples: biceps - two
origins, triceps - three origins, quadriceps -
four origins)
● Location of muscle’s origins and insertion
(examples: sterno - sternum, cleido -
clavicle)
● Shape of the muscle (example: deltoid -
triangular)
● Action (examples: flexor, extensor)
Nerve Stimulus to Muscle
● Muscle tissue is innervated
● Synaptic Cleft - gap between the nerve
and muscle, separates axonal ending of
the motor nerve and sarcolemma of
muscle fiber
● Axon Ending - contains vesicle of
neurotransmitter, produces acetylcholine
(Ach)
○ Once the nerve ending is
stimulated, Ach is released
○ Ach travels along the synaptic cleft
and brings receptor on the motor
end plate
● Muscle contracts
Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
1. ATP Hydrolysis - myosin heads hydrolyze
ATP, which become reoriented and
energized
2. Attachment - myosin head binds to actin,
forms cross bridges
3. Power Stroke - myosin cross bridges
rotate towards the center of the sarcomere
4. Detachment - myosin head binds to ATP,
cross bridges detach from actin
*Cycle repeats if ATP and calcium are
present
Muscle Relaxation Mechanism
1. HCH is present in NMJ (neuromuscular
junction), preventing continual stimulation
2. Calcium ions are transported from
sarcoplasm back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum
3. Linkages between myosin and actin are
broken because of the absence of ATP
4. Muscle fiber relaxes
○ When contraction occurs:
■ I band becomes smaller
■ A band stays the same
■ H zone becomes smaller
■ Sarcomere shortens
Derivation of ATP for Muscle Contraction
1. Aerobic production during exercise, in
normal conditions
 2. Anaerobic production during extensive,
short-term work
3. Conversion of a molecule called creatine
phosphate (male creatinine level is higher
than that of females)
4. Conversion of two ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) to one ATP (adenosine
triphosphate) and one AMP (adenosine Special Body Movements
monophosphate)
Muscle Response to Stimuli
● Muscles can continue to contract unless
they run out of energy
○ ATP is stored in the muscle for
contraction for only 4-6 seconds
● Muscle force depends upon the number of
fibers stimulated
● Rotation
● Abduction
● Adduction
● Circumduction - combination of all
ordinary body movements, except for
rotation
● Dorsiflexion - lifting the foot
● Plantar Flexion - depressing the foot
● Inversion - turning the foot inward
● Eversion - turning the foot outward
● Supination - upward
● Pronation - downward
● Opposition - touching thumb to other
fingers

Muscle Tension
● A condition wherein muscles remain
semi-contracted for an extended period of
time
● Usually a cause of stress (examples: back
pain, shooting pain, etc.)

Graded Responses
● Twitch - abnormal single or brief
contraction
● Tetanus - one contraction is immediately
followed by another; summing all
contractions
● Fused / Complete Tetanus - no evident
relaxation before the following contraction,
muscle contraction is sustained
● Unfused / Incomplete Tetanus - relaxation
appears between contraction

Types of Twitches in Skeletal Muscle Fibers

● Slow - slow oxidative

● Fast - fast oxidative / fast glycolytic

Phases of Muscle Twitch

1. Lag Phase - beginning of contraction
2. Contraction Phase - muscles are
contracting
3. Relaxation Phase - muscles are relaxing

Ordinary Body Movements

● Flexion
● Extension
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Anatomy and Physiology Lecture, 10/01/2022
Instructor: Ma’am Catherine Gem Villareal
Nervous System
● Neurology / Neurologists
● The control center of the body
● Has five functions (CRIME)
○ Controlling - muscles and glands
○ Receiving - receiving sensory input
(vision, hearing, sense, touch, etc.)
○ Integrating - integrating information
(brain and spinal cord processes
sensory input and initiates
responses)
○ Maintaining - homeostasis (CNS)
○ Establishing - establishing and
maintaining mental activity
(consciousness, memory, and
thinking)
Central Nervous System
● Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
● Detects, interprets, and responds to the
stimuli from internal and external
environment
Peripheral Nervous System
● Consists of all nerves that conduct
impulses (peripheral nerves)
● Divided into two: sensory and motor
Sensory / Afferent
● Nerves leading towards CNS
● Receptor which monitors responses from
internal and external environment
● Two types of stimuli
○ Conscious - five senses
○ Unconscious - blood pressure,
heart rate
Motor / Efferent
● Nerves leading away from the CNS
● Responsible in controlling actions of
receptor organs (muscle and glands)
● Brings information from CNS to the
periphery
Subdivisions of the Motor Division
● Somatic - skeletal muscles are involved
(voluntary)
● Autonomic - cardiac muscles, smooth
muscles, and glands are involved
(involuntary)
Subdivisions of the Autonomic Motor System
● Sympathetic - fight or flight
● Parasympathetic - resting and digesting
Cells of the Nervous System
● Neuron - conducts impulses
○ Dendrites - receives information
from other neurons, transmits
electrical signals towards the cell
body
○ Soma / Cell Body - site of protein
synthesis, surrounds nucleus
○ Axon - transmits signals away from
the cell body
■ Clusters of axons in PNS -
nerves
■ Clusters of axons in CNS -
tracts
■ Axon Hillock - site of action,
potential, generation; also
the area where axons leave
the neurocell body
○ Axon terminal - responsible for
transmitting signals to other
neurons; releases
neurotransmitters
○ Myelin Sheath - insulates one
nerve cell to another, responsible
for speeding up nerve impulses
along the axon
○ Node of Ranvier - gap in the
myelin sheath
● Glial / Neuroglial - helper cells, gives
support to axons
Types of Neurons
● Unipolar
○ One axon
● Bipolar
○ One axon and one dendrite
○ Usually seen in the retina of the
eyes
● Multipolar
○ Many projections
○ One axon and two or more
dendrites
○ Most common form of neurons
 ● Purkinje ● Presynaptic Terminal - located at the end
○ Inhibitory neuron of the axon
○ Many dendrites ● Postsynaptic Terminal - located at the
● Pyramidal membrane of the second neuron
○ Pyramid-shaped (dendrites)
○ Largest neuron cell seen in the ● Synaptic Cleft - spaces between axon and
cortex (responsible for conscious the next neuron
thought) ● Synaptic Vesicles - contains
neurotransmitters that are responsible for
Types of Glials inhibiting or causing action potential
● Astrocytes - responsible for limiting ● Neurotransmitters
damage in neural tissues (example: BBB - ○ Excitatory Neurotransmitters
blood brain barrier) ■ Acetylcholine - activates
○ Star-shaped cell muscle stimulation
○ Most abundant type of glial ■ Glutamate - most common
● Microglial - phagocytic cells neurotransmitter in the
● Oligodendrocytes - forms myelin sheaths CNS
● Schwann Cells - provide myelin to ■ Histamine - inflammatory
neurons in the PNS response
● Ependymal Cells ■ Dopamine - motivation
■ Epinephrine - fight and
Neural Signaling flight response
1. Stimuli ■ Norepinephrine - controls
2. Information is sent to the CNS blood pressure and heart
3. Information is received and processed rate
4. Information is interpreted ○ Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
5. Response is produced ■ GABA (gamma
aminobutyric acid) -
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways reduces neuronal
● Resting Membrane Potential - uneven excitability
distribution of charges when no more ■ Serotonin - cravings, pain
potassium can diffuse out of the cell control
(PISO)
● Local Current - area where sodium Reflexes
channels briefly opens, start of ● An involuntary reaction in response to a
depolarization stimulus applied to the periphery and
● Depolarization - cell membrane becomes transmitted to the CNS
more positive ● Reflexes allow a person to react to stimuli
● Local Potential more quickly than possible, if the patient is
○ When threshold is not met, conscious
repolarization occurs
○ When threshold is met, action Reflex Arc (example: person touches a hot
potential occurs object)
● Action Potential ● Stimulus - hot object
○ Unmyelinated Axons - no myelin ● Receptor - pain and heat detected by skin
sheaths, action potential is slow ● Sensory Neuron - carry signals to relay to
○ Myelinated Axons - has myelin the relay neuron
sheaths, action potentials are ● Relay Neuron - transmits signals from
conducted quickly sensory neuron to other neurons,
including the motor neuron
Synapses
 ● Motor Neuron - receives signals, brings
signals to the arm muscles
● Effector - arm pulls away / withdraws from
the hot object
● Response
Reflexes Showing Abnormal Reactions
● Patellar Reflex
● Triceps Reflex
● Plantar Reflex
● Pupillary Reflex
Neural Pathway (see: slide 23)
● Converging Pathway - two or more neuron
synapses having the same neuron
● Diverging Pathway - one neuron with
branching axon synapses, having two or
more neurons
Spinal Cord
● Has two main functions
● Has two layers of protective or nourishing
tissue
○ Vertebral Column - bony covering
○ Meninges - membranous covering
● Contains three columns
○ Dorsal / Posterior
○ Ventral / Interior
○ Lateral
● Has two types of nerve tracts
○ Ascending - consists of axons that
conduct action potentials toward
the brain
○ Descending - consists of axons
that conduct action potentials away
from the brain
Center of Spinal Cord (see: slide 30)
● Anterior Horns - receives info from brain to
motor cortex
● Posterior Horns - takes sensory
information and sends it to the brain
● Lateral Horns - regulates urination,
digestion, and heart rate
● Central Canal - fluid-filled space in center
of spinal cord
● Grey Matter - looks like letter H or a
butterfly, allows communication between
horns
● White Matter -
Spinal Cord Reflexes
● Stretch Flex- muscle contracts in
responses to stretching force
● Knee Jerk Flex - patellar reflex
● Withdrawal Flex - flexor reflex, removes a
limb from a painful stimulus
Spinal Nerves
● Cervical - from spinal nerves C1-C4
● Brachial - from spinal nerves C5-T1
● Lumbosacral - from spinal nerves L1-S4
Brain
● Has three major areas: cerebrum,
cerebellum, and brain stem
● Cerebrum - most prominent feature of the
brain
● Cerebellum - smallest part of the brain
● Brain Stem - located in the inferior part of
the brain
Brain Stem
● Controls heart rate, blood pressure
● Once damaged, a person will die
● Cranial nerves 3-12
● Composed of medulla oblongata, pons,
midbrain
○ Medulla Oblongata - swallowing,
vomiting, coughing, sneezing,
balance, and coordination
○ Pons - resembles a footbridge,
controls facial expressions and
body equilibrium, posture,
regulates respiration and sleep
○ Midbrain - involved in eye
movement coordination
Diencephalon
● Thalamus - largest part, registers
unfamiliar or unlocalized or uncomfortable
perceptions of pain
● Epithalamus - involved in emotional and
visceral responses to odor
● Hypothalamus - controls body temp,
hunger, thirst, sexual pleasure
Cerebrum
● Prosencephalon - controls body temp,
reproductive function, eating, sleeping
● Corpus Callosum - connects left side of
the brain to the right side
 ● Cerebral Cortex - outer layer, on top of the
cerebrum
● Gyri (folds) and Sulci (grooves) - between
the two clefts of the cerebral surface of the
brain, increases surface area of the
cerebral cortex
● Frontal Lobe - responsible for smell,
motivation, aggression, and mood
● Temporal Lobe - responsible for smell and
hearing reception
● Occipital Lobe - responsible for visual
● Parietal Lobe - center for touch, pain, and
taste

Cerebellum
● Initiates movement such as walking,
posture, balance, and speech
● Once cerebellum is damaged, a person
might have tremors, lack of balance, or
shaking of hands

Cranial Nerves
● OOOTTAFVGVAH
● “Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Virgin
Girl’s Vagina, Ah Heaven”

NOTES:
● The contents of this document are solely
based on the lectures. Kindly refer to the
Anatomy and Physiology textbook for any
details I might have missed.
● These lecture notes are compiled by
Christienne Marcelino from BSMT-139 :)
● Good luck and padayon, future RMT!