Csa 1 1

MODULE TITLE : CONTROL SYSTEMS AND AUTOMATION
TOPIC TITLE : BASIC PRINCIPLES
LESSON 1 : INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL
CSA - 1 - 1
© Teesside University 2011

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1
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INTRODUCTION TO MODULE
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In recent years, the performance requirements for process plants have been
increasingly difficult to satisfy. Stronger competition, tougher environmental
and safety regulations and rapidly changing economic conditions have been
key factors in the tightening of plant product quality specifications. A further
complication is that modern processes have become more difficult to operate
because of the trend towards larger more highly integrated plants with less
intermediate storage capability between stages or processes. As such the
operators have little opportunity to prevent plant upsets in one section from
propagating to other sections within the integrated system. In view of the
increased emphasis on safe, efficient operation, it is natural that the role of
automatic process control has become increasingly more important. In fact,
without modern process control systems it would not be possible to operate
modern processes safely and profitably, whilst maintaining product quality
standards.
Very often engineers use ‘models’ of a process to aid understanding of how it

performs. A model can be a description, a picture or physical model, or a
mathematical or statistical construction that emulates the behaviour of the real,
physical system, although often in an idealized way.
The degree of complexity of a model is linked to decisions made in the

modelling process. Sometimes it is desirable to start with a fundamental or
first principles model – modelling equations are developed starting from mass
and energy balances, chemical and physical laws of conservation, etc.
Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

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The steps in developing a fundamental model are:
• Preparation
– Decide what kind of model is needed. What scale? How detailed?

How accurate? What features cannot be neglected?
– Define and sketch the system.
– Select process variables and how they are measured.
• Model Development
– Write balance equations (mass, component, energy) to describe the

system.
– Write (descriptive) constitutive equations (transport, equilibrium,

kinetic) needed to implement the balance equations.
– Check for consistency of units, independence of equations.
• Solution (Simulation)
– Solve the equations (analytically or numerically).
– Check and verify the solution.
This type of model will emerge as a series of differential balance equations

(ordinary or partial) accompanied by a set of algebraic constitutive equations.
Depending on the intended use, the model can be adapted in several ways.

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Software packages are often used to simulate the dynamics and control of plant
processes and help evaluate a given model of a control system.
Fundamental to the control of the actual physical process is the requirement to

get an accurate measurement of the variable to be controlled and transmission
of a control signal to the controlling device.
The controlling device must then process the signal in such a way that the
control action has the desired effect and gives a suitable response to any
changes that occur.
To aid the operator’s understanding of control functions within a process,

control systems are often incorporated onto diagrams that show the line layout
of the plant equipment/pipes making up a process (known collectively as P and
IDs – Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams).
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STUDY ADVICE
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We will assume that you have some basic knowledge of Instruments and
Control Systems and that you have completed the Mass and Energy Balance
and Analytical Methods for Engineers modules within the HNC programme.
To be successful, you need strong applied mathematics skills and process

understanding (most of which is just common sense). In Process Control, we
will use some analytical tools (old and new) and synthesis skills to understand
the dynamic (time dependent) behaviour of chemical processes and ways to
regulate operation of the plant required to perform the process.

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________________________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION TO LESSON
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In this lesson we will give a general introduction to Process Control, what it is,
why it is necessary, its general objectives and the two main types used in the
chemical industry.
We will also introduce the design of control systems.
Control systems are often drawn as block diagrams and may be accompanied
by algorithms to show the set of instructions for accomplishing the control
task.
Control systems are often indicated on flow sheets of the process known as
Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) to enable operating personnel
to understand the control system used on their plant.
Finally, some of the terminology used in Process Control will be defined.

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YOUR AIMS
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At the end of this lesson you should be able to:
• state why control of a process is necessary
• state the general objectives of control systems
• differentiate between feed-forward and feed-back control using

simple examples
• distinguish between algorithms, flowcharts, block diagrams and

piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs)
• state the essential elements within a control system
• state the basic steps in designing a control system
• distinguish between
– digital and analogue signals

– pneumatic and electrical signal transmission
• understand the meaning of the main terms used in control.

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PROCESS CONTROL
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Chemical Process Control is the name given to the study of automatic control
principles applied to chemical processes. It applies principles of mathematics
and engineering science to the regulation of the dynamic operation of process
systems. Since the primary function of control systems is to compensate for
dynamic changes in process systems, we need to understand the dynamics of
processes – how their behaviour changes with time – if we are to develop
workable solutions. We often do this through dynamic modelling of the
chemical processes.
WHY IS CONTROL NECESSARY?
In real life, process plants do not operate at steady state, no matter what has
been assumed in other modules!! It takes time for a system to reach a steady
state and often, before it is reached with the initial conditions, a condition
changes (either by design or by random means) which affects the progress
towards that initial steady state and would create a new final steady state if left
long enough. Where a condition changes and the system is moving towards a
steady state, the system is said to be in a transient or dynamic state.
Consider what may happen which could affect the operation of a distillation
column within an oil refinery, both internally and externally. For example:
• The market price of feedstocks and products vary, so sources and

suppliers change. The heavy crude from Saudi used this week may
change to light crude from Nigeria next week due to pipeline problems in
the Middle East. Alternatively, due to a period of very cold weather in
America, the demand for central heating oil may take a sudden jump
whilst that for petrol drops. The operation of the column may need to be
modified to account for these changes.

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• Ambient temperature changes continuously. This leads to heat load

changes, e.g. changes in cooling water temperatures, which change
condenser duties, which change column operating pressures, which affect
vapour production rates, etc.
• The steam system supply pressure used for heating the feed and producing
vapour within the column can vary as other steam users around the refinery
are switched on and off. One consequence could be that the reboiler
temperature and load will vary, changing the flows of vapour and product at
the base of the column, which will affect the flows within the column,
which will affect the product separation within the column, etc.
However, despite all these possible changes (and these are just three out of
many more possibilities), which in control terms are known as disturbances,
the customers who use the products from the column want to get exactly the
same material every time they buy it. It is no use supplying diesel instead of
petrol to a customer who has a petrol car, just because the column finds it is
easier to produce it!
Since plant behaviour is variable, but customers won't accept variation, control
systems are needed. A good control system keeps a plant running at certain
predictable, pre-determined, regulated conditions which should produce the
required products in a consistent manner regardless of the number and
magnitude of disturbances.
Summarising this, the two main functions of control systems are:
1. The ability to maintain a fixed operating point despite fluctuating input

conditions and external forces – disturbance rejection.
2. The ability to shift from one desired operating point to another, known as
set point tracking.

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A simple example of this is you (the control system) trying to maintain a

constant speed (the set point) in your car despite hills, bends, etc. (disturbance
rejection) but adjusting that speed so that you do not exceed the various
different speed limits on a journey (set point tracking).
More specifically, in chemical plant processes, control systems:
• allow basic operation by managing throughput and inventory
• ensure safety by preventing dangerous conditions arising
• guide transitions between operating states (start-up, shutdown, set point

tracking)
• maintain product quality by rejecting outside forces which act on the

process
• implement optimizing strategies devised by management or supervisory

computers.
The effect of disturbances can never be completely eliminated. However, a

good control system should greatly reduce their consequences and reduce the
variability in the process parameters. If we can reduce variability, we can
reduce margins of error and contingency allowances, and operate much closer
to optimum conditions, giving greater yields and improved quality, reducing
waste and saving money.

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CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL
The same basic control methods, principles, and tools apply whether the
‘process’ is chemical, electrical, or mechanical. Control theory has been
developed by Chemical, Electrical, and Mechanical Engineers, so the
terminology reflects concepts from all three disciplines (as well as
mathematical systems and optimization theory).
Differences in the application are what separate chemical process control from
other areas. Chemical process systems are distinguished by:
• longer time constants between disturbance and effect (minutes for a heat
exchanger, hours for many distillation columns)
• long transportation lags or ‘dead time’ (minutes)
• non-linearity (reactions occur which change materials, partly or totally

over varying time periods and conditions – known as reaction kinetics)
• complex interlinked parameters (coupled mass and energy balances,

flow/pressure/temperature relationships, etc.).
Safety Systems
No control system, no matter how well-designed and tuned, can guarantee safe
operation. Consequently, a regulatory process control system (a control system
that only controls) cannot be trusted as the only safety system. Almost all
chemical plants have a second, parallel control system to handle safety alarms
and shutdown. While we will consider the safety aspects of control systems,
we will not study the design of these alarm/shutdown systems.

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CONTROL OBJECTIVES
The objectives of a control system fit into a hierarchy – i.e. some objectives are
given priority over others. One way of ordering the hierarchy is by the
purpose of the control system components and a typical order of importance
would be:
1. Safety
2. Environmental Protection
3. Equipment Protection
4. Smooth Plant Operation
5. Product Quality
6. Profit Optimization
7. Monitoring and Diagnosis.
According to this structure, control systems responsible for safety-related tasks

will always have priority over all other tasks; control systems for product
quality will have priority over systems whose primary task is optimization; and
so forth. Most of the techniques we will study in this module will apply
directly to the operating and product quality objectives.
You should be aware that a control system can serve more than one purpose
and that its place in the hierarchy is not always easily determined.
Control systems are an essential part of the day to day operation of a plant.
This suggests another way of ordering the hierarchy of control objectives: by
‘achievability of design’. After all, until your plant is operating, controls
aren’t needed at all. This method of hierarchy tends to group systems by
function as much as it does by objective and would possibly be:
1. Production Rate & Inventory Controls

2. Safety/Environmental Controls

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3. Equipment and Operating Constraint Controls

4. Product Quality Controls
5. Optimization.
Let’s look at the following example to introduce the basics of process control
and help define some of the terminology used.
Example
A tank fitted with an agitator, an electrical heater supplying Q watts and an

overflow pipe, is continually fed with a liquid which has a constant
temperature Ti and fixed mass flow rate qm as shown in FIGURE 1. The outlet
temperature is required to be at a higher temperature To.
Ti
qm
To
qm
FIG. 1
We are going to assume that:
• a steady state is reached once the tank level is at the overflow

• the density of the liquid does not change significantly with temperature.

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Under these conditions, the flow in equals the flow out and the mass (and
volume) of material within the tank is kept constant, i.e. there is no
accumulation or reduction in the inventory of the tank’s contents.
The control objective of this system is to keep the outlet temperature constant
at a value To – this is known as the desired temperature or generically as the set
point.
To determine the required energy input from the heater (Q) to achieve this
increase in temperature, we are going to make some further assumptions:
• the tank contents are perfectly mixed such that there are no temperature
variations within the tank and thus the exit temperature is equal to the
tank contents’ temperature
• the tank is fully insulated and thus there are no significant heat losses,
i.e. 100% heating efficiency.
With these assumptions, determine the amount of heat (Q) to be added by the heater to
heat the feed liquid from Ti °C to To °C? The answer is in the text that follows.
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At a steady state, the amount of heat added (Q) will be equal to the difference
in enthalpy between the outlet and inlet streams. As both streams are the same
liquid and have the same mass flow rate (qm kg s–1), this is the difference in
sensible heat content between each stream and will be given by the equation:
Q = enthalpy of outlet stream – enthalpy of inleet stream
Since enthalpy of a liquid which does not change state is given by
mass × specific heat capacity (C) × temperature (°C), relative to 0°C
Q = qm CTo – qm CTi
= qm C (To – Ti ) watts
where qm = mass flow rate in kg s –1

C = specific heat capacity of the tank contents in (J kg –1 °C –1 )
To = outlet temperature in °C
Ti = intlet temperature in °C
This is the control design equation for this system when all the assumptions
made so far are correct. If this amount of heat is supplied then the
temperature of the outlet stream will be constant at T o, all other factors
remaining the same.
However, in the real world none of these assumptions are totally correct and
conditions will change within the system.
Referring to FIGURE 1 and the control design equation for the system,
suppose that, due to ambient temperature changes, the temperature of the inlet
liquid changes with time. As a simple illustration let us assume that the inlet
temperature Ti increases to a new higher value. If all other conditions remain

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the same, then we should know that eventually the outlet temperature To will
rise to a new higher value. The time taken for this rise to be fully realised will
depend upon the amount of material within the tank and the flow rate into the
tank. A small flow into a large tank will cause the temperature to rise to its
new value very slowly, whilst a large flow into a small tank will cause the
outlet temperature to rise much more quickly.
Accepting that the inlet temperature has changed (increased), list as many ways as you
can of ensuring that actual change to the outlet temperature To is minimised such that
it remains as near constant as possible. We will cover several possible methods we
came up with, as, hopefully, you did also, in the text that follows.
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To deal with this situation, there are a number of possible solutions, we could
adopt. We could continuously:
1. Measure the outlet temperature (To) and use the result to adjust the
amount of heat added (Q). As the change (disturbance) in the feed
temperature takes effect, the outlet temperature will begin to increase
(creating an error compared to the desired value – set point). The
amount of heat added should be reduced in line with the design equation
to compensate for the increase in inlet, and hence outlet, temperature and
thus reduce the outlet temperature back to that required. The greater the
error in the outlet temperature, the greater the reduction in heat input
required. This change in heat input could be made by an operator
(manual control) but is more conveniently and consistently performed by
an electronic device (automatic control). In this solution, the outlet
temperature is measured and the result fed back to the heater to reduce its
output. This is an example of feed-back control.
If the adjustment made to the heat input is too much, then the outlet
temperature will fall below that required. This will be sensed by the
sensor measuring the outlet temperature and action will be taken to
increase the heat input. If this adjustment is too much, then the outlet
temperature may rise and go well passed the desired temperature creating
an even bigger error than was originally created by the change in inlet
temperature. This could continue with each cycle and we could produce a
situation where the temperature fluctuations in the outlet temperature
continually increase, a situation known as unstable control or instability.
It is important therefore that any action taken is based on the design
equation rather than simply using a heater full on, full off situation where
initially the small change in the inlet temperature may produce larger
swings in the outlet temperature, as shown in FIGURE 2.

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Actual
temperature
Desired
temperature To
FIG. 2
2. Measure Ti and adjust Q. We could measure the disturbance in the inlet

temperature Ti and calculate the new heat input Q according to the design
equation and reduce the amount of heat added to this new calculated
value. The greater the disturbance in feed temperature the greater the
reduction in heat input required. We would need to continuously
measure/calculate/adjust to account for every disturbance. Here the
disturbance is measured and the result fed forward to the heater and thus
this is an example of feed-forward control.
3. Measure the outlet temperature (To ) and use the result to adjust the
flow of feed into the tank (qm ). Thus if the outlet temperature increases
we could increase the amount of feed entering (assuming that the inlet
temperature will always be less than the required outlet temperature)
whilst maintaining the heat input. This would cause the outlet
temperature to drop as more of the colder feed enters the system. This
assumes that the flow rate can changed without affecting the overall
process.

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4. Measure Ti and adjust qm. Following the same logic as in 3, if the inlet
temperature increases then the flow rate should be increased, such that the
fixed heat input is spread over a larger mass, reducing the temperature
rise created and thus maintaining the required outlet temperature.
5. Measure Ti and To and adjust Q. A combination of methods 1 and 2.
6. Measure Ti and To and adjust qm. A combination of methods 3 and 4.
7. Place a heat exchanger on the feed stream. This is used to reduce the
disturbances in the feed temperature and fix its temperature and thus
maintain the outlet temperature.
8. Use a larger tank. If a larger tank is used, fluctuations in Ti will tend to

be evened out (damped) within the larger volume and thermal capacity of
the tank contents. This would not work for a permanent change in inlet
temperature, but would cope with fluctuations up and down. It would be
an expensive afterthought to install but may prove a useful solution when
designing the plant in the first place. [A simple example of this is the use
of a large air receiver with a reciprocating air compressor to even out the
pressure fluctuations created by the reciprocating action of the
compressor.]
Let’s look more closely at these eight different methods to find their relative
advantages and disadvantages.
Methods 1 and 3 are examples of feed-back control where the process variable
to be controlled is measured (i.e. outlet temperature To) and the error between
the required value (set point) and the actual value is used to adjust another
variable (the manipulated variable – Q or qm). By its nature though, feed-back
control is not capable of perfect control since there must always be an error,
generated by the disturbance, in the measured variable before corrective action

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can be taken. However, an extremely important advantage of feed-back

control is that corrective action is taken regardless of the source of the
disturbance, e.g. rather than the inlet temperature varying, it could be the
lagging failing or the flow rate varying that is causing the outlet temperature to
change. Regardless of the cause, the feed-back control will adjust the heater or
the flow rate to reduce the error created. This ability to handle errors created
from any disturbance source is the major reason why feed-back control is
widely used for controlling complex chemical processes.
It is important at this stage to distinguish between the terms negative feed-back

and positive feed-back as used in control. Negative feed-back is the desirable
situation where the corrective action taken moves the controlled variable back
towards the set point (compare with the normal use of negative feed-back as
the undesirable comments given to people who are underperforming).
Positive feed-back is where the error signal enhances the error and moves the
error further away from the set point. Positive feed-back is only used in signal
amplification within some electronic circuits and is never used in control
systems as it would produce instability – i.e. a small error made into a larger
error.
Methods 2 and 4 are examples of feed-forward control (or predictive control).

Here the disturbance variable (Ti) is measured and this value then used to
predict the possible effect on the controlled variable and how this can be
minimised by adjusting the value of Q or qm. If this is done well then no
change in the controlled variable will occur and no error will be produced. It is
capable of perfect control in this respect. However, its actual effect on the
controlled variable is not measured and if the prediction is not accurate then a
permanent error in the controlled variable can occur. Also, if disturbances
occur in other variables which are not measured, e.g. the flow rate, then
measuring Ti and using only this to predict heat settings will not prevent errors
occurring in To.

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Methods 5 and 6 are a combination of feed-forward and feed-back (Methods 1

and 2, and 3 and 4 respectively). These systems would appear to give the best
of both worlds, predicting changes and actioning remedies (feed-forward) but
checking that the result is as predicted and if not adjusting as necessary.
However, the actions of each system can be competing with one another and
may produce instability. However, where feed-forward control is used, it is
mainly used in conjunction with feed-back control.
Methods 7 and 8 are equipment changes and as such are not really control
systems, though method 7, the heat exchanger, will need a control system of its
own if it is to perform the requirement of keeping the inlet temperature
constant in order to keep the outlet temperature constant. As such it is
therefore inappropriate and uneconomic as the stirred tank is supposed to do
that job! Method 8 – increasing the size of the tank is also inappropriate. It
would involve increased capital costs and downtime to change and the final
result will only be a slower change in the value of the controlled variable.
Eventually, if no adjustments are made, the outlet temperature will rise to the
same value as would have been the case with a small tank. It will help only to
minimise the effects of any fluctuations in the inlet temperature.
CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN
Let’s investigate an example of feed-back control in a bit more detail. Think

about what you do when taking a shower which operates from a mixer tap.
You have the ability to set both the rate of water flow and its temperature by
the manipulation of the hot and cold taps so that the shower is effective and
comfortable for you. You have direct control of the hot water and the cold
water flow rates separately by adjusting the relevant tap but have no control
over their individual temperatures. Throughout your shower, there may be
‘disturbances’ in the form of changes in water supply pressures, affecting flow,
and individual water temperatures affecting the overall shower temperature.

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So how do you regulate your shower? Our answer is in the text that follows.
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Your answer would probably be similar to the one that follows.
1. Turn on the shower.
2. Test the temperature and flow.
3. Decide if it is OK.
4. If yes, go to step 9. If no continue.
5. Is the shower temperature wrong? If no, go to step 7. If yes, continue.
6. Adjust temperature by closing or opening relevant tap.
7. Is the flow wrong? If no, go to 9. If yes, continue.
8. Adjust both the individual water supply valves as required.
9. Still want to shower?
10. If yes go to step 2.
11. If no, turn off both taps and finish.
This written set of instructions is an example of an algorithm and is what the

controller – you in this case – would use for the control of the shower. It is an
important part of the design of a control system as we will see later. It may
be that you combined steps 5 – 8 rather than dealing with each condition
separately. Our sensing system and processing system (the brain) can assess
both simultaneously and act accordingly but a control system will most
probably deal with each separately.
These written instructions are more commonly shown in a flowchart diagram,

as shown in FIGURE 3.

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Start
Turn on shower
Test temperature and flow
Yes
OK
No
Yes
Temperature
OK
No
Adjust relevant tap
Yes Flow
OK
No
Adjust both taps
No
Finish
shower
Yes
Turn off both taps
Stop
FIG. 3

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This example of the shower process can be represented by a block diagram,

which shows inputs, outputs, decisions and actions and the flow of information
between them, as shown in FIGURE 4.
Required
set points
Start Decide which Stop

shower Compare valve to adjust Adjust Shower
shower
Test flow
and temperature
Supply pressure and

temperature disturbances
FIG. 4
This is the structure of a basic feedback control loop. It is called a loop as the
information is fed back around in a continuous circle or loop. Information
from the process (testing of the water flow and temperature) is ‘fed back’ by a
measurement device (your senses) through a comparator or controller (your
brain), which compares the actual values to the desired values or set points,
which then sends a signal to an actuator (your hands) which adjust a control
element (the water supply valves) to change the process variables
(flow/temperature). In this example you perform all the functions of a
complete control system.
The generic control system can be represented by a similar block diagram to

FIGURE 4, where lines are used to represent variables or signals and boxes
used for actions. This is shown in FIGURE 5.

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Disturbances
Setpoint Error
Controller Control Process
+ element ++
– Control Manipulated Process Controlled
24
output variable output variable
FIG. 5
Measuring
sensor and
Measured transmitter
variable
© Teesside University 2011

25
Block diagrams represent the logic and mathematical model of a control loop.
We might also choose to represent the equipment used to construct the loop on
a Piping and Instrumentation Diagram or P&ID. Complete P&IDs show
every piece of equipment, pipe, instrument, control loops, links, etc., which are
installed for a particular process, and so can be very complex. For our
purposes, we will mainly want to consider a single control loop for a small
section of the main process, so we will use a simplified drawing, as shown in
FIGURE 6. Here one process output is controlled by the manipulation of one
process input.
We will be using a dotted line to represent transmission signals between

components of the control system. This specifically is used to indicate an
electrical signal according to some conventions but we will use it to represent a
generic signal. Sometimes you may find that on some P&IDs you meet, a
solid line with a couple of short crossing lines as shown is
used. This specifically is used to indicate pneumatic transmission signals
according to some conventions, but some companies have adopted this as their
representation of a generic signal.

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Process inputs
CO
D M C SP
Controller
Process
PM
I TX Transmitter
Sensor
Process outputs
FIG. 6
The loop shown consists of:
• a sensor or transducer element (I) which measures and indicates the

value of a process variable (the instrument)
• a transmitter (TX) which transmits the sensor output as a signal, which

represents the process measurement (PM), for transmission through the
plant to the controller which requires the process measurement (PM)
• a controller or comparator (C) which compares the transmitted

measurement to a set point (SP) value and then determines what control
action is required according to the algorithm and produces an output
control signal (CO)
• a final control element or actuator (often a control valve) that transforms

the controller output signal into a change in the value of a manipulated
variable.

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These are the primary components of a control loop used to control the
process.
The process variable to be measured also has a letter associated with it which
prefixes each of the symbols in circles. For example if flow is the variable to
be measured, FI = flow indicator, FC = flow controllor, and FTX = flow
transmission. Temperature is represented by T, pressure by P, level by L and
composition by Q (for quality).
CONTROL SIGNALS
A control system needs to be able to pass information between components

which may be scattered around the plant. Control valves need to be told
whether to be fully open, partially open, or closed. Controllers need to know
what the value of the measured variable is, so they can compare it with the set
point and decide upon an action. Standardized signals are used to convey this
information. Conceptually, many problems are best approached by thinking of
the signal as a percentage of the range of the control element. For example:
• if the measuring range of a thermocouple is taken as 200°C to 400°C,

then a 0% signal = 200°C and a 100% signal is taken as 400°C
• if a control valve operates between fully open and fully closed then the
signal is a percentage of the valve opening (or sometimes closure). A 0%
signal is fully closed and a 100% signal is fully open.
Signals can be digital (on newer systems) or analogue (on older systems).
Digital signals are intermittently encoded as a series of binary numbers in the
same way as computers work and are thus much easier to link to a computerised
control system. Analogue signals are continuous. This is illustrated overleaf, in
FIGURE 7, for signals associated with the measurement of a temperature.

(Engineering)
28
Analogue signal
Digital signal
Temp
Time
FIG. 7
Many plants use a mixture of digital and analogue signals; the age of the plant
and control system usually determines what the ratio of digital to analogue
signals is. However, analogue signals are nearly always required for
controlling things like valve opening/closing which need to be carried out in a
smooth fashion rather than occurring in intermittent ‘steps’.
Signal converters can be used to change from analogue to digital (using an

ADC – analogue to digital converter) or vice versa (using a DAC – digital to
analogue converter). These converters often exist as a piece of software or a
chip built into the hardware.
Digital signals are usually transmitted as voltage pulses. Analogue signals are
usually transmitted continuously as either electrical current in electrical
signals or air pressures in a pneumatic system. Electrical signals are routinely
converted to pneumatic (using an I/P converter – current to pressure
transducer); pneumatic signals can be converted to electrical as well (P/I
transducer) although these are mostly needed primarily in older plants with
older pneumatic hardware. Pneumatic signals do have the advantage of being

(Engineering)
29
safe to use in areas where flammable materials are present but electrical signals
are much easier to route and give faster responses especially over long
distances.
Most analogue signals today take the form of electrical current of continuously
varying amperage ranging from 4 to 20 milliamps. Older pneumatic systems
use compressed air of continuously varying pressure between 0.2 and 1 bar.
Pneumatic signals are still most commonly used to operate control valves.
Notice that both these types of signal don't start at the zero point.
Can you suggest a reason why this is the case? Our answer is in the text that follows.
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(Engineering)
30
This is to provide an easy way to distinguish between a minimum signal and a

broken signal. If the control element is reading a 4 mA or 0.2 bar signal, this
corresponds to 0% of the range and is the lowest it can go; if it reads 0 mA or
0 bar, it knows there is a problem in the electrical or pneumatic system (e.g. a
broken link or an air pressure failure) and can raise an alarm.
It is easy to mathematically convert values in one type of signal to those in

another.
Examples
Convert the following control signals:
1. 25% of the signal range into a pneumatic and electronic signal.
2. 15 mA to percentage of the signal range and a pneumatic signal.
3. 0.8 bar to an electronic signal and a percentage of the signal range.
4. If the operating range of the sensor producing these signals is

200 – 400°C, convert these signals into actual temperatures.
Solutions
1. A pneumatic signal ranges from 0.2 to 1 bar, or a total of 0.8 units. 25%
of 0.8 is 0.2, so a 25% signal in a pneumatic system is 0.2+ 0.2 = 0.4 bar.
Similarly, in an electronic signal it is 4 + 0.25(16) = 8 mA.
2. A 15 mA signal is 11 units above minimum, or 11/16 × 100 = 68.75%.

The pneumatic equivalent is 0.2 + 0.6875(0.8) = 0.75 bar.

(Engineering)
31
3. A 0.8 bar signal is (0.8 – 0.2)/(1 – 0.2) × 100 = 75%, so it is the same as
4 + 0.75(20 – 4) = 16 mA.
4. Signal range is 0% = 200°C, 100% = 400°C
So 25% = 0.25 × ( 400 – 200 ) + 200 = 50 + 200 = 250°C
68.75% = 0.6875 × ( 400 – 200 ) + 200 = 137.5 + 200 = 337.5°C
75% = 0.75 × ( 400 – 200 ) + 200 = 150 + 200 = 350°C
When an engineer sets out to design a control system, the steps they should
follow are:
1. Determine control objectives – what do I want to achieve from my control

system?
2. Identify variables to be measured and controlled and their available

manipulators – what do I need to measure and control and how can I do
it?
3. Decide type of signal to be used.
4. Pair variables (choose control system structure) – which of the possible

manipulated variables is the best way of controlling the variable requiring
control?
5. Select controller algorithms – how will the control system work?
6. Tune controller – choose the correct settings on the controller which will
give the required response to changes in the measured process variable.
7. Locate the system on a process flow sheet (P &ID) so operating personnel

can identify the system and its effects.

(Engineering)
32
In the course of the rest of this module, we will:
• deal with the ways in which selected process variables can be measured
• examine the tools and concepts needed to model the process and its
control system
• examine the stability of a control system
• select and tune controllers
• correctly place the designed control system on a process flow sheet.
These will form individual lessons/topics within the rest of the module.
Finally to complete our introduction to Process Control we will look at a

Glossary of the main terminology that we will be using in this module.

(Engineering)
33
________________________________________________________________________________________
GLOSSARY OF SOME OF THE TERMINOLOGY IN PROCESS CONTROL

________________________________________________________________________________________
Steady State: A steady state system does not change with time.
Mathematically, this means the time derivatives in the balance equations (the
accumulation terms) are zero. Often, systems will reach steady state if given a
long time to settle without disturbances, however, real systems usually don't
get that time without a disturbance occurring. This leads to a mathematical
approximation – steady state is the behaviour of the system as time approaches
infinity. Some people use the words static or stationary as synonyms for
steady state.
Dynamic (or transient) systems are time dependent. All real systems are
dynamic; this makes process control necessary. Dynamic systems must be
modelled using differential equations, unlike steady state systems where
algebraic systems will suffice. An input is a variable that causes an output to
change. Both inputs and outputs may be measurable or they may not.
Disturbances are inputs that cannot be adjusted, and often they are not
measurable.
Error is the difference between the measured behaviour of a process variable

(output) and its desired behaviour or set point. Do not forget that the measured
values of the variable are only representations of the real values, and may be
limited in accuracy.
Feed-back Control: information from an output of a system is used to adjust a

manipulator to change an input to the system to try and compensate for
disturbances after they have changed the system.

(Engineering)
34
Feed-forward Control: information from measured disturbances is used to

adjust a manipulator to try and compensate for disturbances as they occur.
Feed-forward allows for the possibility of ‘perfect control’, but only if all
disturbances are measured and the adjustments are fully understood. This
means having a complete and very accurate model of the process – not an easy
achievement. Feed-back control adjusts for all disturbances and does not
require an exact process model.
Negative feed-back reduces the difference between the actual and desired
values, so it is beneficial. Positive feedback increases the difference, so it is
undesirable.
When a system is operating without feed-back control, we say it is operating

Open Loop. A Closed Loop system has controllers.
One of the most important things we will be considering is the stability of the
control system. The error of an unstable system fluctuates around the set point
and can become larger and larger (unbounded) with time, which often leads to
undesirable consequences. The error of a stable system can still fluctuate but
the fluctuations are kept within given limits. This is usually the preferred
method of operation. Stability is often achieved by the tuning of a control
system to the process (we will cover this in a later lesson).
We have now finished our overview of process control systems. To test your
understanding of this lesson attempt the Self-Assessment Questions which
follow.

(Engineering)
35
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NOTES
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(Engineering)
36
________________________________________________________________________________________
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Distinguish between a steady state and a dynamic process. Which is most

likely in a chemical plant?
2. Order the following objectives of a control system into a hierarchy based

on purpose:
• Profit Optimization
• Environmental Protection
• Monitoring and Diagnosis
• Smooth Plant Operation
• Safety
• Product Quality
• Equipment Protection.
3. (i) Distinguish between feed-back and feed-forward control. Illustrate

your answer by using a simple example of each.
(ii) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of each method of control.
4. What is an algorithm? How are algorithms more commonly shown?
5. State the four main components of a control loop and give a brief
description of their function.

(Engineering)
37
6. Distinguish between:
• digital and analogue signals
• electrical and pneumatic signal transmission. Give the normal

operating range for each type.
7. What are the main steps in the design of a control system?

(Engineering)
38
________________________________________________________________________________________
ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

________________________________________________________________________________________
1. Steady State: A steady state system does not change with time.
Dynamic (or transient) systems are time dependent. All real systems are
dynamic and thus this is the most likely to occur in a chemical plant; this
makes process control necessary.
2. A typical hierarchy would be:
• Safety
• Environmental Protection
• Equipment Protection
• Smooth Plant Operation
• Product Quality
• Profit Optimization
• Monitoring and Diagnosis.
3. (i) Feed-back Control: information from an output of a system is used to

adjust a manipulator to change an input to the system to try and
compensate for disturbances after they have changed the system. A
simple example of this is a domestic central heating system which
will respond to changes in a room temperature by switching central
heating on or off as required to maintain a constant temperature
determined by the room thermostat (which is adjustable). The
heating will come on when the temperature drops below the set point
and will turn off when above.
Feed-forward Control: information from measured disturbances is

used to adjust a manipulator to try and compensate for disturbances
as they occur so as not to produce an error. A simple example is

(Engineering)
39
turning on a heater in the kitchen to prevent water pipes freezing

when the weather forecast is for frost overnight. The heater will
remain on even if the temperature stays well above freezing and may
result in a room temperature well above that which would prevent
freezing.
(ii) Feed-forward allows for the possibility of ‘perfect control’, but only
if all possible disturbances are measured and the adjustments to
account for the disturbances are fully understood. This means having
a complete and very accurate model of the process – not an easy
achievement. If the model is not accurate then a permanent error
can be produced.
Feed-back control adjusts for all disturbances regardless of their

source and does not require an exact process model. However, it
does rely on the production of an error.
4. An algorithm is a written set of instructions.
The instructions are often illustrated by a flow chart.
5. A control loop consists of the following four main components:
• a sensor or transducer element (I) which measures and indicates the

value of a process variable (the instrument)
• a transmitter (TX) that transmits the sensor output as a signal, which

represents the process measurement (PM), for transmission through
the plant to the controller which requires the process measurement
(PM).

(Engineering)
40
• a controller or comparator (C) which compares the transmitted

measurement to a set point (SP) value and then determines what
control action is required according to the algorithm and produces an
output control signal (CO)
• a final control element or actuator (often a control valve) that

transforms the controller output signal into a change in the value of a
manipulated variable.
6. Digital signals are intermittent pulses usually in the form of voltage when
used in control systems. Analogue signals are continuous usually in the
form of current or air pressure when used in control systems.
The difference is illustrated in FIGURE 7 reproduced below.
Analogue signal
Digital signal
Temp
Time
FIG. 7 (Reproduced)
Electrical signals are continuous electrical currents varying normally

between 4 mA and 20 mA which represent the range of values
of a process variable or controller output (4 mA = 0% of range,
20 mA = 100% of range or vice versa).

(Engineering)
41
Pneumatic signals are air pressure values varying between 0.2 bar and
1 bar which represent the range of values of a process variable or
controller output (0.2 bar = 0% of range, 1bar = 100% of range or vice
versa).
7. When an engineer sets out to design a control system, the steps they
should follow are:
• Determine control objectives – what do I want to achieve from my

control system?
• Identify variables to be measured and controlled and their available

manipulators – what do I need to measure and control and how can I
do it?
• Decide type of signal to be used.
• Pair variables (choose control system structure) – which of the

possible manipulated variables is the best way of controlling the
variable requiring control.
• Select controller algorithms – how will the control system work?
• Tune controller – choose the correct settings on the controller which

will give the required response to changes in the measured process
variable.
• Locate the system on a Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)

so operating personnel can identify the system and its effects.

(Engineering)
42
________________________________________________________________________________________
SUMMARY
________________________________________________________________________________________
Chemical plant consists of many complex processes, mostly in a state of

constant change (known as a dynamic or transient state), that would not be
able to operate in a safe and efficient manner without the use of
control systems. These processes present problems to the control design
engineer because of their long time delays before the effect of a disturbance is
noticed, the changes in materials and states of materials within the process
and the complex interlinking of mass and energy balances, and
flow/temperature/pressure relationships.
The main functions of a control system are disturbance rejection (fixed output
from varying input) and set point tracking (switching from one fixed output to
another).
Usually the prime requirement of a control system is safety and often a second
control system is devoted to this duty, whilst the primary control system takes
care of process regulation.
Control systems can be divided into:
• Feed-back control where information from an output of a system is used

to adjust a manipulator to change an input to the system to try and
compensate for disturbances after they have changed the system. This
adjusts for all disturbances regardless of their source and does not require
an exact process model. However, it does rely on the production of an
error. It is the most commonly met type of control.
• Feed-forward Control: information from measured disturbances is used to

adjust a manipulator to try and compensate for disturbances as they occur
so as not to produce an error. This allows for the possibility of ‘perfect

(Engineering)
43
control’, but only if all possible disturbances are measured and the
adjustments to account for the disturbances are fully understood. This
means having a complete and very accurate model of the process – not an
easy achievement. If the model is not accurate then a permanent error
can be produced.
A control loop consists of the following four main components:
• a sensor or transducer element which measures and indicates the value of

a process variable (the instrument)
• a transmitter which transmits the sensor output as a signal, which

represents the process measurement, for transmission through the plant to
the controller
• a controller or comparator which compares the transmitted measurement

to a set point value and then determines what control action is required
according to an algorithm (a set of instructions commonly represented on
a flowchart) and produces an output control signal
• a final control element or actuator (often a control valve) that transforms

the controller output signal into a change in the value of a manipulated
variable.
These loops are drawn on to Piping and Instrumentation Diagrams (P&IDs) for
operational staff to understand their operation.
Signals generated by control systems can be either digital, as a series of

intermittent pulses of information (on newer systems), or analogue, a
continuous stream of information (older systems). Analogue signals are either
electric current values (ranging between 4 and 20 mA) or air (pneumatic)
pressure between 0.2 and 1 bar.

(Engineering)
44
When an engineer sets out to design a control system, the steps they should
follow are:
• Determine control objectives – what do I want to achieve from my control

system?
• Identify variables to be measured and controlled and their available

manipulators – what do I need to measure and control and how can I do
it?
• Decide type of signal to be used.
• Pair variables (choose control system structure) – which of the possible

manipulated variables is the best way of controlling the variable requiring
control?
• Select controller algorithms – how will the control system work?
• Tune controller – choose the correct settings on the controller which will
give the required response to changes in the measured process variable.
• Locate the system on a process flow sheet (P&ID) so operating personnel

can identify the system and its effects.
Finally the lesson looked at a glossary of the main terms used in process
control.

(Engineering)

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MODULE TITLE : CONTROL SYSTEMS AND AUTOMATION

TOPIC TITLE : BASIC PRINCIPLES

LESSON 1 : INTRODUCTION TO PROCESS CONTROL

© Teesside University 2011

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

Very often engineers use ‘models’ of a process to aid understanding of how it

The degree of complexity of a model is linked to decisions made in the

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

The steps in developing a fundamental model are:

– Decide what kind of model is needed. What scale? How detailed?

– Define and sketch the system.

– Select process variables and how they are measured.

– Write balance equations (mass, component, energy) to describe the

– Write (descriptive) constitutive equations (transport, equilibrium,

– Check for consistency of units, independence of equations.

– Solve the equations (analytically or numerically).

– Check and verify the solution.

This type of model will emerge as a series of differential balance equations

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

Fundamental to the control of the actual physical process is the requirement to

To aid the operator’s understanding of control functions within a process,

To be successful, you need strong applied mathematics skills and process

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

We will also introduce the design of control systems.

Finally, some of the terminology used in Process Control will be defined.

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

At the end of this lesson you should be able to:

• state why control of a process is necessary

• state the general objectives of control systems

• differentiate between feed-forward and feed-back control using

• distinguish between algorithms, flowcharts, block diagrams and

• state the essential elements within a control system

• state the basic steps in designing a control system

– digital and analogue signals

• understand the meaning of the main terms used in control.

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

WHY IS CONTROL NECESSARY?

• The market price of feedstocks and products vary, so sources and

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

• Ambient temperature changes continuously. This leads to heat load

Summarising this, the two main functions of control systems are:

1. The ability to maintain a fixed operating point despite fluctuating input

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

A simple example of this is you (the control system) trying to maintain a

More specifically, in chemical plant processes, control systems:

• allow basic operation by managing throughput and inventory

• ensure safety by preventing dangerous conditions arising

• guide transitions between operating states (start-up, shutdown, set point

• maintain product quality by rejecting outside forces which act on the

• implement optimizing strategies devised by management or supervisory

The effect of disturbances can never be completely eliminated. However, a

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

CHEMICAL PROCESS CONTROL

• long transportation lags or ‘dead time’ (minutes)

• non-linearity (reactions occur which change materials, partly or totally

• complex interlinked parameters (coupled mass and energy balances,

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

According to this structure, control systems responsible for safety-related tasks

1. Production Rate & Inventory Controls

Teesside University Open Learning © Teesside University 2011

3. Equipment and Operating Constraint Controls

A tank fitted with an agitator, an electrical heater supplying Q watts and an

We are going to assume that: