HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY DIRECTIONAL TERMS

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE - Describe the position of EXTERNAL

structures or locations in the body.
HUMAN BODY
LESSON #1: TERMS OF DIRECTION
• Anatomy – the study of the structures or
morphology of the body and how the parts
are organized.
• Physiology – the study of the functions of the
body parts, what they do and how they do it.

Simply put, anatomy and physiology is the study of

structures and their functions. These two terms always
go together because it is difficult to study physiological
processes without knowing basic anatomy.

WHY DO WE USE ANATOMICAL TERMS?

• Left and Right – pertains to the left and right
- The purpose of anatomical terms is to provide of the person in anatomical position.
a standardized frame of reference for
describing the human body.
DIRECTIONA DESCRIPTIO EXAMPLE
- Scientists have adopted four basic reference
L TERMS N
systems in describing the parts of the human
Superior Uppermost or The head is
body to facilitate the uniformity of terms that above SUPERIOR to
will be used. the neck.
- These are DIRECTIONS, PLANES, Inferior or Lowermost or The foot is
CAVITIES, and STRUCTURAL UNITS. Caudal below; towards INFERIOR to
the tail (below the ankle.
or under,
ANATOMICAL POSITION toward the
- How the body is positioned whenever we back, toward
the tail)
describe a particular organ or part of it.
Anterior/Ventra Towards the Mammary
l front; belly side glands are on
a. Body erect (In front of, the
b. Arms at the sides front) ANTERIOR
c. Palms facing forward chest wall.
d. Feet flat and directed forward Posterior/Dorsal Toward the The vertebral
back; back side column is
(After, behind, POSTERIOR
Note: Your descriptions might be different from how following, to the digestive
others described the position of these organs because toward the tract.
there is no uniformity in the words/terms you might have rear)
used while describing the position/location of the body Cephalad/Crani Towards the Thoracic cavity
parts. al (superior) head (above, lies
over) CEPHALAD
to the
abdominopelvi
c cavity.
Medial Nearest/closer The nose is in - It divides the body into anterior or posterior
the midline of the MEDIAL positions.
the body position on the
(toward the face. 2. Sagittal Plane
mid-line, - A lengthwise cut.
middle, away - It divides the body into left or right positions.
from the side)
a. Midsagittal – equal cut
Lateral Towards the Ears are in the
b. Parasagittal – left and right, unequal
side or away LATERAL
from the position on the
midline of the face. 3. Transverse (Horizontal Plane)
body (toward - It divides the body into inferior or superior
the side, away portions.
from the mid-
line) 4. Oblique Plane
Proximal Near the point The elbow is - Passes through a structure or the entire body
of attachment PROXIMAL at an angle.
or the trunk of to the wrist.
the body (near,
closer to the
origin) LESSON #3: BODY CAVITIES
Distal Away from the The wrist is
• Body Cavities – empty spaces within the
point of DISTAL to the
attachment or elbow. body.
the trunk of the Functions of Body Cavities:
body (away
from, farther 1. Protect delicate organs.
from the 2. Allow the organs to change shape and sizes.
origin)
Superficial Closer to the Skin is
surface of the SUPERFICIA
body L to the bone.
Deep Farther to the The brain is
surface of the DEEP to the
body skull.

LESSON #2: BODY PLANES

TWO MAJOR CAVITIES IN OUR BODY

1. Ventral Body Cavity
a. Thoracic Cavity
- Left and Right Pleural cavity (lungs) and
Pericardial cavity (heart). Mediastinum is the
one who separates.
b. Abdominopelvic Cavity
1. Superior Abdominal Cavity – houses
• Body Planes – body cut or slices. the stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys,
small and large intestines.
1. Frontal (Coronal Plane) 2. Inferior Pelvic Cavity – houses the
- Sideways cut. bladder and reproductive organs.
 10. Reproductive system (creating life)
2. Dorsal Body Cavity
a. Cranial Cavity
- Houses the brain. Formed by the skull.
b. Vertebral Cavity
- Houses the spinal cord. Formed by the vertebrae.

LESSON #5: HOMEOSTASIS

• Parietal – refers to the walls of a cavity.
• Visceral – refers to the coverings of the organs
within the body cavities.
There are specific reasons why our body reacts in that
way whenever there are changes in the environment.
These reactions of the body are the body’s way of
maintaining an internal constant environment or
HOMEOSTASIS.

• Homeostasis – the process of maintaining

LESSON #4: STRUCTURAL LEVELS stable internal environment.
OF ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN THREE PARTS:
BODY
a. Receptor
• Cells of the same function group together to b. Control Center
form a tissue. c. Effector
• Different tissues group together to form an
organ. Organs that share similar functions work 1. Stimulus: produces change in the variable
together to form the organ system. causing an imbalance.
• The collection of different organ systems is what 2. Receptor detects change.
forms the human body. 3. Input: Receptor sends information to Control
Center (Brain/Spinal Cord)
4. Output: Control Center sends signal to activate
ORGANS SYSTEMS OF THE BODY Effector
(STRUCTURAL UNITS) 5. Response by Effector counters imbalance
produced by the initial stimulus to return the
1. Integumentary system
variable back to homeostasis.
2. Skeletal system
3. Muscular system (skeletal, smooth, cardiac)
4. Nervous system (communication network)
5. Endocrine system (regulate body process)
6. Cardiovascular system
7. Lymphatic system (regulate body defenses)
8. Respiratory system (extract lifegiving oxygen)
9. Digestive system (convert into fuel)
2 MECHANISMS TO MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS Processes that occur during Childbirth involves
POSITIVE FEEDBACK. When the mother is about to
a. Negative-Feedback Mechanism
give birth, the baby’s head drops down in the pelvis and
- A mechanism that opposes a deviation from the
pushes against the cervix. The pressure and pain due to
set point. (Most common regulation mechanism)
uterine contraction (stimuli) are sensed by the receptors
in uterus. Receptors send nerve impulses to the brain,
prompting the brain to respond by signaling the release
b. Positive-Feedback Mechanism
of hormone oxytocin. The release of oxytocin doesn’t
- A mechanism that responds to the deviation by
diminish the stimulus but rather increases the stimulus
making the deviation greater. (Rare regulation
(more uterine contraction) until the baby is delivered.
mechanism)

The human body maintains a constant internal MODULE 2: TISSUES

environment in order for the chemical reactions
which are essential to life, to proceed. If there are LESSON #1: EPITHELIAL TISSUE
sudden changes in this internal environment, chemical
processes would likely mess up. ORGANISM’S LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
1. Chemical
2. Cellular
This is when homeostasis will happen – the body will do 3. Tissue
its best to bring these changes back to normal so 4. Organs
chemical processes in the body could work properly 5. System Level
again. 6. Organismic Level

• Tissue
HOW EXACTLY DOES HOMEOSTASIS - Group of cells that come together to perform
WORK? a common function.

- Any deviations from normal is being corrected FOUR TYPES OF TISSUE:

by our body through what we call Negative
1. Epithelial
Feedback.
2. Nervous
- This mechanism involves 3 important
3. Muscle
components: SENSOR, CONTROL CENTER,
4. Connective
and EFFECTOR.

a. Negative Feedback – works by correcting EPITHELIAL TISSUE

any deviations in homeostasis and
bringing it back to normal.
b. Positive Feedback – amplifies or increases
the stimulus to complete a particular
process.
- Are the ones lining our body cavities and
organs.
- Functions: PROTECTION, ABSOPTION,
SECRETION, and EXCRETION.
- Classification: Based on SHAPE,
ARRANGEMENT, and FUNCTION.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EPITHELIAL
a. Apical Surface that is free
b. Basal Surface attached to the basement
membrane
c. Avascular (no blood vessels between tissue
cells)
 d. Tissue cells are highly mitotic (divides
rapidly)
e. Minimal neural connections
b. Stratified – several layers of cells (protection
against abrasion, friction and bacteria)
c. Pseudostratified – seems to have several layers
due to various positioning of cell nuclei (but it is
a single layer because all cells extend from the
basement membrane up to the surface). Pseudo
means “false.” It has mucus and cilia. It can be
found in nasal cavity and trachea.
d. Transitional – consists of several layers of cells
and is designed to stretch and return to a normal
state without damage. (will change shape while
stretched). These cells line the bladder and other
parts of the urinary system. Empty bladder is
stratified cuboidal and full bladder is stratified
squamous.

Note: When cells of the tissue contain cilia, the term

ciliated is usually added.

CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIAL
Epithelial tissue is classified based on 2 criteria: shape
and number of layers.

• Cell shape
a. Squamous (flattened cells)
- Cell width is larger than cell height.

b. Cuboidal (cube-like cells)

- Cell width is equal to cell height.

c. Columnar (column-like cells)

- Cell height is larger than cell width.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTION

1. Mucous Membrane – an epithelial tissue that
secretes mucus. Lines many body cavities and
tubular organs including the gut (digestive tract)
and respiratory passages.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON ARRANGEMENT

a. Simple – one cell layer (where
absorption/diffusion occur)
 4. Mesothelium (middle) – simple squamous
epithelium that lines the peritoneal, pleural
and pericardial cavities and covers the viscera
(internal organs).

• Goblet cells – are specialized type of cell that

produce mucus.

2. Glandular epithelium – responsible for the

formation of glands. LESSON #2: MUSCLE TISSUE
MUSCLE TISSUE
- Its main function is for movement.
- It has the ability to contract.
- 3 types: SKELETAL, SMOOTH and
CARDIAC.
- Muscle cells are called MUSCLE FIBERS.

• Glands – groups of cells that produce and

secrete specific products. They are actually
involutions of epithelial cells.
a. Endocrine gland – secrete hormones right
into the bloodstream or nearby cells.
b. Exocrine gland – secrete their juices into
tubes or ducts that lead to the outside of
the body.

3. Endothelium (inner) – a simple squamous

epithelium that lines the interior of the Contract means to shorten, and relax means to go
circulatory vessels and heart. back to its original form. Muscle’s contractility is due
to the interaction of proteins in the muscle cells: actin
and myosin.

1. SKELETAL MUSCLE (voluntary control)

- generally responsible for the movement of the
body. It is connected to the bones via tendons.
- Are long, cylindrical, multi-nucleated cells
with obvious striations
- Function: Voluntary movement; locomotion;
manipulation of the environment; facial
expression.
- Location: In skeletal muscles attached to the - Structure: Spindle-shaped cells with central
bones or occasionally to the skin. nuclei; no striations, cells arranged closely to
form sheets.
- Function: Propels substances or objects along
internal passageways; involuntary control.
- Location: Mostly in the walls of hollow organs
like the digestive tract, bladder, arteries, and
other internal organs.

2. CARDIAC MUSCLE (involuntary control)

- It forms the contractile tissue of the heart
which functions for pumping of blood.
- Structure: Branching, striated, generally
uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized
junctions (intercalated disc).
- Function: As it contracts, it propels blood into
the circulation; involuntary control.
- Location: The walls of the heart.
LESSON #3: NERVOUS TISSUE
NERVOUS TISSUE
- The main tissue component of the nervous
system, which controls the body and
coordinates with body parts.
- It makes up the brain, spinal cord, and other
nerves in the body.

3. SMOOTH MUSCLE (involuntary control)

- It is found in the walls of the digestive tract,
bladder, arteries, and other internal organs.
TWO CATEGORIES:
a. Neuron – responsible for conducting nerve
impulses (electrical signals transmitted along the
nerve) throughout the nervous system.
Three General Structure:
1. Dendrites – rootlike extensions that receive the
stimuli/nerve impulses from the sense organs or
the surrounding neuron.
2. Cell Body – Nerve impulses will be conducted
into the cell body, where you can find the
nucleus.
3. Axon – Nerve impulses will trave down the
axon until it reaches the axon terminal.
When nerve impulses reached the axon terminal, nerve
impulses that are electrical in nature will be converted
into chemical messages by releasing a chemical
substance called a neurotransmitter.
• Neurotransmitter – serves as the chemical
signal which will bind into the dendrites of
another neuron and start the whole process of
transmitting messages again.
• Synapse – tiny gap between the axon terminal
and dendrite of the other neuron.
b. Neuroglia – a group of cells that provide
support and nourishment to the neurons.
LESSON #4: CONNECTIVE TISSUE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- It is the second major type of tissue. This is the
most abundant type of tissue.
- The classification of connective tissue is
extensive that it is sometimes quite difficult to
study.
- General Function: PROTECTION, SUPPORT,
BINDING OF DIFFERENT BODY
STRUCTURES, TRANSPORT OF
MATERIALS, and IMMUNITY.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
1. Many types of cells are present, and they are
widely spread, unlike in the epithelial tissue.
2. Since cells are scattered, the intercellular space
is filled with a material called extracellular
matrix, which consists of mostly ground
substance and fibers.
3. It is also highly vascular (filled with blood
vessels), unlike epithelial tissue.
FORMS OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE a. Areolar Connective Tissue
- Functions: Wraps and cushion organs,
Hard Connective Tissue
phagocytize bacteria, mediate inflammation,
- Bone and Cartilage stores tissue fluids.
- Location: Beneath the skin & around blood
vessels, muscles and nerves.
Soft Connective Tissue
- Loose and Dense b. Adipose Connective Tissue
- Functions: stores fat (reserve body fuel),
insulator to prevent heat loss, supports and
Fluid Connective Tissue protects organs.
- Locations: Beneath the skin (in the
- Blood and Lymph
hypodermis), around kidneys, within abdomen,
and breast region.

c. Reticular Connective Tissue

- Functions: Its fibers form an internal skeleton
(stroma) which supports other cell types like
WBC, mast cells and Macrophage.
- It is mostly made up of reticular fibers.
- Location: Liver, bone marrow, lymph nodes,
and spleen.

DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• Loose Connective Tissue (LCT)

• Dense Connective Tissue (DCT), and
• Specialized Connective Tissue (CST)

LCT and DCT are called Connective Tissue Proper.

LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

a. Dense Regular Connective Tissue

- Example: Tendons (attaches muscles to bones)
and Ligaments (attaches bones to bones).
- Primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic
fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast.
- It can withstand great tensile stress when
pulling force is applied in one direction.
 - Chondrocytes: Main cells of cartilage.
- It is softer than bone.

a. Hyaline Cartilage
- Location: Nose tip, bronchi and bronchial tubes,
larynx, ring of trachea, and coastal cartilages.
- It forms the skeleton of the embryo.
b. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
- Lacuna – spaces that houses the cells.
- Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers;
Chondrocytes can be seen inside lacuna.
some elastic fibers; major cell types is the
- No fibers.
fibroblast; defense cells and fat cells are also
present.
b. Fibrocartilage
- It is able to withstand tension exerted in many
- Predominated by thick collagen fibers.
directions; provides structural strength.
- Function: Tensile strength with the ability to
- Location: Capsule of joint, dermis of the skin,
absorb compressive shock.
outer covering of body tubes like arteries.
c. Elastic Cartilage
- Similar to Hyaline Cartilage but has more
elastic fiber.
- It maintains the shape of the structure while
allowing flexibility. It is found in ears and
epiglottis.

c. Elastic Connective Tissue

- A dense regular tissue containing a high
proportion of elastic fibers.
- It allows recoil of tissue following stretching.

SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

CARTILAGE

2. BONE
- It forms the skeleton of the body.
- It supports and protects underlying tissues
and organs.
1. CARTILAGE - It serves as attachments for Skeletal Muscle.
- Provides firm but flexible support for the - Osteocytes: Bone cells
embryonic skeleton and part of adult - Bone is a hard connective tissue.
skeleton.
 - A central canal at the center of an osteon
contains the blood vessels that provides
oxygen and nutrients to the osteocytes.
The skin can also be an indicator of physiological
imbalances in the body.
- This system is useful for the diagnosis of a
particular health problem.

WHAT MAKES UP THE INTEGUMENTARY

SYSTEM?

• Skin
• Appendages / Skin Derivatives
- Nail
- Hair
- Sebaceous Glands / Oil glands
- Ceruminous Glands
- Sweat Glands

LESSON #1: THE LAYERS OF THE

SKIN
The human skin comprises two major layers: the outer,
thinner epidermis, and the inner, much thicker dermis.
3. BLOOD
- A specialized connective tissue.
- Plasma is the extracellular matrix of blood. It
is not produced by the blood cells.

MODULE 3: INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
Before we go deeper into this module, let us first go over
these interesting skin facts.
1. The surface area of an adult body is covered
with 3000 square inches of skin.
2. Skin weighs about 6 to 9 pounds or 3 to 5 kilos
of body weight.
3. Skin receives about 1/3 of the blood circulating I. EPIDERMIS
throughout the body.
4. Skin is flexible and can repair and regenerate This layer of the skin is made up of 4 to 5 layers of
itself under normal conditions. stratified squamous epithelium. The cells are held
5. Skin is almost entirely waterproof. together by cell junctions called desmosomes.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
- Composed of the skin and its derivatives. When
we say derivatives, these are the structures that
arise from the epidermis or dermis of the skin.
Skin derivatives include hairs, nails, and glands.
- The term integument means covering.
 - The layers of cells in the inner epidermis are
pushed upward by new cells.
- As this happens, the cells change in shape, and
chemical composition as the cells lose water and
eventually die. The process is
called keratinization, and dead cells are filled
with a protein material called keratin. The
epidermis is avascular (with no blood
vessels). The innermost layer of epidermal cells
derived its nourishment from the dermis with
which the cells are in contact with.

FUNCTIONS OF EPIDERMIS:

• It prevents water loss and the entry of chemicals

and microorganisms;
• It protects against abrasion and harmful effects
of ultraviolet light;
• It produces Vitamin D;
• It gives rise to hair, nails, and glands. EPIDERMAL LAYERS

FOUR TYPES OF CELLS:

1. Keratinocytes – produce keratin (tough fibrous
protein).
2. Melanocytes – produce melanin (pigment).
Melanosomes.
3. Langerhans cells – immune cells (macrophage-
like dendritic cells).
4. Merker cells – combine with nerve endings
(phagocytic) to create a sensory receptor for
touch (detects light touch and superficial STRATUM CORNEUM (horny cell layer)
pressure).
- In the stratum corneum, the dead cells have a
hard protein envelope, contain keratin, and
MELANIN PRODUCTION are surrounded by lipids.
- It consists of many layers of keratinized dead
1. Melanosomes are produced by the Golgi
cells that are flattened and nonnucleated;
apparatus of the melanocyte.
2. Melanosomes move into melanocyte cell
processes.
3. Epithelial cells phagocytize the tips of the STRATUM LUCIDUM
melanocytes cell processes. - In the stratum lucidum, the cells are dead and
4. The melanosomes, which were produced inside contain dispersed keratohyalin.
the melanocytes, have been transferred to - A thin, clear layer found only in the
epithelial cells and are now inside them. epidermis of the lips, palms, and soles.

STRATUM GRANULOSUM (granular cell layer)

- In the stratum granulosum, keratohyalin
granules accumulate, and a hard protein
envelope forms beneath the plasma
 membrane; lamellar bodies release lipids;
cells die.
- It is composed of one or more layers of
granular cells that contains fibers of keratin
and shriveled nuclei.
- The cell of this layer are the most active in
keratinization when cells lose their nuclei and
become compact and brittle.
STRATUM SPINOSUM (squamous cell layer)
- In the stratum spinosum, keratin fibers and
lamellar bodies accumulate.
- Composed of several layers of cells with
centrally located, large, oval nuclei and spinelike
processes; limited mitosis.
STRATUM BASALE (basal cell layer)
- It consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells in
contact with the basement membrane that
undergo mitosis; it contains pigment-producing
melanocytes.
- In stratum basale, cells divide by mitosis, and
some of the newly formed cells become the cells
of the more superficial strata.
- The cells of this layer produce the superficial
strata of the epidermis.
II. DERMIS
This layer is composed of dense connective tissue that
contains collagen and elastin fibers. The dermis is
divided into the papillary and reticular layers.
- The dermis lies beneath the epidermis where
most of the job is accomplished.
COMPOSITION:
• Connective tissue (with collagenous and elastic
fiber)
• Blood vessels
• Nerves
• Lymph vessels
• Smooth muscles
• Sweat Glands
• Hair follicles
• Sebaceous glands
a. Papillary Layer – derived its name from the
dermal papillae or ridges that extend to the
epidermis. It is made of areolar loose
connective tissue and is highly vascularized.
Hence, it provides blood supply to the
epidermis. It forms the fingerprints and
footprints.
b. Reticular Layer – it is made up of dense
irregular connective tissue. It accounts for 80%
of the dermis, and it contains hair follicles,
nerve endings, blood vessels, sweat and
sebaceous glands, and smooth muscle.
Beneath its layer a subcutaneous tissue called
the hypodermis. It connects the skin to the
underlying structures, such as muscle or bone.
LESSON #2: THE ACCESSORY
STRUCTURES OF THE SKIN
1. NAIL
- Hard keratin, grows from nail matrix.
- Are thin plates with layers of dead stratum
corneum cells and hard keratin.
STRUCTURES OF THE NAIL
a. Nail body – which is the visible part.
 b. Nail root – which is covered by skin. HAIR FACTS:
c. Cuticle – which is made of stratum corneum that
- Testosterone and good nutrition promote hair
extends to the nail body;
growth.
d. Nail matrix – which is a continuation of the nail
- Growth occurs in cycles: active and resting.
root and gives rise to most of the nail;
- Scalp hair grows for 3 years and rests for 1 year.
e. Nail bed – where the nail rests on and found
- Eyelashes grow for 30 days and rest for 105
distal to the matrix. It is the region where the
days.
nail is attached.
- We lose about 90 scalp hairs/day.
f. Lunula – part of nail matrix that is whitish,
- Grey hair is the loss or fading of melanin.
crescent-shaped area at the base of the nail.
- Male pattern baldness is from the loss of the hair
follicle.
2. HAIR
3. SEBACEOUS GLAND (Oil Glands)

- Derived from epidermis and dermis.

- Found everywhere in the body except palms,
soles, nipples, and part of genitalia.

- This is one of the skin glands connected to hair

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF HAIRS IN
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY?
• An individual hair is composed of the
outermost cuticle, the middle part is
the medulla, and the main part of the hair is
the cortex.
• Other parts of the anatomy of the hair are
the shaft, which is the visible portion; hair
follicle, which is an epidermal tube that is made
up of outer connective tissue sheath and inner
epithelial membrane; within the hair follicle is
the root, and the base of the root is the hair
bulb.
• The Arrector pili muscle in the dermis connects
with the hair follicle and causes “goosebumps”
when we are scared or when we chill.
follicles and produces an oily substance called
sebum.
- Sebum maintains the skin and hair condition
by acting as lubricant, which prevents drying.
- The skin lining the ear canal is lined with
modified sebaceous glands called ceruminous
glands.
- The secretion of these glands (ceruminous
glands) is called earwax or cerumen.
- It is found all over the body except on palms and
soles of feet.
- It stimulated by hormones and activated at
puberty.
 4. SWEAT GLAND II. SENSATION

- Are simple tubular glands found in almost all

parts of the body, except the lip margins and
head of the penis.
TWO KINDS OF SWEAT GLANDS:
The skin has receptor sites that detect changes in the
a. Eccrine Sweat Glands – the most numerous environment for temperature and pressure. Skin
and common sweat glands that secrete salt and receptors are in contact with sensory neurons that send
water. signals to the CNS for interpretation.
b. Apocrine Sweat Glands – found in the armpits,
a. Thermo-receptor – it senses heat or cold.
male scrotum, labia majora of females, and
b. Meissner’s Corpuscle – it senses touch.
around the anus. They are not involved in
c. Nociceptor – it senses pain.
thermoregulation and actually responsible for
d. Pacinian Corpuscle – it senses pressure.
the body odor. It is often a result of emotional
stress or anxiety.

III. THERMOREGULATION
Mammary glands are modified sweat glands located in
the breasts. Their cells produce milk.

LESSON #3: FUNCTIONS OF THE

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
I. PROTECTION
The protective functions of this system are enumerated
as follows:
1. The body is protected from water loss due to the
The regulation of the body temperature is an essential
intact skin and its lipid content.
function of the integumentary system to maintain
2. Prevents the entry of microorganisms and other
homeostasis.
foreign substances into the body.
3. Protects underlying structures against abrasion Sweat is produced when the temperature increases due
because of the stratified squamous epithelium of to exercise, fever, or an increase in environmental
the epidermis. temperature. Sweat, as it evaporates, cools the body.
4. Hair protects the body in different ways: Hairs Dilation of blood vessels increases blood flow toward
on the head act as an insulator; eyebrows keep the surface of the skin. This results in increased heat
sweat out of the eyes; eyelashes protect the eyes loss. On the other hand, if the environmental temperature
from foreign objects; and on nose and ears gets low, blood vessel constriction decreases blood flow
prevents entry of dust and other materials. toward the skin's surface, resulting in decreased heat
5. Nails protect the ends of digits from damage and loss.
can be used for defense.
WHY DO WE NEED TO MAINTAIN BODY
TEMPERATURE WITHIN THE NORMAL RANGE?
Increased body temperature can damage enzymes.
Without enzymes, no chemical reactions could occur,
cellular functions stop, and death occurs.
- Rising temperature “hotter” = dilate (more heat
loss)
- Low temperature “cooler” = constrict “narrow”
(less heat loss)
IV. VITAMIN D PRODUCTION
Production of Vitamin D begins when a molecule (7-
dehydrocholesterol) in the skin is exposed to UV light is
converted to pre-vitamin D (cholecalciferol).
This is carried to the liver by the blood, where it is
modified, sent to the kidneys, and further modified to
form the active vitamin D (calcitriol). Vitamin D helps
maintain normal blood levels of calcium and
phosphorus, increase calcium absorption for the
formation and maintenance of our bones, and many other
important functions.
V. EXCRETION AND SECRETION
Aside from regulating the body temperature, sweat or
perspiration is also a means of removing waste
products such as urea, uric acid, and ammonia.
Secretion of sebum by the sebaceous glands has
antifungal and antibacterial properties.
BODY SYSTEMS WORKING TOGETHER TO
MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS: THE
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
A. SKELETAL SYSTEM
• Vitamin D manufactured by the skin helps
provide calcium for strong bones.
B. MUSUCLAR SYSTEM
• Vitamin D helps provide calcium for muscle
contraction.
• Facial muscles produce facial expressions of
body language.
• Shivering helps control body temperature by
warming the body.
C. NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Receptor sites for temperature and pressure
changes in the skin provide information to the
nervous system so that we can cope with our
external environment.
• Nerves activate sweat glands.
D. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Hormones control the secretion of sebum from
the sebaceous glands.
• Hormones increase blood flow to the skin.
• Hormones control the amount of fat in
subcutaneous tissue.
E. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
• Blood vessels in the dermis help regulate the
body temperature by dilating or constricting.
• Dilation of blood vessels in light skin produce
blushing during embarrassing moments.
F. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• Skin is an effective barrier against invasion by
microorganisms, providing a first defense of the
immune system.
• Sebum has antifungal and antibacterial
properties.
• The acid mantle of the skin helps prevents most
bacterial infections.
G. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Vitamin D produced by the skin causes calcium
and phosphorus to be absorbed in the intestine.
• Excess calories can be stored as fat in
subcutaneous tissue.
 H. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The ossification and bone growth continue as the
• Receptor sites in the skin can bring about child grows.
changes in breathing rates.

I. URINARY SYSTEM
• Kidneys can restore water and electrolytes lost
during sweating.

J. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• Stimulation of receptor sites in the skin can
bring about sexual interest.
• Sucking on the nipple causes the postnatal
female to produce milk from her mammary
glands.

MODULE 4: MUSCULOSKELETAL a. Osteogenic cell/Osteoprogenitor – the stem

SYSTEM
LESSON #1: THE FUNCTIONS OF
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Aside from bones, other important connective tissues
such as cartilage, tendon, and ligament form the skeletal
system. They are all equally important for this system to
properly perform its functions.
- Muscles have the ability to contract. The
contraction and relaxation of muscles create
movements. When muscle contracts,
it becomes shorter and tighter, and when
it relaxes, it goes back to its original form.
a. SUPPORT
b. PROTECTION
c. MOVEMENT
d. STORAGE AND MANUFACTURE
- Blood cells are produces in our bones in the
process called hematopoiesis.
- The bone tissue also serves as the storage for
certain minerals like calcium and phosphorus. If
the body needs these minerals, they could be
easily released back into the bloodstream.
cell which gives rise to osteoblast.
b. Osteoblasts – The “bone-makers.” It is
responsible for bone deposition – creating
a bone matrix made up of collagen and mineral
salt such as calcium and phosphate. (blast cell of
bone)
c. Osteocytes – mature bone cells that monitor and
maintain bone matrix. It can detect stimuli in
the bone, prompting osteocytes and osteoblast
to take action.
d. Osteoclasts – The “bone-breakers.” It is
responsible for the reabsorption of bones
(destroying bone matrix).
e. Chondrocyte – the cells of cartilage,
producing and maintaining the cartilaginous
matrix.
BONE FORMATION (Ossification)
1. Intramembranous Ossification
- This type of ossification happens in the flat
bones of the face, cranium, and clavicle. This
ossification happens when a dense connective
tissue membrane in the embryonic skeleton is
replaced by deposits of inorganic calcium
salts, forming a bone.

LESSON #2: THE GROWTH AND

FORMATION OF BONES
Our skeleton at the time is predominantly made of
cartilage. At the end of the third month, we start to
form our bones in the process called ossification.
• Figure (a). Mesenchymal cells group together become bone. Rather, cartilage is being used as
and start to differentiate – some become blood the environment or, let’s say, a template where
capillaries while others become osteogenic cells. bone can develop and then replace the cartilage
The osteogenic cells will eventually over time.
become osteoblast. The cluster of mesenchymal
cells is called the Ossification center.
Mesenchymal cells are cells found in the
skeleton of an embryo. These cells are
undifferentiated (which means they could
transform into other types of cells).

• Figure (b). Osteoblast will secrete a matrix

(mixture of substances) with collagen and
protein. This matrix is called osteoid. After a
few days, osteoid will calcify (harden) as
minerals like calcium phosphate are deposited in
it (new bone matrix).
Our body maintains our bones through constant bone
• Figure (b). The osteoblast will become trapped remodeling, which involves breaking (resorption) and
in the hardening matrix. Once entrapped, building bones (formation). And IT HAPPENS
osteoblast becomes osteocyte. THROUGHOUT OUR LIFETIME.

• Figure (b). Osteogenic cells continue to

differentiate into new osteoblasts then move to HOW DOES IT WORK?
the edge of the growing bone matrix.
- All thanks to osteocytes, the ones who could
detect stimuli like pressure or fracture in the
• Figure (c). A cluster of osteoid surrounds the
bone. It will respond by signaling the osteoclasts
capillaries, and as it hardens, they connect,
(the bone breakers) and osteoblasts (the bone
creating a meshwork of interconnecting sections
makers).
called trabeculae. The bone matrix produced
- In this process of bone remodeling, the old
has a sponge-like appearance; hence, it’s
bones or injured bones are destroyed first
called spongy bone.
by osteoclast. After this, osteoblast will take
over and build the new bone by depositing the
• Figure (d). The osteoblast on the surface of the bone matrix. (It’s like you have to let go of
newly formed spongy bone becomes a cellular something to make way for a new one :D)
layer of periosteum – a connective tissue that
covers the bone. The amount of strain and pressure determines bone
deposition. That is why physical activities are
• Figure (d). The periosteum will secrete a encouraged for growing children. Exercise stimulates
compact bone (hard bone) around the spongy bone remodeling and ultimately, bone strength.
bone while the spaces between spongy bones
• The bone plays a vital role in maintaining the
will become filled by a structure called bone
calcium level in our blood. Calcium plays a lot
marrow.
of important roles in our body. Our blood is
transporting these calcium ions to the site where
it is needed.
2. Endochondral Ossification
- Long bones and the bones at the base of our
skull develop through this type of ossification. It
Is different from the previous one because the
bones here develop by replacing hyaline
cartilage (the primary cartilage model). But,
contrary to what we think, cartilage does not
LESSON #3: DIVISIONS OF
SKELETON
Compact Bone – found between the periosteum
(outer layer) and endosteum (inner layer).
- The most prominent feature of compact bone is
its Haversian system.
- Concentric rings = Lamellae

DIVISIONS OF SKELETON
a. Axial Skeleton – composed of bones found in
the vertical axis of the body. It provides
support and protection for the internal organs. It Example: Suture/rigid joint of the skull (cranial suture).
also serves as the point of attachment for the
body’s appendages.
- It has 80 bones – skull (28), vertebrae (26), ribs 2. Cartilaginous Joint – bones are joined by
(24), hyoid bone, and sternum. hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. This joint
allows movement but is limited.
b. Appendicular Skeleton – composed of bones
of the upper limbs and lower limbs. Its main
function is to allow our body movements – from
grasping to manipulating objects (upper limbs)
to locomotion (lower limbs).
- It has 126 bones – upper limbs bones including
shoulder girdle (64) and lower limbs bones
including the pelvic girdle (62).

LESSON #4: THE CLASSIFICATIONS

OF JOINTS: STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
Joint or Articulation – point/place where bones meet.
They are classified based on structure or function.
Example: Intervertebral disc that connects the vertebrae
and the symphysis pubis in the pelvic bone. Symphysis
pubis allows expansion of the pelvic cavity during birth.

3. Synovial Joint – bones are not directly

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:
- This classification is based on what kind of
materials bind the bones together.
1. Fibrous Joint – adjacent bones are connected
by fibrous connective tissue. This type of joint
is immovable.
connected. They come into contact with each
other within a cavity that is filled with
lubricating fluid called synovial fluid.
- Articular cartilage is also found surrounding the
ends of the bones in the synovial joint. This
joint is freely movable.
SIX TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS: 2. Amphiarthroses – these are partly moving
joints.
Examples:

• symphysis – joint in which a disk of

fibrocartilage connects the bones.
• synchondrosis – joint in which the bony surface
is connected by hyaline cartilage.

3. Diarthroses – these are freely movable joints.

These are just the same as the synovial joints.

Even though joints are classified either by shape or

function, they are all related.

• The fibrous joint is also a synarthrosis

• The cartilaginous joint is an amphiarthrosis
• A synovial joint is a diarthrosis.

LESSON #5: THE PHYSIOLOGY OF

MUSCLE CONTRACTION
MOTOR UNIT
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS
- A motor unit refers to the muscle cells or
- Joints are also classified based on their fibers innervated/stimulated by the
functions. Functional classification pertains to same motor neuron. They are stimulated
the amount of mobility of the joint – how simultaneously; therefore, they contract together.
much it can move. The type of material in the
articulation determines the movements of joints.

1. Synarthroses – these are the joints between

bones that do not allow movement – immovable
joints.
Examples:

• suture – joint in which a thin layer of fibrous

tissue unites the bones.
• syndesmosis – joints in which ligaments
connect the bones. In the human body, a single neuron could innervate
• gomphosis – joints in which conical processes around 150 muscle fibers on average.
fit into a socket held by a ligament.

NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
- The site where a motor nerve fiber and skeletal
muscle fiber meet. It is also called synapse or
synaptic cleft.
MUSCLE CONTRACTION
- Results from the interaction of three factors:
neuroelectrical, chemical, and energy sources.
1. NEUROELECTRICAL FACTOR (1ST)
Muscle contraction is initiated when the muscle receives
a signal/nerve impulse from the nervous system. The
transmission of the nerve impulse from neuron to muscle
occurs at the neuromuscular junction – a space
(synapse) where the neuron's axon terminal is very close
to the muscle cell.
When a nerve impulse reaches the neuron's axon
terminal, it will trigger the release of a neurotransmitter
called acetylcholine (ACh) in the synapse between
neuron and muscle fiber. This chemical substance will
bind to the receptor in the muscle fiber's sarcolemma
(plasma membrane).
1. Locate the neuromuscular junction. This is
where acetylcholine is released and then binds to
the sarcolemma of the muscle fiber.
2. Notice the concentration of K+ and Na+ ions. In
what region are they highly concentrated?
3. The inside of the cell is negatively charged,
while the outside is positively charged. This
state of the cell is called resting potential.
4. But when acetylcholine binds to the
sarcolemma, it opens the membrane and allows
Na+ to rush inside the cell. Because sodium is
positively charged, the inside of the cell is
becoming less and less negative, creating
changes in the resting potential. As it happens,
the K+ inside the cell will move out, trying to
restore the resting potential. But it will not
happen that quick as more Na+ is rushing inside
the cell. This shifting of electrical charges in the
cell creates an explosive electrical activity we
called the action potential.
5. This action potential travels along the plasma
membrane of the muscle cell and deep into the T
tubules until it reaches the sarcoplasmic
reticulum (and this is where the real action will
begin).
6. Action potential triggers the release of Ca+ into
the fluids surrounding the muscle fibers.
2. CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS (2ND)
- Calcium ion is an essential molecule that is a
key to the interaction of actin and myosin
filament. The ‘heads’ of myosin interact with
actin by binding to its binding site.
Step 1: As you can see, the active/binding site of the
actin molecule is blocked by protein tropomyosin, and
the troponin complex controls its position around actin
molecules. When Ca+ attaches to the troponin complex,
it causes the molecules to change shape and expose the
active site/binding site in the actin filament.
Step 2: ATP in the myosin head will hydrolyze (break
down) into ADP + P (Adenosine Diphosphate and
Inorganic Phosphate). This reaction allows the myosin
head to bind in the now exposed active site of actin
filament and forms a cross-bridge.
Step 3: A ‘power stroke’ happens at this point when
ADP + P molecules are released from the myosin head,
causing the myosin head to move and pulling the actin
filament towards the center of the sarcomere.
Step 4: Binding of ATP releases the myosin head from
being attached to the actin filament.
Step 5: The myosin heads went back to their original
state and hydrolyzed ATP to ADP + P again to begin
another cycle.
This model of how muscle contracts is named as Sliding
Filament Theory by Hugh Huxley in 1954 because the
interaction between myosin and actin filaments looks
like they are sliding past one another.

NOTE: There are 3 sarcomere sections present in the

animation. During contraction, you can see that
the length of sarcomeres shortens.
Notice also that the lighter band, the I band, decreases
its length while the darker band, the A band, doesn’t
change its length.

WHEN DOES MUSCLE CONTRACTION IN THE

SACROMERE STOP?
When no more muscle stimulation comes from the
neuron, no more action potential will be created.
Thus, the release of calcium ions from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum will stop. The absence of
calcium ions is the reason why actin and myosin
filament could not interact, resulting in no contraction.

3. ENERGY SOURCES (3RD)

We have learned how important ATP molecules are for
muscle contraction. This is why our body needs to make
sure that muscles will have a stable supply of ATP. Our
body has four sources of energy which includes the
following:
1. Aerobic respiration which gives 38 ATP from
glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport
Chain
2. Anaerobic respiration gives 2 ATP from the
lactic acid formation
3. Phosphocreatine combines with ADP when
needed producing creatine and ATP in the
process.
Example: Phosphocreatine + ADP 🡪 creatine + ATP
4. Breaking down of Free fatty acids producing
CO2, H 2O, and ATP
Example: Free fatty acids 🡪 CO2, H2O + ATP