CONSTRUCTION OF A

GEIGER-MUELLER COUNTER

AND A

TELESCOPE TO STUDY COSMIC RAYS

A Thesis

Presented to the Department of Physies

University of Southern California

In partial fulfillment

of the

Requirements for the

Degree of Master of Seience

Martin Donald Kaufman

January 10, 1942

 UMI Number: EP63333

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PACE

I . THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS ----------------- 1

The p r o b l e m --------------------------------- 1

Statement of the problem ---------------- 1

Method of procedure --------------------- 1

Definitions ------------------------------- 2

Cosmic-ray shower ------------------ 2

Cosmic-ray burst ---------------------- 2

Geiger-Mueller counter ----------------- 2

Resolving T i m e --------------------------- 3

J-^Unit of cosmic-ray intensity --------- 3

II. THE GEIGER-MUELLER COUNTER ---------------- 6

The behavior of a C-M counter ---------- 6

Construction of the counter ------------ 9

III THE COUNTER CIRCUIT — ------------------- 23

Neher-Harper circuit ----- 23

The multivibrator circuit -------------- 25

The coincidence circuit ---------------- 27

Full-wave rectifier --------------------- 27

The completed circuit ------------------ 27

IV THE STATISTICS OF COUNTERS ---------------- 34

. The characteristic c u r v e ---------- 34

The effective area of a counter -------- 36

 iii

CHAPTER PAGE

The variation of ;} over the

aperture of the counter train ---------- 40
0

The probability that a ray passes

through the counter in arecovered state- 41

The accidental counting rate

due to unassoaiated r a y s ----------------- 42

Other factors -----— -------------------- 43

VI EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ........ ......... — — 45

Calculation of j (0) ---------------------- 45

VII CONCLUSION --------------- 48

BIBLIOGRAPHY -------- ■------------ -------------- 50

»
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1. A G-M c o u n t e r ------------------------------- 5

2. Half-wave rectifier ------------------------ 7

3. Circuit for studying the behavior of

a counter, ---------------------------------- 7

4. Sample characteristic curve -------------- 22

5. Shape of oscillograms ------ ------------- 22

6. Neher-Harper circuit ------------------- 29

7. Multivibrator circuit ------— -------------- 29

8. Full-wave rectifier ------------------------- 30

9. Multivibrator and its characteristics ------ 31

10, Coincidence circuit of Rossi---------------- 32

11. Effective area of a counter — '------------- 32,39

12 .Completed circuit --------------------------- 33

13. Characteristic curves ------------------- 38

14. Results --------------------------------- ---- 47

 CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM AHD DEFIHITIOHS

When Rossi^ in 1930 discovered that two or three

Geiger-Mueller counters might he simultaneously dis­

charged, he studied the cosmic-radiation that was de­

tected when the counters were in a straight line. This

was the first cosmic-ray "telescope”, since it had the

ability to determine the radiation's direction at the

earth's surface.

I. The Problem.

Statement of the problem. The purpose of this

study was first to develope a method of making Oeiger-

Mueller counters, and then to select three counters,

representative of those made, and then use them in tele­

scopic form to make a study of the intensity of radia­

tion as a function of the angle made by the line of count­

ers with the zenith.

Method of procedure. While many different types

of scaling circuits are available it was deemed best

1 b . Rossi, Phrs. Rev.. 36, 606 (1930).

to use a non-scaling type that had a reasonably short

time of resolution. A quenching circuit for Geiger-

Mueller tubes has been developed by Neher and Harper^

which enables the tube to recover itself very quickly,

and this properly coupled with a multivibrator circuit

to supply the necessary power output, works very satis

factorily.

II. Definitions.

Cosmic-ray shower. A cosmic-ray shower is the rad

iation that emerges from a non-radioactive substance

exposed to cosmic-rays, which will simultaneously disr

charge three Geiger-Mueller counters that are placed

out of line. A shower may be induced by a photon or

an ionizing particle, and it may be made up of photons

or ionizing particles, or both.

Cosmic-ray burst. A burst or Hoffman-Stoss, is

that radiation which produces an abrupt and transient

increase of the current through an ionization chamber

which is several times as great as the mean statistic­

al fluctuation.

Geiger-Mueller Counter. The tube counter (Zahl-

2H.V. Neher and W. W. Harper, Phys. Rev., 49, 940 (1936)

 3

rohr) of Geiger-and Mueller3 is shown in Figure 1.

This will henceforth he designated as the G-M count­

er. The cathode is cylindrical, generally made of

copper tubing; the anode is a wire, varying from 2

to 20 mils in size, placed on the axis of the cylin­

der. This wire, while generally made of pure tungsten,

may also he made of steel or aluminum. The counter is

filled with air or some other gas at a reduced pressure

(2 to 10 centimeters of mercury) so as to avoid the use

of high voltages. When radiation enters the tuhe a

slight current flows for a “brief period of time, and

the measurement of the number of current pulses per

unit time is loiown as the count per unit time. The

period during which the current flows is very short

in a fast counter, the shorter the period, the better

the counter.

Hesolving time. The resolving time of a counter

is the average length of intervals during which no

count can he registered by the counter, i.e., the per­

iod required by the counter to regain itself.

£ " ^n it of cosmic-ray intensity. A practical

measure of cosmic-ray intensity is the number of counts

^H. Geiger and W Mueller, Phys. Zeits.. 29, 839 (1928)

 4

per unit of time. The number, of cosmic-rays per

sguare centimeter per second from unit solid angle

in a given direction, is the accepted unit of cosmic

ray intensity.
 0

20 MIL TUNGSTEN WIRE

COPPER TUBE

W
Wmm

6 inches ---------
seal off here after
evacuating and filling
with air.

Figure 1

A G-M (Geiger-Mueller) counter

in characteristic form.
 CHAPTER II

THE GEIGER-MUELLER COUHTER

Before going into a discussion of the construc­

tion of the counters it is necessary to consider their

behavior. In order to operate the tube a source of high

potential but extremely slight current is necessary.

The conventional half-wave rectifier is well adapted

for this purpose, and this is the circuit shown in Fig­

ure 2. The source of high potential is a 3000 volt neon

transformer with a variable input. An 866 mercury vap­

or rectifier is used to create the direct current and

this is filtered through a 2500 volt, 1 microfarad,

Pyranol condenser. Since the negative side is grounded

the filament transformer must withstand the applied pot­

ential. The filament transformer used was insulated

for 5000 volts.

The behavior of a G— M counter. Figure 3 shows a

circuit well adapted for studying the behavior of a

counter. The G-M counter is directly connected to the

two deflecting plates of a cathode-ray oscilloscope,

while the other pair of plates is connected to a lin-

 866

110 O +•
volts
A. C . output

C 0.1

Figure B

The conventional form of a half-wave rectifier.

This makes a compact source of high potential to
operate a counter circuit.

Figure 3
A circuit very well adapted for studying the
behavior of a counter, since the counts can be ob­
served visually thus showing the type of breakdown
which occurs.
ear sweep circuit. As the potential, V, is raised, a

potential is reached at which the electron team is de­

flected at random intervals. The G-M tube is said to

have "begun counting, and as V is further increased,

the number of counts per second increases for a while

and then remains constant over a definite voltage range

As V is further increased, the number of counts per sec

ond goes up again until the tube breaks down completely

This action is best illustrated by a sample curve4 as

in Figure 4.

It is over the region known as the plateau that a

counter is operated so that it gives a true count. The

character of the discharge is shown in Figure 5; if the

oscillographs are like (a), then the counter is a fast

one with a rapid recovery time that depends on the re­

sistance and capacity of the circuit. Here the pulses

last from about 10~2 to as short as 10“® seconds. For

a slow counter the breakdown is less rapid, and the

potential may remain near the threshold for a*s long as

0.2 seconds as in (b). In some cases the potential

may vary considerably during breakdown, as in (c) and

occasionally the tube fails to regain itself.

4John Strong, Procedures in Experimental Physics ,

(Hew York, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 19381 Chapt. VII.
 While the resistance, R, for a fast counter is

generally between 10^ and 10^ ohms, Neher^ states

that the best counters will extinguish themselves

when R is as low as 4000 ohms. In this case, with a

capacity of about 25 micro-microfarads, the width of

the oscillograph pulse should be less than 10"^ sec­

onds.

Construction of the counter. As shown in Figure

1, the Gr-M counters constructed for the present study

are in a glass sleeve about 6 inches in length, with

the copper cylinders about 12 centimeters in length

and about 2 centimeters in diameter. Each cylinder is

held in place inside the glass by small indentations

made in the glass. The tungsten wire is about 20 mils

in size; this size was chosen because it gives the

most satisfactory oscillograms and is the easiest for

the glass-blower to handle, since small wire becomes

extremely brittle when sealed to the glass. The glass-

tungsten seals are m8.de quite long as it is necessary

to have a perfect seal that will not leak over an ex­

tremely long period. The present set of counters are

well over a year old and they have retained the same

characteristics as when first made.

The shape of tube chosen was entirely a matter of

 10

convenience for the glass-blower, since the location

of the side arms has obviously uo effect on the opera­

tion of the counter.. The thickness of the copper tube

is also relatively unimportant. The tubes used here

were cut from a length of copper piping and then mach­

ined down to what appeared to be a reasonable thick­

ness (about 2.0 mm.). The outside was left as it was

after machining, but the inside was polished to a very

high luster by using a tool made by mounting two corks

on a shaft that could be inserted into a drill press.

The corks were then sanded down until they formed a

cylinder slightly smaller than the inside of the tube.

By using a mixture of turpentine and polishing abrasives

on the corks the tube was polished so that no points

were left from which charges could leak off.

Other metals beside tungsten were tried for the

center wire. Several counters were made up by using 10

mil piano wire, and while these worked very nicely when

first made, their characteristics would not remain con­

stant for a twenty-four hour period. Several tubes were

made up with the steel wire and were tried out as fol­

lows: The counter was cleaned with ether to wash away

all grease that collected in it and then with concen­

trated and finally dilute nitric acid. The nitric acid

 11

was so dilute that it took two to three minutes before

the copper was attacked. After this all remaining

acid and salts were washed away with water, and a fin­

al rinsing was done with distilled water.

After sealing off with air at a pressure that gave

a good count with a reasonably low voltage (about 1200

volts) the counter was run steadily for three hours.

If no variation®in threshold voltage occurs, the count­

er may now be assumed free from leaks. Then the volt­

age was reduced gradually until the tube stopped count­

ing, and then put back suddenly to its former value.

This time the tube would not operate, but it was found

that if the condenser across the power line was sudden­

ly discharged and then the voltage set back to its for­

mer value, the tube worked well.

When the counter was started up again the follow­

ing day, the counter threshold had risen approximately

50 volts, and operated at this new value throughout

the entire day. After another night during which the

counter was not run, the threshold rose approximately '

100 volts. No interpretation of this action has been

found, but since the possibility of air leaks was ex­

plored and none found to exist, this type of tube was

considered unsuitable.
 While most experimenters agree that the cylinder

should he at least five times its diameter in length,

and is best made of copper, and that the central wire

is best made of tungsten, there is no agreement as to

the process of sensitizing the counter. Several work­

ers claim that the location of the central wire is

critical, and that for best results it should coincide

exactly with the axis of the cylinder. Several were

made to do this, and they met with varying degrees of

success, but in every trial the characteristics of the

counters remained the same.

This was demonstrated most clearly by taking a sin­

gle counter and determining its characteristic curve.

Then the glass was softened and the wire set at some

other position, near the axis, but obviously not coin­

ciding with it, and a second curve was obtained. The

fact that both curves were in statistical agreement

with each other, showed that the location of the cen­

tral wire was not critical, provided that it was reason­

ably near the axis of the cylinder. Both Neher and

Pickering, in a private conversation, stated that they

had reached the same conclusion.

The methods of sensitizing a G--M counter are divid­

ed into two classes: (1) the cathode is reduced by sput­

 13

tering in a hydrogen atmosphere; (2) the cathode is ox­

idized hy heating in the presence of air.

The first method is prescribed by Duffendack, Lif-

5
schutz, and Slawsky. This method was tried, but even

the best counters produced did not seem very satisfact­

ory, and so it was given up. Briefly, the procedure is

to wash a counter with hydrogen, (the authors advise

that the ordinary commercial variety is satisfactory),

and then placing two tubes on the same vacuum line,

they are both filled with hydrogen at a pressure of

from one to two centimeters of mercury and an electri­

cal discharge is passed between the two cathodes. This

was accomplished with a 15,000 volt neon transformer,

and at frequent intervals the hydrogen was pumped out

until the discharge stopped, and then fresh hydrogen

was admitted. This was continued according to the ad­

vice of the authors, until both cathodes were very

bright and shiny, and then a discharge was passed for

about a half a minute between the cathode and anode un ­

til the glow around the cathode was uniform. This pro­

cess left a very pure tungsten wire and copper tube,

with scarcely any impurities, and no rough edges or

points for charges to leak off.

^Duffendack, Lifschutz, and Slawsky, Phys. Rev., 52,

1231 (1937).
 14

The tube was then well rinsed with hydrogen, and

sealed off at a pressure that gave the best oscillograms.

This pressure varied from about 5 to 8 centimeters of

mereury. At first the counters gave rather mediocre

oscillograms, and these rapidly became worse with time,

so that in a rather short period the counters broke down

completely.

The first two tubes made were sputtered for a con­

siderable length of time (about two hours), and neither

tube when put into a circuit with an oscilloscope show­

ed any counts.. The tubes were again evacuated and re­

filled with oxygen and then heated to form an oxide coat­

ing on the copper tube. The oxygen was then pumped out

and air let in. The tubes now gave fairly good pulses

with a fairly wide range. Shortly after this, however,

scale (copper oxide) began to fall off and the tubes ceas­

ed counting.

These same tubes were later cleaned out and further

tests were carried out with them. However the oscillo­

scope lines went fuzzy in a few minutes which meant that

the tube had broken down. There was also no noticeable

difference between the background eount and that produc­

ed in periods when the tube was accelerated with a radioac-

 15

tive source.

An interesting point is that for tubes with a heavy

oxide coating that have been filled with air, the high­

er the threshold voltage, the larger the pulse, (i.e.

the more the voltage drop).

While the authors recommend their process for count­

ers 2 or 3 centimeters in diameter, in most of their

work they used much larger diameters. The main reason

for the instability of these counters is due apparent­

ly to the fact that in the sputtering process some cop­

per from the cathode is deposited on the glass, the

copper being very hot when it strikes the glass, it

may be said to fuse with it, thus causing an electrical

connection to be formed between the cathode, which is

in contact with the glass, and the anode which is seal­

ed into the glass. Both Neher and Pickering have also

tried this method and have been unsuccessful.

The second method has been developed by Neher and

was followed with extremely good results. This proced­

ure, which should make a fast counter, is briefly as

follows:

A solution of 6 normal nitric acid is admitted in­

to the counter to clean the copper. When the copper

is very bright , the acid is removed, and after rins­

ing with water a wash solution of 0.1 normal nitric

acid is used to remove all nitrates formed. Then the

counter is well washed and rinsed several times with

distilled water, and then allowed to dry. With dry

air inside, the counter is heated in a large flame

until a uniform, brownish-black, oxide is formed. For

a moderately fast counter the procedure may be stopped

here, and the counter sealed off at a pressure which

gives good oscillograms, and is below 10 centimeters

of mercury.

The oxide coating seems to be quite important to

the action of the tube. Anderson, using counter con­

trolled cloud chambers, frequently heats his counters

until an extremely heavy, black, oxide is formed. Go­

ing to such lengths was found to be injurious to the

counter, as was previously mentioned, as the heavy ox­

ide flakes off and lies along the inside of the count­

er with the result of disturbing the characteristics.

Hoag, at Chicago, flares the ends of the copper

tubes, and then cleans with a grit free soap solution*

After washing the tube thoroughly and drying, he again

washes the tube with cleaning solution, (i.e., a con­

centrated solution of potassium dichromate in sulfuric

 17

acid). The counter is rinsed with tap and distilled

water, and then allowed to dry, the water vapor "being

removed "by a suction pump. After drying the counter

is filled with air that has been passed over calcium

chloride, to a pressure of 6 centimeters, and then it

is sealed off. To clean the tungsten wire, Hoag passes

it through a solution of potassium nitrite?

From these procedures, a combination procedure was

developed. The inside and edges of the copper tube

were first ground with #240 mesh grinding powder until

they appeared extremely smooth. Then the joint where

the tungsten lead wire is welded to the copper tube

was also ground, and the tube was then inserted into a

glass jacket and indentations were made into the glass

to hold it in place. The tungsten wire was then thor­

oughly immersed in hot potassium nitrite and cleaned.

The glass-to-tungsten seals were then made, and the

wire was lined up by eye as nearly as possible with the

center of the tube. Through the arm left for evacuat­

ing the counter, 6N nitric acid was introduced and then

removed by an aspirator. The counter was then rinsed

with water and with ether to dissolve all remaining

B. Hoag, Electron and Nuclear Physics, (D. Van

Nostrand Co., New York, 1939)7
 18

grease, and then the procedure recommended hy Feher

was followed.

Most injurious to the action of a G-M counter is

mercury vapor in even the smallest amounts. Since it

is sometimes necessary, or desirable, to know at what

pressure a counter has been sealed off, a mercury man­

ometer is generally included in the vacuum line. The

vapor from even a small manometer gives much trouble

as it renders the counter unstable. Only after repeat­

ed failures which could not be traced to any known

fault was the manometer in the line suspected. FortUr-

nately a stopcock was included in the line so that it

could be brought in at will. When the manometer was

in the line, fuzzy oscilloscope lines were always pre­

sent, and even these soon were replaced by a steady

discharge. When the manometer was out of the line

good results were obtained, but these soon disappeared

when any attempt was made to read the pressure. To re­

move this source of trouble, a gold filled tube was

placed in the line leading to the manometer, so that

the vapor formed a gold amalgam. Once this was done

the tubes whose characteristics are shown in Figure 13

were then made without difficulty.

 19

In actual practice it was found unnecessary to

know the pressure inside a counter since the deciding

factor is the threshold voltage. This is especially

important in coincidence counters where all the count­

ers are operated by the same voltage source. Conse­

quently the circuit shown in Figure 3 was used to de­

termine at what pressure a particular counter began to

operate properly when a predetermined voltage was used.

Due to various irregularities and other unavoidable de­

tails of construction all the counters do not have a

threshold at precisely the same pressure, but they all

are approximately under a pressure of eight centimeters.

While positive and negative particles are present

in the counter, the actual multiplying agents are pro­

bably electrons. Negative ions also found in the dis­

charge are due to the attachment of electrons to un-

(
charged molecules. In the process of ionization light

is given off, and these quanta are absorbed by the cop­

per tube and new electrons are ejected. This photo-elec­

tric effect has been found important in the mechanism

of the discharge and has been investigated by various

authors?»9

®W. Christoph and W. Hanle, Phys. Zeits., 34 (1933)

9Gr. L. locher, Frank. Inst. J .. 216, 553 (1933)

 20

Lawson and T y l e r ^ using counters made according

to the directions of Duffendack, lifschutz, and Slaw-

sky, found the photoelectric effect abnormally high

for these counters. These workers developed a hypo­

thesis as to what would take place if there were a thin

metallic film deposited on the glass jacket, and then

they satisfactorily tested their theory. Thus they

proved from the photoelectric effect the assumption

made here, that the metallic copper deposited itself

on the glass walls and thus rendered the counter un­

stable.

All the counters made here were found to be light

sensitive to a certain extent. Some (those chosen for

later work) are not noticeably so, but according to the

theory of the operation of counters, they must be light

sensitive since a large portion of the discharge is of

a photoelectric nature. A large reflector was suspend­

ed over the counters while they were tested, and cer­

tain counters, especially those filled with hydrogen

had a noticeably higher background when the light was

on than when it was off.

Thus a good counter may easily be made if the fol­

lowing precautions are taken:

 21

1). Use, clean, thorium free, tungsten

wire.

2), Remove all sharp points from welds,

3), Remove all dirt and grease from inter­

nal surfaces,

4), Remove all free alkali metals from sur­

faces,

5), Eliminate, as far as possible, photo­

electric response of the cathode.

6). Use a gas whose pressure is not too low,

and is stable against the formation of

a new product, since meta-stable ions

cause considerable trouble.

7). Avoid dust inside the tube.

8). The surface resistance of the glass tube

must be high.

L. Lawson and A. W. Tyler, Phys. Rev., 53,

605, (1938).
 22

threshold voltage. The voltage at which

the tube begins to count,

Vm maximum operating voltage

c o u n t s /s e c

plateau

vo lts

Figure 4

Sample characteristic curve

of a G-M counter

TIM E (IN SECONDS)

Figure 5
 CHAPTER III

THE COUNTER CIRCUIT

The counter circuit includes the Neher-Harper cir­

cuit, the multivibrator circuit, the coincidence cir­

cuit, the full-wave rectifier, and the final completed

circuit. Since each one of these needs to have its

own particular influence felt at a particular instant,

it is best to discuss them separately.

Neher-Harper Circuit. In order to make a G-M

counter extinguish itself rapidly, i.e., without the

11
aid of an extremely high resistance,• Neher and Harper

developed a circuit in which a vacuum tube extinguishes

the counter.

Figure 6 shows such a circuit in which the cylin­

der of the tube is connected directly to the grid of

the first tube, while the potential applied to the

wire is also connected to the plate of the tube through

a resistance, Rg.

The action of the circuit is briefly explained as

^ H . V . N e h e r and W.W.Harper, Phys. Rev. 49, 940, (1936)

 24

follows:

The vacuum tube, which may be either a 57 or a 6C 6 ,

is biased close to the point at which very little plate

current flows# The full potential, V, is then across

both tube and counter. As an ionizing particle passes

through the counter, positive charges are collected on

the cylinder, causing the grid to go less negative.

Hence an appreciable current begins to flow thus caus­

ing a voltage drop across R , and when this drop is

sufficient, the discharge in the counter will be extinguish­

ed, and the circuit will recover itself. The time con­

stant RgC, is very short, and so it is possible to re­

cord the order of 10^ random counts per minute.

In such a circuit, the pulse delivered to a second

tube is negative. This means that the plate current in

this tube must flow continuously except when a pulse

occurs.

While the constants are somewhat arbitrary, it is

important to note that they must be chosen in the range

which will give the required result. For example, the

value of the grid potential may be too low; then the

voltage impulse developed in Rg, due to the passage of

a perticle through the counter, will not be able to af-

 25

feet the plate current "by an amount sufficient to cause

extinction § f the discharge. If the grid potential is

too positive, the plate current may he increased to the

point where the voltage drop in R 0 will bring the effec-

tive counter voltage below the necessary threshold value.

The multivibrator circuit, The counter circuit

in connection with a suitable amplifier constitutes a

reliable means of detecting ionizing particles. The

multivibrator, Figure 7 is a two stage, resistance

coupled amplifier in which the voltage developed by the

output of the second tube is applied to the input of

the first tube as shown in Figure 9a.

12 Such an arrange­

ment oscillates because each tube produces a phase shift

of 180 degrees, thereby causing the output of the second

to supply an input voltage to the first tube that has

exactly the right phase to sustain oscillations.

Figure 9b shows the oscillograms tahen from an aver­

age multivibrator. It is advantageous to use such a cir­

cuit because a pulse of much longer duration than the

initial pulse is produced, and so operates a mechanical

recorder. This is due to the fact that the length of

the output pulse is independent of the length of the in-

^ See also F.E.Terman, Measurements in Radio Engineer­

ing, (McGraw-Hill Boole Go., New York, 1935) Chapt. V.
 26

put pulse, provided, of course, that the latter is

shorter than the "natural” pulse length of the cir­

cuit. This natural pulse is determined mainly by the

feedback capacity G^ in Figure 7 .

The behavior of the circuit is described briefly

as follows:

Tj_ is biased so it acts as a linear amplifier; Tg

is biased to just beyond cutoff, .or reasonably close

to cutoff. As a negative pulse reaches C, a positive

pulse arrives at the plate of T^; now the control grid

of Tg follows the plate of T^ quite closely, so it

goes positive by an amount depending on R^. As the

current in Tg goes up, the plate voltage decreases,

thus passing a negative pulse back on to the grid of

T^. The cycle repeats itself rapidly, and each time

the plate of Tg suffers a further drop until it reach­

es a few volts above the cathode. At this time the

grid of Tj_ has become more negative than the cathode,

and so the excess charges on must leak off across

Rg. As the charge leaks off from C4 , the plate of Tg

must go up in potential, causing T^ to become more con­

ducting. This process is evident in the oscillograms,

and both actions are the same except that the relative

functions of the two tubes have been interchanged.

 27

Next the potentials on the two grids gradually die

away as a result of the action of the grid leaks, and

finally a point is reached at which the cycle repeats

itself, the time required to complete a cycle being

determined by the grid resistances and condensers.

The coincidence circuit. In cosmic ray work it

is desirable to record only simultaneous discharges

of two or more counters. The method of doing this is

17>
due to Rossi, and is shown diagramatically in Figure

10. Here A-j*Ag=A3' ^ G-M counters connected as shown

in Figure 6 , which have all their outputs connected to

the grid of an amplifying tube through a condenser.

amplifying tubes such as T^ in Figure 7.

Full-wave rectifier. Figure 8 shows the circuit

of a full-wave rectifier used to obtain the 250 volt

power sources for the plates and screen grids of the

multivibrator circuit.

The completed circuit. Figure 12 shows the com­

pleted circuit. Since the separate parts have already

been discussed, it is only necessary to add that due

to the fact that only a high impulse counter was avail-

^ B , Rossi. Mature. 125, 636, (1930)

 28

able, it was not feasible to have the 6L 6 drive it di­

rectly. Instead the tube was used to operate a malce

relay in series with the impulse counter and a six volt

battery.
 29

6C 6 11 output
(negative pulse)

R1

O “ 4 ev

Figure 6

Figure 7
 30

A.C.
nput

D .C • Output
O'

Figure 8

Full wave rectifier used to obtain the 250 volt

D.C. necessary for the multivibrator.
 31

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k (b ) V o lta g e a n d c u r r e n t relations

Figure 9

A multivibrator circuit and the oscillograms

it produced showing voltage and current relations.

(Taken from F.E.Terman, Measurements in Radio Eng.)

 32

Figure 10

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Figure 11
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 CHAPTER V

THE STATISTICS OF COUNTERS

In Chapter II it was mentioned that a counter

must he operated over a region known as the plateau

in order to ohtaib a true count. Because of the ran­

dom character of the impulses a.counting rate deter­

mined from any finite time of recording is subject to

statistical fluctuations which may be easily calculated.

The characteristic curve. If c is the average

number of counts in a time, T, considered to be infin-

itly long, the probability that the number of counts

actually recorded will be c is given by the Poisson

equation 14
P (c ; = ( c j c e I

or by the Gauss equation _.z,

P<c)= ( % w ;
For large values of c* the Gauss equation is quite

correct, and the standard deviation or the root mean

square of the deviations observed in n trials of equal

weight is t

14 H. Bateman, Phil. Mag., 20, 704 (1910)

 35

Thus the standard deviation, or mean error, of a count­

ing rate based upon c counts is approximately C 2/T. The

probable error is then

0.6745 (c®/T)
i4
Due to the fact that there are cosmic rays eveiy-

where, and that the walls of buildings are somewhat

radioactive, there is always a background count. This

is extremely important for a single counter used to

measure the activity of a given substance. However,

in determining the characteristic curve of a counter

this background has no importance in influencing the

results and may even be used as the source for activ­

ating the counter. Since the background is rather

small for a medium sized counter it is advantageous to

add to it. Uranium and thorium salts are not too active
and so are excellent for this purpose.

The procedure for determining the characteristic

curve for the counters was to place a bottle of thorium

nitrate near a counter and allow it to run at a given

voltage until at least one thousand counts were record­

ed. Table I shows the data obtained for the three

counters that were finally selected.

On the assumption that there are only 1000 counts

 36

in ten minutes the probable e r r o r is only

0.675-

but the mean probable relative error is the probable

error divided by the total number of counts , or

°- 675~ 10,(l'
0b 0 )a = '2*12x10"3

which is negligible compared to the average results.

The graphical results of Table I are shown in Figure

13.

The effective area of a counter. To determine

the effective area of a counter, three counters are

arranged as shown in Figure 11a. The central counter

is moved in either direction from the line of counters

by a distance S, and the ratio of triple, to double,

IT^, counting rates is plotted as a function of the dis­

placement of the central counter. The type of curve

obtained is illustrated in Figure 11c and shows that

a counter is uniformly sensitive over its diameter.

Thus the effective diameter is the same as the inter­

nal geometrical diameter.

The effective length, 1, of the counter is found

by turning the counter through 90 degrees as shown in

Figure lib. The type of curve obtained is illustrated

 37

TABLE I

Counter Voltage No. of counts Counts/rain, Length of

in 10 min. plateau

1400 1250 .125 .

1440 1371 137
1480 1452 145
1 1520 1447 145 200
1560 1439 144 volts
"blue 1600 1506 150
1640 1492 149
1680 1497 150
1720 1903 190
1760

1400 1064 106

1440 1263 126
1480 1334 133
2 1520 1242 124
1560 1349 135 280
"black 1600 1321 132 volts
1640 1358 136
1680 1422 142
1720 1457 146
17 60 3051 305

1400 893 89
1440 1113 111
1480 1111 HI
3 1520 1119 H 2
1560 1128 113 240
green 1600 H83 118 volts
1640 1209 121
1680 1211 121
1720 1184 118
1760 1871 187

The graphical results of Table I are shown in Fig­

ure 13 where the data for each counter are plotted in

the color given ahove for that counter.

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 40

in Figure lid, and it is found that an end correction

of the order of the radius must he subtracted from the

length. Since the actual length of the counter was 12

centimeters, and the internal diameter 1,7 centimeters,

the effective length is about 10 centimeters.

The variation of j over the aperture of the count­

er train. After the effective dimensions of the ex­

treme counters are "known , the variation of 3 over the

finite aperture can be taken into account by expressing

the counting rate as the integral of the contributions

of each element of area of the extreme counters. This

integral takes the form

C/T = j )cos^/r^ da^dag

where da^_ and dag are elements of area of the two ex­

treme counters, r, is the distance between these two

elements, and £ is the angle between r and the principal

axis of the train. This integral is very complex and

may only be solved by numerical approximations. A far

easier way, however, yields practically the same re­

sults. This is permissible when the counters are set

apart a distance that is large compared to their dia­

meters, i.e., for a small solid angle.

 41

In this case, we have

C/T = (A2/L Z )3

where: A = area of a counter

1 = distance between end counters.
Hence j should vary linearly with C/T and since

5 (i )= i o ooaZJ
is an extremely close approximation to the true state,

a graph of C/T against/ , the angle made by the line

of counters with the zenith, should also follow a cos­

ine squared law. Figure 14, a graph of C/T v s / , is

very close to the desired curve.

The probability that a ray passes through the count­

er in a recovered state. This probability was shown by

Danforth to be equal to the chance that a ray will trav­

erse a path through the cylinder without producing an

ion pair. The problem for the cylinder has been treat-
15 I£
ed at great length by Swann and by MacAdam and Lipman.

It is evident that if Er is the efficiency as limited by

recovery, and EL, the efficiency determined by the pres-

lr
sure in the counter, then the combined efficiency for

a single counter is
E = E rEp

and for a train of n coincidence counters it is E3? Since

15 Swann, J. Eranlc. Inst.. 216, 559, (1933)

-*-6 MacAdam and Lipman, J. Frank. Inst. 583, (1933),
 42

The methods of determining efficiency are rather indirect,

and since most observers agree that the efficiency of

a fast counter is usually 95?&, it is just as well to ac­

cept this value.

The accidental counting rate due to unassociated

rays. This is clearly a function of the resolving

time, which may be defined as the minimum time separa­

tion between an (n-1 ) fold coincidence in an n fold

train and the passage of an unrelated ray through the

J.L.
n counter for which an n fold coincidence will not

be recorded.

How if Cl and Cg are the counting rates for two

single counters connected in coincidence, the accident­

al rate of coincidences may be expressed by

- Ai* c,.f7.-«2 ~ c*'rL±Cz(i-<z.-lC'Tj.-i?2 C . C j T (c^v)

or for a triple train

J\ t2,2 r3Q.2f±C*f3/C3)/lr _ _____

where coincidence rates between pairs of counters are

indicated by subscripts. In practice, however, the

accidental rate is observed with an arrangement of count­

ers in which the coincidence rate from associated rays

is negligible. Thus with a random placement of count­

ers the number of accidentals found was 1 per thirty

minutes.
 43

Other factors. Showers of rays which might dis­

charge the counters are kept at a minimum "by placing

the counters in the open, away from all massive ob-

j ects.

A correction exists, but it is practically neg­

ligible, for the finite time of operation of the mech­

anical recorder.

There is an absorption of rays within the count­

er train itself. This correction is indeterminate but

must certainly be qLuite negligible.

 CHAPTER VI

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Figure 14 gives in graphical form the results of

this experiment. The experimental technique has already

“been described and for purposes of calculation all that

are necessary are the data given below in tabulated

form. The various corrections as given in the preced­

ing chapter have been accounted for, and all dimensions

are effective dimensions.

Distance of separation
of counters*------------- ------------ 19 cm.

Distance between first

and last counters.------ ------------ 38 cm.

Diameter of counter. ------------ 1*7 cm.

Length of counter. ------------ 10.3 cm.

Table II

Angle with zenith No. of counts Time (minutes)

0 1007 6212
10 1021 6980
20 1005 7220
30 1033 8416
40 770 8011
50 701 10962
65 601 22219
90 234 27376
 45

These data represent the results obtained by run­

ning the counters continuously throughout the time nec­

essary to obtain the total number of counts, with no

distinction made between day and night results.

Calculation of .1(0). It has already been mention­

ed that the value of j varies over the aperture of the

counter train, but when the counters are set apart a

distance that is large compared to the diameter of the

tube, the following equation is applicable;

o/i - (a 2/i2)d
This expression is only good for j( 0 ) since, in gener­

al, j is a function ofj, the zenith angle, i.e., j ( f ) -

i
3 0 cos 2 .

Hence for 0, we have

C =1007 counts =97.8 counts per cm. length

T~ 6212 x 60- 372720 seconds

A 2 =-7r(1..7)2 - 28.52 c m .4

L 2 ^ (38)2= 1444 cm2

, (9.78 x 10 1 )(1.44x10s )
(3.73 x 105! (2.85x10*)

= 0.132xl0_1
 46

Other determinations of j(0) are as follows:

1. Street and Woodworth «j(0) 0.133xl0~^-

2. Proman and Stearns j(0) 0.162x10*1

T. H. Johnson favors the. value of Street and Woodworth

which would indicate that the value obtained in this

experiment is qui^6 good.

NO. 6 3 1' J ESS E R A Y L.Q* A N G E * . £ 3
 CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSION

A procedure has been developed which will make G~M

counters that operate over a reasonably long threshold.

These counters were found perfectly reliable over a per­

iod of one year; the proof being in the fact that this

value of j(0 ) and the curve of j(/) v s ^ seems to be

well within the limits of experimental error, since the

curve does start with the proper value of 3 (0 ), and the

values do lie rather nicely on a cosine squared curve.

Thus it follows that by using the outline of con­

struction as given above, reliable G-M counters can be

made in a fashion that is both quick and simple, and yet

is just about one hundred per cent efficient in turning

out counters that are usuable.

With counters that are as stable as these and have

as long a plateau, it would be possible to combine about

five into a telescope with great resolving power and

practically free from accidental counts. Up to the pre­

sent time this has never been done, and it may be consid­

ered debatable whether the final results would be differ­

ent from those obtainable with a triple coincidence count­

 49

er, "but in any event it would yield definite results and

might even show up fine structure. Its chief drawhack

would be that such an experiment would involve almost

continuous operation for over a year, and the results

would have to be corrected for seasonal changes, and

might even have to be corrected for day and night changes

if the resolution were high enough.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 A. PERIODICAL LITERATURE

B.Rossi, Phys. Rev,,. V o l . 36, 606, 1930

H.V.Neher and W.W.Harper, Phys, Rev,. Vol. 49, 940, 1936

H.Geiger and W.Mueller, Physik.Zeits.,Vol.29, 839, 1928

Duffendack, Lifschutz, and Slawsky, Phys. Rev,, Vol.52,

1231, 1937.

W.Christoph and W.Hanle, Physik. Zeits..Vol.34. 1933.

G.L.Locher, Frank. Inst. £., Vol.216, 553, 1933.

J .1.Lawson and A.W.Tyler, Phys.Rev., Vol.53, 605, 1938.

B.Rossi, Nature. Vol.125, 636, 1930

H.Bateman, Phil. M a g . Vol. 20, 704, 1910.

Swann, J_. Frank. Inst. , Vol. 216, 559, 1933.

MacAdam and Lipman, J. Frank. Inst., Vol.216, 583, 1933.

Froman and Stearns, Rev. M o d , Phys.. Vol. 10, 153, 1938

T.H.Johnson, Rev. M o d . Phys. Vol.10, 193, 1938.

B. Books

J. Strong, Procedures in Experimental Physios. Prentice-

Hall Co., New York. 1938.

J.B.Hoag, Electron and Nuclear Physics. D. Van Nostrand

C o . , New York, 1938.

F.E.Terman, Measurements in Radio Engineering. McGraw-Hill

Book Co., New York. 1935

T.C.Fry, Probability and Its Engineering Uses. McGraw-Hill

Book Co., New York.

F.Rassetti, Elements of Nuclear Physics, Prentice-Eall Co.,

New York, 1936.