TOPIC 2: PRODUCTION DESIGN PARAMETERS [1]

Design is the outline, shadow or pattern of something that is to be created. It is the overall plan
for the composition, form, structure and three-dimensional final aesthetic appearance of a
product concept. In order for design to accomplish its ultimate goal in product development
cycle, it must include sound organization of both functional and aesthetic qualities of a product.
A well-designed product performs its expected service and can be technically manufactured and
sold at a price the consumer is capable to pay. On the other hand, Poorly-designed products
are those that fail to perform the functions expected or that require excessive costs to
manufacture or sell.

The design of a product must obviously consider various manufacturing processes, the tools
and equipment necessary for production, materials handling methods, raw materials, plant
layout, manpower, and production costs, However, in product design the needs and desires of
the potential customer may be determined by market analysis are most essential.

In organising for product design and development, the product designers should take into
consideration the number of factors which product will directly or indirectly affect the outcome of
his job. It is therefore much important to establish design criteria for each product concept in
order to improve design outputs and develop a rationale for new and fresh
ideas. As such, a checklist of significant factors affecting the viability of a
product could offer insights on how to design future innovations regarding
overall performance of new products should be more desirable.

1. PRICE
Price is a more powerful factor in product design than in any other design-
related field. The product/service designer must know from the start what
kind of price each product/service should bring and create design
accordingly, taking into consideration the material, the processes, the tools, financial capability,
and the capacity to buy of consumers.

Pricing products isn’t a simple matter. Prices can define something about businesses and their
target market. Consumers often rely on prices to provide an indication of the quality of your
products. The market will determine if your prices are too high, too low, or simply tolerable. If
you do not offer the reasonable price for the people of the target market, they will consider your
products to be expensive, possibly to be of poor quality. If you give them more than they
expected, then they will consider doing business with you to be as a good deal. Your pricing
strategy thereby plays a major role whether you will be able to create and maintain customers
for a long-term profit.

Pricing is a volatile issue and is critical in a product/service success. It is important not only
development of design because pricing affects profits, also, pricing is important to a product and
company image. The price of a product is always a statement of how much value has been
provided to the customer. Value is a subjective commodity, which generally exists in the mind of
the buyer. The task of the designer then is to weigh the costs and benefits a customer (cost-
benefit analysis in the customer point of view) receives from the product, and compare them to
other presently available alternatives.

A company’s pricing strategy will depend on numerous factors. Prices need to reflect the
selected target market, the nature and extent of the existing competition, manufacturing or
production process cost structure, raw materials costs, and the type of products that will be
offered.

FACTORS IN SETTING INDUSTRIAL PRICES [2]

 market conditions
 excess productive capacity
 competitive prices
 what substitutes are available, at what price
 product differentiation
 phase of the product’s life cycle
 growth rate of the market
 whether other prices are rising, stable, or falling
 your market share
 the market's ability to buy
 the market’s expectations about prices
 competitors’ typical responses to price changes in your industry

Quite a few business entities use the standard mark-up or “cost-based* approach when setting
their respective prices. The standard mark-up refers to the base price for an item is on its
production cost which consists of material, labor and overhead costs. The percentage of cost
added to the total production cost is what is referred to as MARKUP.

The standard MARK-UP formula is:

SELLING PRICE = Total production cost + Mark-up + applicable taxes

Businesses that compete against one another may offer their products at fairly comparable
prices. If they are using standard mark-up and have comparable products, then their prices will
be fairly close to each other. Such situations may arise where one or two of the businesses may
decide to lower the mark-up percentage to attract many customers, thus, making a stiffer
competition.

A company, however, must begin by analyzing the nature of their target market. The gaining
number of competitors in the market and the extent to which those businesses meet your target
market needs might affect the pricing strategy. If the market matrix indicates that numerous
businesses already offer a good selection of products, have reasonable prices, and are
conveniently distributed, then it may not be advisable to set your prices higher than these
competitors. However, introducing new product designs which are originally conceptualized is
an exception to this rule. If the review of the competitive matrix indicates that buyers are still in
search for new product innovations, then you may have some opportunity to set higher prices.
Also, if you have the exclusive distribution rights for a revolutionary new product or new brand
that the market has been anxiously awaiting for, we can that you may have some latitude in
setting your own price range.
When people need something, they are generally willing to pay more for it. By charging higher
prices, you are going after the group of people in your target market who are willing to pay for
something that is new or prestigious. You may, however, lower some of your prices temporarily
for certain reasons like attracting new customers, having your existing customers buy more,
selling inventory that has been building up, or to raise cash to meet pressing financial
obligations.

2. FUNCTION
Function is a specified role or value of which a particular type of product
fulfils its utilitarian significance, or the purpose for which it is intended to
serve.

A product should always be adapted to a particular need or performance of

customers stressing its practical usefulness to the end-user.
Fig. 3: Function
& Features
Early man, in making his implements was governed entirely by
considerations of functional utility. Many forms in product design evolved in the direction of
functional efficiency. The word “function” refers to a mode of action by which an object fulfils its
purpose.

Utilitarian Requirements
Providing the utilitarian requirements for product and the product systems is Fig. 4: Ergo chair with
among the 1st factors for a well-designed product. An ideal design is that human symmetry
which serves maximum use and minimizes, if not totally eliminate, physical
constraints that tend to result in physical or physiological discomfort. Products
should be inviting and easy to use. The relationship between a product's user
and the product must be externalized to maintain compatibility of both the
user and objects In other words, products should
become part of the end-user rather than alienating
Fig. 5: Ergo table with the user from them. Giving the appropriate sensibility
human symmetry to product designs is relating them to daily human lifestyle and easing
life's burdens a little.

The design for a piece of furniture, for instance, should rely on human
bodily measurements, and should consider all known human factors
that will affect human posture, bodily movement and behavior, safety,
and productivity in work. This would mean that the seat, the backrest,
the arms and the legs must be proportionally related to each other and
to a seated body. The most successful design is that in which the product designer takes into
consideration human anatomy and functioning. The resulting design may be ornate and
exuberant or it may be trim and severe, but in either case, it still has to be comfortably
functional.

The table, as a piece of furniture, has also a more functional variety. Its intended use will
determine its size and height, and the kind of material from which it is to be made. If it is a table
for eating or writing, then it should be designed in conjunction with the accompanying chair. The
height of the seat of the chair is again also determined by the comfort and convenience. Since
human beings are themselves in such variable quantities, many standards will be desirable. But
having determined the standards for the height and the size of the chair, the height of the table
will follow automatically: it must be high enough to admit the sitter’s legs underneath it, and high
enough to eat and write from with comfort.
 In another example such as pottery, clay may play a large part in the process of building
functions. Its primary use has always been for the provision of various kinds of containers —
drinking vessels, retaining vessels, and eating vessels. The actual use of the pots often
determines major variations of the product's formal function. If it is a heavy vessel, for example,
it may have to be provided with ring handles through which a rope can be threaded for carrying
purposes, if it is a lifting vessel, normally it will have handles. If it is a pouring container, it will
have one spout and one handle, otherwise it will not be convenient to hold the object. If it is an
eating vessel such as plates and bowls, it must combine ease of access and, when to be used
along with utensils that involve pressure such as knife and fork, a flatness of surface with,
however, a retaining side. A spout on a pouring vessel must pour without dripping, and the
handle on a vessel for hot liquids must be wide enough to keep the user’s fingers out of contact
with the body of the vessel.

Metalworking, another special field in product design, involves a wide range of functional
orientation, too. The uses of metal are very numerous and include not only the provision for all
sorts of containers but its greater toughness renders it suitable for all kinds of fabrication
purposes for product components. Such components include handles, hinges, door locks and
keys, grilles and gates, electronic chips and gadgets, and many others. Because metal when
tempered is capable of being ground to a sharp edge, it is but natural to use this material for all
cutting and piercing instruments, most obviously for knives, needles, forks and boring tools.

The forms assumed in ordinary domestic knives could clearly illustrate the principles of function
through utility. Knives should have handles fit and firm to hold, and a blade that gives the right
edge and direction for cutting. The direction for cutting will always vary in different uses. The
bread knife and the carving knife, for example, should cut over relatively large surfaces without
a solid ground to cut against; the meat knife must cut vertically against a hard plate; the butter
knife and the palette knife must be capable of spreading the material they cut; and so on and so
forth. Up to the beginning of the Industrial Age, these various metal functions were faithfully
reflected in the form of the blades and the handles.

In considering textile design as another special field of focus, the function of a fabric often
determines its surface qualities, its compactness, its weight, warmth and tensile strength. The
adaptation of weave and constituent thread to various modes of apparel is an obvious functional
consideration. Some purposes for fabrics require elasticity, others inelasticity. Curtain fabrics,
for instance, should have sufficient weight or stiffness to hang properly; upholstering fabrics
should be strong and un-crushable. But these and other considerations, such as color-fastness
when fabrics are dyed, are questions of quality and efficiency rather than of function.

Value Analysis
The best method for investigating functional efficiency in product
Analysis design is through a system known as Value Analysis. Value Analysis
is the organized study of a product after it has been developed, to
identify the necessary costs that do not add to the quality and
function of the item, and to determine if the product can somehow be
improved while achieving desired cost reductions, The components
of an end product are analyzed in detail to determine if they can be
redesigned, standardized, or manufactured by a less expensive
means of production. A key point in value analysis is that, although
cost reduction seems to be the main focus, maintaining quality, satisfactory functional
performance, and customer satisfaction are critical. The analysis consists, then, of an appraisal
of cost/benefit trade-offs.
 Fig. 7: Product Form
3. FORM
Form, in product design, can be described as the contour,
structure or pattern by which a specific product is fabricated. An
object's form often follows its inherent function. Form is a
product of organization, the outcome of systematic composition,
manipulation, and configuration of various design materials. It is
both the two and three-dimensional presentation of an object,
the manner in which a designer presents his subject in aesthetic
conventions.

Form, as a basic element of design, is referred to as area, mass, or shape. Three-dimensional

forms with length, height and depth measurements are called Solids. Two-dimensional flat
forms having only length and width are called as shapes.

Forms are based upon the geometries of nature. Geometric forms include the cone, cylinder,
square, rectangle, triangle and circle. Composites of these are trapezoids, pentagons,
hexagons, octagons and cubes. Less rigid and organic forms are the ellipses and the parabola.

Forms have the power to evoke feelings in the looks of products where they have been applied.
Cubes, for example, seem static and rigid to us, whereas spheres seem mobile and rhythmically
soothing. Forms that are round and womblike suggest warmth, comfort and protection.
Variations in tall forms may suggest elegance, austerity, idealism and spirituality, or they may
induce feelings of elevation such as joy and ecstasy. Low horizontal forms, on the other hand,
are used to suggest man’s approachability and humility.

The possible number of forms is, of course, infinite, and the designer, in selecting one particular
shape, must be governed either by anthropometry or by the product's functional utility. A
product designer should approach each product concept in terms of formal essentials, that is,
he must only concentrate on concepts that are derived from pure elements leading to
breakthroughs in product development.

Apart from the determination of form by the physical nature of the product involved and the
materials being used for production, there are certain considerations which arise out of the
means that must be used to work and control the form of the product. These include the
limitations of the tools and forming machines, the degree of intervention of the human element
such as comfort and utility, and the general social and economic conditions of manufacture.

The Bauhaus in Germany, for example, accepted the machine as the essential modern vehicle
of form, and sought to come to terms with it. Its workshops were really laboratories in which
practical designs for present-day goods were conscientiously worked out as models for mass
production, and were continually being improved on. This dominant aim of creating type-forms
to meet every commercial, technical, and aesthetic requirement necessitated a picked body of
men of all around culture who were thoroughly experienced in the practical and mechanical, as
well as the theoretical, scientific, and formal aspects of design, and were well-versed in the laws
on which these functional forms are based.
Anthropometry Fig. 7: Anthropometric measurements
Apparently most designers often rely on the flexibility of
the body, posture and adaptability of human behavior,
and the utilitarian function of a product when doing form
development. Invariably, the designer must be guided
by the limitations of fixed sizes or dimensions based on
properly or statistically established standard anatomical
data of the human person. In designing products for
people's use, he must rely upon records of standard
values; standard because such data is at wide variance
among the different countries of the world.
Anthropometry is the science that deals with the standard human bodily measurements on a
comparative basis.

Anthropometric data are the starting point or the foundation of designs for all man’s work,
activities, comfort, articles of wear and use; his transportation, machines for operational
functions, capacities, physical protection, and for enclosed spaces or capsulized Shelter for his
environment. Designers have to establish the definable points in a standard size of man’s
anatomical dimensions, consistently to certain degrees of accuracy, for him to address the
formal and functional requirements in design. It would therefore be necessary to compile many
dimensions separately, since body dimensions cannot be expressed as given percentage of the
height of a man or a woman. As there are tall, short men with long arms, it cannot be said that
these relative proportions are quite rare to be ignored for many design purposes.

Form Development
Forms for product development can be derived from five broad categories. Each category
presupposes a pattern from which formal applications can be adopted in undertaking any form
of product design. These classifications are possible sources of design ideas but these are not
rigid divisions as they seem to appear, but allow for some overlappings in their applications.

STRUCTURAL FORM DEVELOPMENT: This method makes use of basic contours or outlines
of the product concept through two-dimensional patterns known as Grids. By connecting
structural points which are required either by construction or function, the variations on form are
performed. These variations could be done through free hand drawings or thumbnail sketches,
but an isometric view could offer greater chances of making more variations for final synthesis.

MORPHOLOGICAL FORM DEVELOPMENT: This approach makes use of a continuous shape

development employing small changes or revisions from the original concepts, hoping for new
fresh idea to evolve from the attempt, The new idea however is dependent on the preceding one
before it, and will always stimulate new developments for further detailing as overall form and
details are regarded as a unit. Area problems are looked into and a continuous form
development is applied to arrive at more interesting forms.

GEOMETRIC FORM DEVELOPMENT: This method makes use of geometric forms such as
circles, triangles, squares and rectangles as its basic source for new form development.
Modular tables, cabinetries, and knock down sofa beds are typical product forms that employ
this kind of technique. Variations of geometric forms always spark new ideas as typified by the
design of educational toy puzzles. A multivaried possibilities for shape, color, texture, mass,
proportion, and arrangement of parts and components can be achieved by using this approach.

What do symbolic geometric forms mean? [8]

The 6th century BCE Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras believed that
geometry was the rational understanding of God, man, and nature: Many of the shape
meanings in western philosophies arise from his writings. Various meanings are commonly
ascribed to these shapes, particularly when used in religious, magical or psychological contexts.

Geometric shapes are the ones we first learn about as little kids. They're the simplest, most
common shapes of all: squares, circles, triangles and their derivatives, such as rectangles,
ovals and polygons. Most geometric shapes are symmetrical and instantly recognizable, but
they also convey silent messages.

Figure 8: Common Geometric shapes

The familiarity of squares and rectangles makes them easy to use as the base of a design or
as a frame. Squares and rectangles make us feel safe and contained. They give a sense of
stability and assurance, and suggest order, but also easily fall to the background, and the
feelings they convey are mostly subliminal.

The Rule of Thirds

Using squares and rectangles as the base of a composition is good practice. Experimenting with
the way rectangles and squares can be scaled and put together can serve as a visual exercise
when designing a new graphic. There is one very important design practice called the rule of
thirds. It’s all about how rectangles and lines control the balance in any composition.

The best way to visualize the rule of thirds is as a grid. The

rule of thirds is essentially a grid that separates your canvas
space into nine equal sections. The idea behind this is that
the human eye has a natural direction in which it prefers to
move from object to object. The most important areas are
the intersection points, starting at the top left and then either
the one on the immediate right or straight down. The bottom
right corner is the intersection point that attracts the least Figure 9:Rule of third
attention.

Circles represent wholeness, a natural sense of completion. Thinking of things, shaped as

circles, in the world around us, there are so many things that we can name. Take into
consideration the power of a circle and how it can affect your designs. Circles can represent
constant movement, such as spinning or rolling. The outline of a circle can serve as a band or
ring representing a cycle or continuing action. A circle can represent a hole punched out on a
page. A circle with a subtle shadow effect can look like a sticker or button that has been
“placed” over the rest of the design.
 Figure 10: Sample application of circle
Triangles have two meanings depending on their position. When pointing up, they represent
nobleness, stability and power, when pointing down they become unstable. The triangle is
primarily a masculine shape, but when inverted it also represents female reproduction. In
spirituality, triangles represent the union of body, mind, and spirit.

In design, skinny triangles can be used instead of arrows or pointers. Smaller triangles can be
used as shapes in a collage with an interlocking composition or mosaic effect. Larger triangles
are more noticeable, so you should take into consideration their meaning before using them in
larger sizes. It is always best to use triangles that sit comfortably on a base or with a point
facing to the right, conveying a message of moving forward.

Figure 11: Sample application of triangle

Other polygons are utilized in the design. These are simply combination of various common
shapes yet, provide additional attractive emotions, thoughts and approaches.

Figure 12: Other Geometric figure application

FORM DEVELOPMENT BASED ON NATURE: Nature is so rich and offers immense
possibilities where new ideas for design could be derived. Be it for visual appearance, a general
concept or small details, nature often provides the inspiration for exciting and fresh ideas.
Patterns and silhouettes of animals, flowers, fruits, vegetables, and even human life portrayals
can be incorporated in the design of fabrics, ceramics, fashion accessories, gifts and
housewares.

Organic shapes are those that represent things we know about nature and life around us. The
most common organic shapes are plant-based, like flowers and leaves. Another kind of organic
shapes are those that represent forms we can create ourselves, like paint splatters or
watercolor blobs. These kinds of shapes are mostly asymmetric and their kinds of lines can
vary. [8]

Figure 13: Common Organic shapes

FORM DEVELOPMENT THROUGH ABSTRACTION: This method applies when a natural

shape is distorted in such a way that its very essence is reduced to omitting nonessential
elements such as organic details and its photographic\realism. Shapes that do not relate to
anything in the natural world belong to this category. Non-representational art and non-objective
images are sometimes integrated in some product designs; they come in the likes of
contemporary potteries, fashion jewelry, and other sculptural forms which are purely based on
impression and subconscious imagination.

Abstract shapes are depictions of real things without being exact representations. The icons we
see in web design, our phones and in street signs are abstract shapes that we are quite used to
seeing and can easily recognize. A great example of an abstract shape is a stick figure, which
represents a person. Symbols are also considered abstract shapes.[8]

Figure 14: Common Abstract shapes

4. COLOR
Product consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of color. Industry is
finally appreciating the fact that color has value and sales are proving it. This turn of events has
further increased the power of color as a selling tool for product designs. Industry, therefore,
must pay color due attention if they aim to meet the demands of consumers.

Although consumers vary in their sensitivity and reaction to the color of the product they buy,
their reactions vary because people’s feelings for color variation. Reaction to color is a matter of
personal taste and preference; it may depend on a person's likes and dislikes, what he
associates with color, or what symbologies attributed to them.

What do colors mean?

At a basic level, colors influence how consumers view the
‘personality’ of the brand in question, so it’s important you
get it right. In the following article, we’ll show you how to
use the power of color in your branding by breaking down
color meaning so you can choose the colors that are right
for your product or business.

Brand color and logos

A brand’s logo and visual identity will comprise a number
of visual cues, such as shapes, symbols, numbers, and
words. But the number one visual component that people
remember most is color.
Figure 15: Color Wheel

When it comes to branding, the power of color is both emotional and practical. On an emotional
level, color can affect how consumers feel when they look at a brand, while on a practical level it
can help a brand stand out in the crowd.

Whether you're a designer or a business owner, it's helpful to know color meanings and
symbolism so you can make informed decisions. If you choose a color meaning 'tranquility' for
your extreme sports brand, you might be sending the wrong message.

Warm colors
This includes red, yellow and orange, and variations like pink. These colors evoke warmth due
to their brightness and link to the sun. In general, they convey optimism, enthusiasm, and
passion.

Cool colors
These include green, blue, purple, and their variations like violet. These colors are considered
cool as they are colors commonly found in nature and are known for their calming effect. These
colors are calming, relaxing, and subdued.

Neutral colors
These include brown, black and white, as well as variations like gray. They’re often paired with
warm or cool colors but are sophisticated on their own. They can be powerful and pure and are
sometimes referred to as the earth tones.

Color specifics:
A. Red is considered to be a color of intense emotions, ranging from anger, sacrifice,
radicalism, danger, and heat, through to passion, and sexuality. Used in branding, it can deliver
an impactful punch with the ability to increase desire. Not surprising when it’s the color of fire
and blood, as well as being associated with love. It is a bold, energetic, and lively color that can
symbolize strength, confidence, and power.

B. Pink is regarded widely in the western world as the color of femininity and love. Because of
this, it is used to bring awareness to breast cancer and women’s products. However, like all
colors, pink is quite diverse and the level of intensity can impact its meaning. Pale pink is often
aimed at little girls; dusty pink is more sentimental or romantic, while hot pink indicates
youthfulness.

C. Blending the warmth of red and the optimism of yellow, Orange communicates activity and
energy. And of course, it’s hard not to associate it with its namesake, immediately making it feel
fresh and healthy.

Orange has different tones and shades, each with different meanings and effects. For example,
light pastel peach tones are seen as sweet, conversational, and affable, whereas more intense,
vibrant oranges are seen as representative of vitality, energy, and encouragement.

D. Yellow: Being the color of sunshine, yellow puts a smile on the dial. It is the most visible
color from a distance (which is why it’s used for street signs) and communicates cheerfulness,
friendliness, joy, and energy. It can also be associated with mental clarity and intellect.
However, yellow is also a cautionary color used in life vests, police cordoning tape, and
hazardous areas.

E. Green: Named after the Anglo-Saxon word “grene” meaning “grass” and “grow” but today
it has two common associations that are paradoxical. One being nature and the environment,
and the other being finance and wealth. When it comes to nature, green represents plant life
and growth and is consequently used to convey being ‘green’ in the environmental, sustainable,
organic, natural sense of the word. And of course, green is, as the saying goes, ‘the color of
money’ (US money, that is) and therefore associated with wealth and stability.

F. Blue is a color that has long been associated with royalty, art, military, business, and nature,
making it a color with a lot of applications. It is a favorite color for companies that wish to convey
reliability, trustworthiness, and communication (think Facebook, Twitter, and Samsung) and for
expressing the authority of organizations like the police. It is also appreciated for its calming and
harmonious qualities being associated with the sea and sky. On the flip side, it's also used to
express sadness or depression, or as we say, feeling ‘blue’.

G. Purple as for royalty, majesty, spirituality, mysterious. Purple is considered a low arousal
color. It is traditionally associated with royalty, majesty, or nobility as well as having a spiritual or
mysterious quality. Darker shades often represent luxury or opulence while lighter lavender
shades are quite feminine, sentimental, and even nostalgic.

H. Brown gets a lot of use in this era of organic and natural food, beauty, and products. Nature-
inspired it represents a feeling of wholesomeness, orderliness, and being grounded. It is simple,
strong, durable, and honest and may express that your brand has better things to care about
than superfluous color when really, there are so many beautiful shades of brown to elevate any
product.

I. White represents simplicity, purity, innocence, and perfection. And if you had to identify one
brand that has used white to convey its brand message to perfection it would have to be Apple –
white represents the simplicity of the products in both their form and function. White also comes
with a starkness or sterility about it, which is often used by designers to convey a minimalist
aesthetic and clean, modern quality.

J. Black is to be taken seriously. It represents power, luxury, sophistication, and exclusivity on

one hand; and death, evil, and mystery on the other. From formality to mourning to power, black
is bold, classic, and not to be fooled with. While color is more likely to increase brand
recognition there’s no reason black—when used appropriately—can’t be just as distinctive,
memorable, and communicative of a brand’s attributes.

K. Multicolor – variety: Of course, what about mixing multiple colors in one logo, such as
Google, the Olympics, and NBC? Diverse color generally indicates variety – be it representative
of people, countries, or offerings.

Here’s a quick summary of the colors and their meaning.

Red – danger, passion, excitement, energy, radicalism

Pink – feminine, sentimental, romantic, exciting, love
Orange – fresh, youthful, creative, adventurous
Yellow – optimistic, cheerful, playful, happy
Green – natural, vitality, prestige, wealth, life
Blue – communicative, trustworthy, calming, depressed
Purple – royalty, majesty, spirituality, mysterious
Brown – organic, wholesome, simple, honest
White – purity, simplicity, innocence, minimalism, cleanliness
Black – sophisticated, formal, luxurious, sorrowful
Multicolor – United, open, diversity

The Importance of Color

The importance of color is recognized in many areas of industry, advertising, fashion,
manufacturing, and packaging. Its power as an instrument for merchandising is immeasurable.
In the advertising and packaging industries for instance, products are sold through eye-catching
color schemes. The package of a product is sometimes enough to stimulate the consumer's
impulse to buy. Many times, we are hungered by the mere color of food. It is not also surprising
to be lured into buying clothes simply because we are attracted to the color. Our choice of a car,
a piece of furniture, a bag, or upholstery materials — all these and the things around us are
identified and considered in terms of color.

Just as color attracts it can also cause anxiety and distress. Just as it stimulates a buyer's
interest towards something, it can also curb a consumer's buying behavior. For example, if one
were given a choice between buying a white or a red refrigerator, the most likely choice would
be the white one as color preference in this product field is white. A red carpet, too, is not a wise
for the bedroom but is perfectly suited for banks, theaters, or discotheques.

It is also important that color express the appropriate character of products such as coolness,
freshness, ruggedness, femininity, or manliness. If these impressions are not appropriately
conveyed, there would be no attraction and naturally, no sale. Clearly, color can make or
unmake a product. It is a major factor governing our decision on what to buy and use.

The strong effect of color in our use, preference, and liking for certain things is largely due to the
psychological meanings of color. We tend to like objects when we like the meaning its color
expresses. We also like things whose color has been traditionally accepted as they are. So a
refrigerator should only be white or pale yellow or pale blue or olive green but never black or
violet.

Our penchant for a particular color serves to satisfy our psychological yearnings. Blue means
peace, contentment and serenity. White projects cleanliness, purity, or innocence. Pink
expresses femininity. Politically-radical people like red as this enforces their radicalism. Green
expresses our youthfulness or our hope for a better life. And yellow symbolizes mental and
spiritual strength.

Colours for Apparel

Color is more strongly and pervasively associated in apparel or fashion. The mere thought of
fashion or apparel suggests color. Color is the very spirit and essence of clothes. Our familiarity
with color is largely due to the fact that people use it every day. It is on our body twenty-four
hours a day, seven days a week, wherever we are. The color of clothes serves us in many
ways. It can reveal or conceal the figure of the body; and the right choice of color also helps
protect the best in us.

Children’s apparel is of a definite type. Anything bright easily attracts them. Hence, their apparel
and linens are done mostly in delightfully tinted red, yellow, pink, orange, green, or blue.
Women’s clothes are done in a variegated range of colors — from soft or pastel to opulent ones
like shocking pink to pompous violet to raging fuchsia, Women’s fashion is either daringly loud
or consciously subtle depending on their passion — from color coordinates to mixing —

Violet with yellow, pink with red, mauve with red, tan with yellow gold, and so on. Men, on the
other hand, are comfortable with basic and subtle colors. Labelled as masculine colors are blue,
brown, gray, and black, while white seems to be their signature col

However, because world events and cultural happenings have strong influence on color
preferences, colors for instance men’s color. When the 1984 Los Angeles Summer Olympics
had pastel colors for its motif, pink, yellow, and peach sparked an interest among men. The
popularity of these colors drifted into the boob tube via the high-rating Miami Vice, whose stars
sported pink shirts topped by a white or khaki blazer. Now, even business executives sport pink
business shirts. A few years ago no corporate executive or “macho man” would have dared
wear pink.

Colors for Interiors and Home Furnishings

Selecting colors for interiors requires a judicious eye to guarantee the best possible effect one
should consider the space and amount of lighting in the interior where the color is to be used.
Certain colors suited for the sparse sunlight on the northern lands do not produce the same
effect in the tropics Color selection is also dependent on prevailing environmental and weather
conditions. Thus, what seems to be night in cold western countries may be inappropriate in
tropical Pacific.

In the Philippines cool colors that are soothing and relaxing are commonly chosen to counter
the tension created by the heat of the sun, these colors also create the effect of wider space of
interior. It has also been proven that people function better when surrounded by pleasant colors
the background colors in hospitals have an effect on the patient and his desire to get well. On
the other hand, warm colors are stimulating and are applied to receiving areas of a home so
people can feel its warmth.

Color selection for home furnishings and interiors, though, rests on individual tastes. There are
no hard and fast rules on which color is best of appropriate to complement a specific
background. Like colors for apparel, color combinations and harmonies for home furnishings
and interiors follow trends or prevailing moods and influences. Although fashion colors strongly
influence colors for other purposes, we only use these when we have grown to be familiar with
or used these for apparel. So when neutrals became the fashion trend, the country mood
became the trend for interior and home furnishing and colors. When pastels were in vogue,
even restaurants used pastels for drapery, kitchen utensils, and linens.
Color Forecast
Color forecast is very important in product development. Through the color forecast, product
designers are provided with current information on color preferences worldwide. This enables
them properly attune their product designing skills according to the selected target markets.
Through the color forecast, new colors are made available to us who satisfy our desire for new
and different colors. These forecasted colors are surveyed around the world through a process
which involves researching and sorting of data, ascertaining the colors that will be popular in the
coming years. Conscious as we are of trends, color forecast helps us decide what colors to use
in the future to keep us at pace with the latest.

To assist designers in their quest for upcoming color trends, international agencies such as the
International Colour Authority (ICA), The Color Association of the United States (CAUS), the
Irish Export Board, and Promostyl magazines regularly publish reliable sources of information
concerning global color trends in women’s wear, men’s wear, children’s wear, textile, fashion
accessories and interior home furnishings. Most of them publish a complete look of the color
trends in terms of color photographs, prints, and motifs, while others give only the specifics like
color swatches and materials. Tracking color trends is one of the best ways in anticipating
market preferences and consumer demands and help industry meet them.

These agencies constantly provide the country with updates of world-class product color trends
through the auspices of the Product Development and Design Center of the Philippines
(PDDCP). For eight years, the PDDCP has been instrumental in disseminating advanced
information on color, thus helping industry to translate these color trends into product design
ideas.

Sources of Pigments
In times past, early men had to rely on earth, vegetables, or animal colors for pigments he used
for his design activity. Earth materials provided whites from chalks, and yellows and reds from
ochre earths containing iron. Precious and semi-precious stones were ground for some of the
intense blues, greens, and other rare hues. Other pigments were made from vegetable matter,
usually boiled in water to extract the juices that provided the color. Sap green was obtained from
a plant prepared in this manner. Other colorants were derived from animal sources - violets from
sea snails, blacks from charred bones. Colors derived from these sources were generally low in
intensity. Bright hues were seldom used because of their cost and rarity. In recent times, color
science has brought about a revolution in ‘color. Dyes and chemical pigments of great
performance can now be easily made and are universally available at Reasonable cost. Today’s
artists have a wide range of coloring techniques that earlier artist could not have imagined. The
introduction of paints, stains, chemicals, enamels, lacquers and inks have expanded the
sources of pigments for design in our day. In part, the history of our visual art and design is the
history of the development of pigments.

ORNAMENTATION
An ornament is almost always part of any design article. It is an attribute meant visually to
interpret the character of a given, object. It also sets a mood and defines the rank or category of
a product, be it a tool, a piece of furniture, a dress, a piece of jar or an electronic gadget.

Visual ornamentation often communicates the identity of a product and its manufacturer. Visual
interest is the user’s first level of involvement with a product, and this is further enhanced by the
type of ornament it possesses. The integration of aesthetics through the careful use of style and
ornamentation can draw attention to an underlying quality or performance of any product.
Without such visual interest in a product design, there could hardly be a sale; and without a sale
there would be no value for the product.
According to Herbert Read (an English anarchist, poet, and critic of literature and art), ornament
of whatever type should be appropriate to the form it decorates. This is an obvious
consideration, but it is often neglected in modern Industrial Design. There are at least three
considerations to be borne in mind when using ornamentation in the design of a product. These
are as follows:

SIZE: The scale of the ornament should bear a strict relationship to the size of the object on
which It appears and decorates. It would be a mistake, for example, to use the same standard
of ornament to a coffee cup and a water jar.

SHAPE: This is the most difficult relationship to realize, but perhaps the most important. Let us
take pottery as an example: a pot has a certain outline and a certain mass. Any ornament it
bears will be conscious of both these aspects of the pot. It will “echo” in some way the contour
of the pot, repeat its linear rhythm, continue it and multiply it infinitely. Similarly, it will emphasize
the mass of the pot, underline its swell and weight, lift, and lower the movement of its plastic
form.

ASSOCIATION: This is a question of common sense, and applies mainly to pictorial

ornamentation. Floral ornament, for example, is appropriately associated with textiles and with
table services; there is no particular reason why it should be associated with metal stoves or
with lavatory fittings.

Types of Applied Ornamentation

Ornament must always fit form and function of products and objects. Appropriate ornamentation
arises naturally and inevitably from the physical nature of the material and the processes of
working that material. Any stylistic analyses of the types of ornament are by nature schematic.
Ornaments betray the inherent tendency of decoration through abstraction.

The following are types of applied ornamentation which were historically acquired:

Figure 16: Geometric, Stylized, Naturalistic, Pattern and Plastic ornamentation

GEOMETRIC: Ornament composed of straight lines. curves, dots and others, to which no
pictorial significance can be assigned. It is possible that certain marks and patterns may have a
symbolic meaning, but as ornament such patterns are still to be regarded as geometric.

STYLIZED: The term is used for those types of ornament which are based on naturalistic
objects such as animals, plants, and nature yet depart from the exact representation of such
objects in the interests of linear rhythm, simplification, and formal significance in general.

NATURALISTIC: This type of ornamentation, sometimes called “organic”, is pictorial in intention,

and may for convenience, be subdivided into the following motifs: (1) human figures and genre
subjects, (2) animal objects, (3) plants and flowers, and (4) landscapes and seascapes.

PATTERN: This type is characterized by repetition of motifs through-out a particular space, and
sometimes called “all-over design”. It may be geometric or naturalistic, but it takes a unit of one
of these types of ornament and reduplicate it in series coextensive with the area to be
decorated.

PLASTIC: A type of ornamentation which is not so much “applied” to the object, but is the object
itself. The object that is to say, is molded into a shape which has a decorative function
altogether distinct from the utilitarian function of the object. Examples are pottery, plastics,
glass, and metal containers in the form of human beings or animals.

TRENDS
Product development today must be based upon current trends and tomorrow's expectations.
Product planning for the future cannot be made without forecasting events and trends, and their
relationship with the business situation.

Successful trend forecasting requires expert blending of design techniques and thorough
familiarity with relevant statistical marketing data. A designer should utilize both quantitative and
qualitative information must have the ability to distinguish between new facts that are important
and those that are not. He must be competent to judge under what conditions future
relationships can be relied upon and when they cannot. He must also be able to appreciate the
effects of non-measurable socio-economic, cultural, and political forces, upon product design
endeavors.

In this world of competition, manufacturers introduce something new once in a while because
sticking to old traditional products and regular items, would increase chances for other
competitors to copy such items and sell them at much lower prices.

The proper timing of decisions, however, in placing a new product on the market is extremely
important in the development of new styles. The role of product designers then is to help the
manufacturer in finding out what consumers are concurrently wanting or why they will soon want
in the near future. This could be realized through careful study of the various factors for
establishing or identifying both emerging and prevailing product trends.

TRENDS are best defined as tendencies or preferences Tracking trends is one good way of
anticipating market preferences and consumer demands. Product designers are in constant look
out in interpreting emerging trends either by simple cognition or through, in-depth analysis.
Aside from looking at known preference of a current market, it is much more important to also
know future preferences. Factors considered in identifying product trends can be cultural,
political, spiritual, ecological, and even moral in nature,

Predictions must be made out of current velocity of the economy, the future actions of
competitors, the anticipated purchasing level of customers, and the conditions of supply and
demand. Short term forecasts are vital inputs to annual marketing plans and serve to update the
product planning process to allow continual appropriate revisions. These forecasts become
inputs to production planning and to intermediate-range forecasts, defining potential market
opportunities.

Trends in product design, economy, shifts in the business cycle, changes in the international
environment, the pattern of growth in the markets, and the possible impacts of technological
change are all inputs to long-term strategic planning. Individual firms cannot set goals or define
their mission without such expectations concerning its future business environment. Similarly,
long-term trends and forecasts are critical for decisions regarding product line changes,
distribution channel changes, plant expansion, and capital requirements.
Classification of Trends
Trends in product design are classified according to the impact of influence they bring about to
the business environment. Persistence of trends often trigger huge amount of sales value to the
manufacturer especially when remarkable application of such trend is applied to existing product
lines. Product designers are responsible for adopting these trends to new product applications.
Such trends are classified as follows: (1) Prevailing Trends, (2) Emerging Trends, (3)
Forecasted Trends, (4) Continuing or Long-Term Trends, and (5) Short-Term Trends.

Prevailing Trends
Prevailing Trends are looks and styles which are currently in demand, and are presently making
profitable impact on sales and consumer acceptance in the global market place.

Examples of prevailing trends are as follows:

Fig. 17: Aboriginal, Country, Coastal, Natural and Contemporary trend ornamentation.

ABORIGINES: A naturalistic theme with the inspiration from tribal ethnic primitivism and the
beauty of Africa, its mysticism, power and magic. Motifs such as symbolic amulets, lucky charm
pouches, ethnic prints, and decorative savage images are natural accents.

COUNTRY: What is country is what is familiar and familial in setting, evoking comfort and
respite. It exudes the charm of an atmosphere that has withstood the passage of time. Use,
weathering, and distressing, play important roles in surfaces and finishing. It spans the rusticity
of the American Western and the refinement of the English gentry.

COASTAL: With the Mediterranean as focus, coastal expands the realm of nature to cover
marine life and colors. Motifs include shells, fishes, seahorses, seaweeds, crabs and other
marine objects. The infinite vista gives focus to cosmic references from myths and space
explorations.

NATURE: Nature has always been a rich source of inspiration, with ready forms and details that
can be taken directly as part of a product's total look, component, or detail. Nature initiates
practical and timely concepts on material use — recycling, species substitution for endangered
ones, and material stimulation to promote earth-friendly product directions.

CONTEMPORARY: An influence that resulted from the interaction of cultures and industrial
production. Cultures refer to significant groups of attitudes, tastes, and preferred activities: a
retro culture; a performance-centered culture; and a pop culture. The industrial component
refers to the capacity of industry to create products that are modern that is products of technical
innovations, and traditional modern, where standard materials are given a new touch.

Emerging Trends
 Fig. 18: Tramp, Stencilled, Folk, Cosmic and Opulence art design ornaments

Emerging trends are upcoming styles and way of life that offer a multitude of ideas for product
design, relevant to capturing new markets, Some examples of emerging trends follow:

TRAMP ART: The newest of country trends introduced in America in mid-19th century by
itinerant European craftsmen who “tramped” the countryside and wiled away their hours carving
decorative and functional objects from discarded cigar boxes and crates using a pocket knife.
Most creations feature layers of notch-carved wood stacked into mini-pyramids. Other examples
use small pieces of carved wood “woven” into elaborate lattices, using geometric patterns.

STENCILING: Another country trend employing object silhouettes as applied to wallpapers,

furniture and woodwork of mansions and churches. In North America, the settlers adopted this
technique to decorate their houses with the stencilled parlor of bedroom floor becoming the
hallmark.

FOLK ART: The art of rural community life, employing basic materials, handwork and the folk
artists’ concepts of the realities of life resulting in highly original styles. Major events of life are
universally celebrated on the folk levels in ways that demanded special costumes, implements,
vessels, and gifts. Folk art is both associated with bright and somber colors. Its appealing
charm, naive and unaffected craftsmanship, account for its widespread popularity.

COSMIC: A fascination for the outer space. In 1609, Galileo Galilei turned the newly invented
telescope upon the heavens, and become the fast of all men to see that there were worlds
beyond the earth. As centuries passed, new telescopes multiplied the scale of the universe and
the new knowledge made this vastly expanded universe understandable and familiar. All these
new discoveries affected every field of human thought and culture. Not only did they give
impetus to the development of science and technology, they also acted as stimulus to
imagination. Motifs include suns, stars, moons, and the constellations.

OPULENCE: The return of grandeur and excellence. Opulence is best revealed in the palaces
of kings and czars of the 17th and 18th centuries — the renewal of classicism, the golden age of
unparalleled extravagance and unsurpassed artistry — from the varied and colored brightness
of enamelled gold to the glow and glitter of jewels and gems and the majestic dignity of
Baroque.

Forecasted Trends
Unlike prevailing trends, forecasted trends offer a great deal of risks when applied since most of
their sources are by nature intuitive and predictive. Adopting this style in product design may or
may not prove successful depending upon market acceptance. Most of these were aimed at
class A markets.

Some types of forecasted trends are as follows:

 Fig. 19: Chaos, Melanges. Ocean Front and Modern Message Art

CHAOS: New applications combining natural looks with high technology: flowers and cells for a
play of transparency, the use of plastics and microscopic view of things — and the
transformation of such elements into a new look. This is mainly a blend of the 60's dynamism
and the 90’s modernism. Motifs consist of optical illusions, high tech order and disorder,
fragmented images and psychedelic ornaments.

MELANGES: Electism of our present times: the feeling for " the old 1930's to 1940's, and the
feeling for now. Transformation from scrap materials into special things, the salvages of the
earlier decades, Motifs and inspirations vary from old mementos, monograms, fine lace and
patchworks, scrapbooks, printed fabrics, and mosaic pieces,

OCEAN FRONT: The elegance of seaside resorts, the romanticism of northern beaches, and
seascape paintings such as Hawaiian motifs, prints and surfing images. Motifs vary from
yachting trompe l'oeil, club stripes, mooring gear motifs, polka dots and floral classics.

MODERN MESSAGE: Latest graphic art interpretations inspired by the 60’s wave: gestural
painting, new abstraction, and neo-symbolic motifs range from modern folklore, graphic
patchworks, hyperrealism, and luminous bright shades.

Continuing Trends
Also known as “long-term” trends, they trace their beginnings to man’s thirst for new dimensions
in existence, a continuing search for his roots, and the deeper meaning of life in this modern
materialism. Some of the examples are:

Fig. 20: Continuing Trends (Western, Gardening, Leaves & Twigs, Silhouettes, Mosaics, Houses, House Pets)

COUNTRY WESTERN: Inspirations from the American Indians, western ranches, cowboys, and
horses still play major roles in home furnishings designs.

GARDENING: Global consciousness in nature and ecology has given a boost to products
pertaining to the earth and gardening needs.
LEAVES AND TWIGS: Forests and planting continuously inspire a wealth of products using
leaves and twigs as materials or motifs.

SILHOUETTES: Solid, black or rusted silhouettes are giving way to color and line designs.

MOSAICS: This refers to a trend that has diversified challenges in terms of materials and
products.

HOUSES: All types and all styles — from doll houses to reproductions of historical houses and
famous villages — are still making their mark in the market.

HOUSE PETS: Cats and dogs continue to be the biggest in animal trends, with the flurry feline
purring forward in 1993.

Short-Term Trends
These are usually short-lived tendencies which are mostly superficial in nature, but spark
startling sales expedited through mass media promotion and advertising. Examples of short-
term trends are the so-called “fads” or
“craze” perpetuated by promotional
gimmickry such as the following:

Fig 21: Batman Craze, Madonna’s latest fashions,

Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles

Technology
The impact of technology on society is another major factor that affects the success and failure
of a product design venture. Product designers should be aware of new developments in
technology and their possible effects because technology can and does affect design activities
in many different ways.

The consumer's technological-knowledge often influences the) desire for goods and services.
Technological advances are directly related to economy because the pursuit and existence of
technology always affect prices, income, and most especially, the consumer's purchasing
power. Areas that hold great technological promise include solid state electronics, artificial
intelligence, material research, biotechnology and geology. Because these and other
technological developments will certainly have a definite impact on product development, it is
necessary to identify the factors that would influence the adoption of such elements in product
design.

TECHNOLOGY is best defined as the knowledge derived from scientific research which
facilitates simplification of approaches in the achievement of specific tasks and goals. The word
connotes creations of progress such as computers, synthetic fibers, lasers, and electronics.
Technology is credited with providing mechanical, physical, and numerous other processes that
let humans achieve a high standard of living. Its effects, however, good or evil, are determined
largely by how it is applied.

Importance of Technology
Technology affects the type of products that designers and
marketers can offer. Technological improvements in production
processes and materials sometimes result in more durable, less
expensive products. Because of technological changes in
communications, for example, businesses can now reach large masses of people through a
variety of media more efficiently. On the other hand, technological advancements in
transportation have also enabled consumers to travel farther and shop at a larger number of
stores anywhere anytime. Technology, in general, determines how people could satisfy their
physiological needs. In various ways and in varying degrees, eating and drinking habits,
sleeping habits, and health care are all influenced by both existing technology and changes in
technology. Technological developments have obviously improved our standard of living, thus,
giving us more leisure time. Education, information, and entertainment have also been improved
through the aid of technology.

Automation: The use of mechanical and/or electronic devises in place of human effort is referred
to as AUTOMATION. Under this type of technology come automatic processing equipment,
computers, industrial robots, and similar devices. A key feature of these devices is their ability to
exert control over a process without human intervention. However, there are numerous benefits
as well as potential drawbacks in the use of automation.

Among the BENEFITS of automation are as follows: Fig. 22: Automation

1. The jobs that are most susceptible to automation are those that are repetitive, boring, and
monotonous. Hence, the jobs that are least desirable from a human standpoint often lends
themselves to automation.

2. Automation yields a highly uniform output and generally results in higher quality compared to
human-generated output.

3. The rate of output generally exceeds human capabilities.

4. Human conflicts arising from work are generally avoided.

Among the potential DRAWBACKS of automation are as follows:

 The traditional argument against automation is that it displaces man. Although it has been
shown that automation results in more jobs rather than fewer, and the jobs created are
more interesting than those lost, the fact that workers must be retained, to a cost.
Moreover, workers often tend to resist any sort of change.
 Automated systems often involve substantial costs and this usually means that a fairly
high volume of output is needed to make the system economical.
 Automated systems are inflexible because are often restricted by design to a narrow
range of tasks only.

Computer-Aided Design & Development(CADD) Fig. 23: CADD Design

Computers are now being increasingly used for product design,
particularly for layout and manufacturing. Computer-aided design or
CAD uses computer graphics for product development. The same
computer technology used to design cars and missiles is now being
used to design sneakers and furniture. Computer-aided design has
become cheaper and easier to use, encouraging even decidedly low-
tech companies to trade their drafting tables for computer software.

With the use of CAD, the product designer can easily modify an existing design or create a new
one on a CRT by means of a light pen, a keyboard, a joystick, or any similar device. Once the
design is entered into the computer, the designer can maneuver it on the screen. It can be
rotated to provide the designer with different perspectives. It can even be split apart to give the
designer a view of the inside. And a portion of it can be enlarged for closer examination. When
the design has been completed, the designer can obtain a printed version of the design. In
addition, the design can be filed electronically, making it accessible to manufacturing personnel
and others in the firm who have need for such information.

An increasing number of products are now being designed this way. Some of the products
include transformers, automobile parts, aircraft parts, integrated circuits, and electric motors. A
major benefit of CAD is the increased productivity of designers. Computers take the drudgery
out of design. Instead of laboriously drawing and redrawing blueprints, designers create designs
electronically and alter them at the push of a few buttons. Some computer programs also
analyze the design to see how well they handle stress or changes in temperature.
Manufacturers say that encourages experimentation, yields better-quality goods, and helps
them introduce products more quickly. No longer is it necessary to laboriously prepare
mechanical drawings of products or parts and revise them repeatedly to correct errors and
incorporate revisions.

A rough estimate is that CAD increases the productivity of product designers from 3 to 10 times.
A second major benefit of CAD is the creation of a database for manufacturing that can supply
needed information on product geometry and dimensions, tolerances, material specifications,
and so on. Some CAD systems allow the designer to perform engineering and cost analyses on
proposed designs. For instance, the computer can determine the weight and volume of a part
and do stress analysis as well. Where there are a number of alternative designs, the computer
can quickly go through the possibilities and identify the best one, given the designer's criteria.

Technology Assessment
Through a procedure known as Technology Assessment, product designers could try to foresee
the effects of new processes on a firm's operations, and in society in general. With the
information gained through technology assessment, the product designer could try to estimate
whether the benefits of using a specific kind of technology outweigh the costs to the firm and to
customers in general. Moreover, how a firm uses or does not use technology is important for its
long-run survival. A firm that makes the wrong decisions may well lose out to its competitors.
Poor decisions may also affect a firm's profits by requiring expensive corrective actions. And
poor decisions about technological forces may even drive a firm out of business.

Quality
Fig. 24: Product Quality Quality is the measure of all designs. Quality in product design means
efficiency in terms of usage, manufacture and maintenance, Quality and
efficient products cause activities to be easier, less time consuming and
less costly. Quality products also enable the consumer to accomplish
more with less. And the value of the product is optimized in terms of its
utilitarian significance.

When the expression “quality product” is used, it is usually thought of as a

good and excellent product. In industry, a quality product is one that fulfils customer
expectations. These expectation or standards of performance are based on both the intended
use and the selling price of the product. Product specifications, tolerances and limitations form
part of the standards in the achievement of quality product designs. Standards of quality may be
set for the product in terms of dimensions, tensile strength, the outline or contour, of its parts,
smoothness of surface, chemical composition, color, and internal structure.
The responsibility for quality in product design must always be established, and each person
involved in product development must be aware of such expectations. The persons who should
be involved with quality include the designers who design the product, the engineers who
establish the necessary specifications and allowances, the purchasing agent, the factory
foreman, the workers, and the quality inspectors. Unless the management properly determines
standards and organizes the work of quality control and inspection, important questions
concerning quality and costs of production will be made at low level in an organization.

Quality Control
As quality has become more important, an independent audit "or evaluation of the quality
function is needed by the top management. Control is the process of regulating or directing an
activity to verify its conformance to a standard and to take corrective action if required. Quality
control appraises the current quality, determines quality problem areas or potential areas of the
product, and assists in the correction or minimization of these problem areas. The overall
objective is the improvement of the product quality, in cooperation with the responsible
departments in a manufacturing company.

Quality control aims to provide the customer with the best product at a minimum cost. This
objective is accomplished by improvements in the product design, consistency in the
manufacture of the product, reduction in the manufacturing costs, and improvement in employee
morale. Quality control is that regulatory process for those activities which measure a product's
performance with established standards, and pursue corrective action regardless of where
those activities occur.

Quality Inspection
Quality control continues throughout the operating departments of a company where quality is
built into the product. Inspection is one phase of quality control which begins with the
establishment of product standards. Inspectors merely check the work to compare parts,
assemblies, and completed products with the predetermined standards. Inspection of incoming
materials may also be necessary to the manufacture of a quality product. Unless they are
inspected, defects might not be known until after such materials or parts have been issued for
use.

The maintenance of standards by inspection is designed to assure that the product will meet
customer approval in such respects as satisfactory mechanical performance, finishings,
cleanliness, and other important details. Public safety also requires inspection of such parts as
electrical appliances, cables, cranes, and transport systems. Inspection may be designed to rate
or grade the product as standard, second hands, or rejects. The imperfect articles may be
marked as such and sold to the trade or perhaps to employees at a lower price. Examples of
such products are shirts, shoes, bedspreads, towels and ceramics. Materials classed as
second-hand may be used in making a lower grade product. If the number of rejected pieces is
large, the management should formulate solution, improve the supervision aspect or repair
machine tools.

Quality Appraisal
Product defects can be traced to numerous factors in production and distribution. Such factors
include the workers, the vendors, the machines, the warehouse, or any other person or
equipment to which defects may be attributed. Some of the common tests designed to assure
quality of standard in product design are as follows:
ACCURACY OF DIMENSION: The accuracy of dimensions is measured by instruments that are
controlled by operators through the sense of touch. Examples of these are calipers,
micrometers, and other specially-designed gages.

PROFILE INSPECTION: Inspection of profile or contour can be made with the use of rigid metal
forms made to fit the part of the product according to specifications.

STRENGTH OF MATERIAL: Testing of incoming materials and finished products in terms of

strength, resistance, and structural consistency.

SMOOTHNESS OF SURFACE: The smoothness of surface is a relative matter, depending on

the type of product and the textural effects and product finishing to be achieved.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION: In a great variety of products of industry, standards have to be

established for chemical composition and the permissible percentage of their impurities.
Examples of materials for which chemical standards are important are glass, paints, dyestuffs,
and alloys.

COLOR CONSISTENCY: Standardization of color is largely dependent upon methods of

mixtures based on non-deviance formula for consistent product swatches.

INTERNAL FAULTS: A method of testing products and materials for flaws such as cracks,
breaks, shrinkage areas, and porous conditions by means of supersonic vibrations specifically
applied in the inspection of steel, aluminum, magnesium, brass, glass, and plastic products.

EXTERNAL FAILURE: External failure occurs when the product does not perform satisfactorily
after transfer of ownership to the customer. This factor can be attributed to customer’s
complaints, warranty charges, error and liability costs, repair needs, and rejected or returned
products.