Module 5

SAMPLING
DESIGN AND
MEASUREMENT

FLORICEL V. ULAT, Ph D
Author
Module 5: SAMPLING DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT

Errors using inadequate data are much less

than those using no data at all.
- Charles Babbage

LEARNING OUTCOMES: Modern

mass
At the end of this media
module, the students should
have
be able to:
made
1. Understand the results of
nature and concepts surveys
in sampling; as
2. Categorize the ubiquitous
different types of as ever.
Sampling; They
3. Identify the different report on
errors committed in the results
data gathering of election
through samples.
polls,
opinion
polls,
surveys on ratings of television and radio
shows, and so on. What all these surveys
have in common is that researchers of these
studies used sample data as a basis for their
conclusions.

Surprisingly, many people still view the results of these surveys

with much skepticism simply because the
researchers used data taken from a sample
only. These people find it difficult to accept
that it is possible to get a reliable
conclusions about the population using
sample data. The all familiar question is,
“How is it possible to come up with
conclusions about a population consisting of
millions of people simply by using sample
data taken from only a few thousands of
people?”

For instance, when we cook

“sinigang” we know it is enough to taste a
teaspoon of its broth to determine if the
alternating sour-salty flavor is just right. We
know that we do not need to consume the
whole pot of sinigang broth to come up with the
conclusion about the flavor. We all
acknowledge the fact that a teaspoon of broth
from the left side of the pot or from the right
side of the pot, or from anywhere else in the
pot, will taste just the same so long as we have
mixed the broth thoroughly.
Figure 1 Mother Cooking
 NATURE AND CONCEPTS IN SAMPLING

A census or complete enumeration involves the

collection of data from bevery element of the population. If
the number of elements in the population is not too large, then
it is not cumbersome to conduct a census.

Example:

1. In a classroom setting, the teacher can conduct a census Figure 2

to determine the number of students who prefer an open-
book instead of closed-book examination by asking each
student to write his preference on a piece of paper.

2. In an office setting, the presidents of the

small company can conduct a census to
study the employees’ opinions and
sentiments regarding issues on standard
operating procedures by simply sending
the questionnaires to each one of its
employees through email.
Figure 3

In fact, very few organizations have enough resources to do a census. Instead of

conducting a census, most organizations opt to use samples in their studies for the
following reasons.

1. Sampling is more economical.

2. A study based on a sample requires less time to accomplish.
3. Sampling allows for a wider scope for the study.
4. Results of studies based on a ample can even be more accurate.
5. Sampling is sometimes the only feasible method.

Definition 1:
Target Population – is the population we want to study.
Sampled Population - is the population from where we actually select the sample.
 There are some instances when it is difficult to select the sample from the desired
target population. In such cases, the target and sampled populations will be different from
each other.

Example:

Consider the case where the target population is the

collections of all residents in Metro Manila. If we select our
sample from the manes listed in the telephone directory then
the sampled population is the collection of all people listed in
the directory. This collection will be very different from the
target population because the telephone directory does not
include many residents in Metro Manila, particularly those
who do not have any telephone landline.

Figure 4

Definition 2:

Elementary Unit or element – is a member of the population whose measurement

on the variable of interest is what we wish to examine.

Sampling Unit – is a unit of the population that we select in our sample.

Example:

A survey conducted by the National

Statistics Office (now Philippine Statistics
Authority) in cooperation with Department
of Trade and Industry (DTI) to provide an
actual illustration where the elementary
unit and the sampling unit are different
from each other.
Figure 5 Industries

Title of the study: Monthly Integrated Survey of Selected Industries

Target Population: sets of all establishments in manufacturing, mining and agriculture
industries

Elementary Unit: an establishment (which is an economic unit that engages

under a single ownership or control in one or predominantly one kind of
economic activity at a fixed single physical location)
in manufacturing, mining and agriculture industries
 Sampling unit: as enterprise (which is an economic unit with one or more
establishments under a single ownership or control) in
manufacturing, mining and agriculture industries

Definition 3:

Sampling Frame or frame – is a list or map showing all the sampling units in the
population.

Example:

Suppose an investigator wants to

estimate the average income of fishing
cooperatives
in the country.

Target Population: set of all fishing

cooperatives in the country

Sampling Frame: Securities Exchange

Commission (SEC) lists of
registered fishing cooperatives

Sampled Population: set of fishing

cooperatives registered under
SEC

Note: Not all fishing cooperatives in the country

registered under SEC. Thus, the
target and sampled population are
different. The sampled population
excludes all fishing cooperatives that did
not registered under SEC.
Figure 6
 Definition 4:

Sampling Error – is the error attributed to the variation present among the
computed values of the statistic from the different possible samples
consisting of n elements.

Nonsampling Error – is the error from the other sources apart from sampling
fluctuations.

Classification of Nonsampling errors:

1) Measurement error – is the difference between the true value of the variable and
the observed value used in the study. This occurs when we are using a faulty
measurement instrument or when we do not use the instrument properly.

Types of Measurement errors:

a) Instrument error - is the error in the design of the questionnaire.
b) Response error – is an error that represent a lack of accuracy in responses to
questions. This can be classified as:
1. Response bias – is when the respondents does not give truthful answer.
2. Nonresponse bias - is when the respondents does not know the
answer or simply refuses to answer certain question.
c) Processing error – is the incorrect input of data recorded in the questionnaire
into the computer.
d) Interview error - occurs when the field enumerator asks the questions in a
manner wherein the enumerator already influences the reply of
the respondent.
e) Surrogate information error - is the use of the wrong variable to measure the
concept under study.

2) Error in the implementation of the sampling design – occurs when we do not

adhere to the procedures and requirements specified in the sampling design.

Types of Error in the implementation of the sampling design:

a) Selection error - an error that occurs in sampling when the researcher is

pursuing sampling procedures that are either improper or incomplete.
b) Frame error – an error caused by a sampling frame that is not a perfect
representation of the population or universe.
c) Population specification error - this error occurs when the researcher does
not understand who they should survey

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1
(ASAQ 1)
NATURE AND CONCEPTS IN SAMPLING
1. Differentiate the following terms:
a) Census and sample survey
b) Target and sampled population
c) Elementary and sampling units
d) Sampling and nonsampling errors

2. For the following studies, identify the possible target population, elementary
unit, sampling frame, sampled population, and sampling unit. Discuss the
possible problems of selection.

a) A psychologist wishes to study the effects of a new drug to treat mentally ill
patients confined in a government hospital in Manila.
b) The administrator of a government agency wishes to determine the effects
of turning the air conditioner only from 10 am to 4pm on the productivity of
the employees.
c) A doctor wishes to study people working at hotel in Makati afflicted with
hypertension.
d) An agriculturist wishes to determine the effects in rice production of the
presence of earthworms in the rice plains in Bulacan.
e) A researcher would like to estimate the average monthly electricity
consumptions of households in Tanay, Rizal.

3. Indicate whether a census or a sample surveys advisable in each of the

following situations. Give a brief reason of your choice.
a) The chief of planning division wishes to determine whether the participants
in statistical training would prefer an open or closed book examination.
b) The Mayor of Tanay, Rizal wishes to determine the socioeconomic
characteristics of households in the said municipality.
c) The university registrar wishes to know the percentage of student failures
per college.
 d) A marketing research group wishes to determine the proportion of the
television viewers watching Pinoy Big Brother.

4. Indicate the type of error encountered in the following situations:

a) Use of telephone directories as the frame for a household expenditure survey
b) Refusal of the respondent to answer
c) Replacing a respondent with a next-door neighbor
d) The respondent cannot recall accurately
e) The respondent inflates his monthly income
f) The respondent does not understand the term “youth”

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 1 (ASAQ 1)

NATURE AND CONCEPTS IN SAMPLING

2. a) target population – set of all mentally ill patients in a government hospital

in Manila
elementary unit – a mentally ill patients in a government hospital in Manila
frame – list of mentally ill patients currently admitted in a government hospital
sampling population – set of all mentally ill patients currently admitted in a
government hospital in Manila
sampling unit – a mentally ill patient in a government hospital in Manila

3. a) census
b) sample survey

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING

Sampling means selecting the group that will actually collect data from the study,
however it has advantages and limitations.

Figure 6. Advantages and Limitations of Sampling

ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING

Sampling ensures convenience, collection of intensive and exhaustive data,

suitability in limited resources and better rapport. In addition to this, sampling has the
following advantages also.

1. Low cost of sampling

If data were to be collected for the entire population, the cost will be quite
high. A sample is a small proportion of a population. So, the cost will be lower if
data is collected for a sample of population which is a big advantage.

2. Less time consuming in sampling

Use of sampling takes less time also. It consumes less time than census
technique. Tabulation, analysis etc., take much less time in the case of a sample
than in the case of a population.

3. Scope of sampling is high

The investigator is concerned with the generalization of data. To study a

whole population in order to arrive at generalizations would be impractical.

Some populations are so large that their characteristics could not be

measured. Before the measurement has been completed, the population would
have changed. But the process of sampling makes it possible to arrive at
generalizations by studying the variables within a relatively small proportion of
the population.

4. Accuracy of data is high

Having drawn a sample and computed the desired descriptive statistics, it is

possible to determine the stability of the obtained sample value. A sample represents
the population from which it is drawn. It permits a high degree of accuracy due to a
limited area of operations. Moreover, careful execution of field work is possible.
Ultimately, the results of sampling studies turn out to be sufficiently accurate.

5. Organization of convenience

Organizational problems involved in sampling are very few. Since sample is

of a small size, vast facilities are not required. Sampling is therefore economical
in respect of resources. Study of samples involves less space and equipment.

6. Intensive and exhaustive data

 In sample studies, measurements or observations are made of a limited
number. So, intensive and exhaustive data are collected.

7. Suitable in limited resources

The resources available within an organization may be limited. Studying the

entire universe is not viable. The population can be satisfactorily covered through
sampling. Where limited resources exist, use of sampling is an appropriate
strategy while conducting marketing research.

8. Better rapport

An effective research study requires a good rapport between the researcher

and the respondents. When the population of the study is large, the problem of
rapport arises. But manageable samples permit the researcher to establish
adequate rapport with the respondents.

LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING

The reliability of the sample depends upon the appropriateness of the sampling
method used. The purpose of sampling theory is to make sampling more efficient. But the
real difficulties lie in selection, estimation and administration of samples.

1. Chances of bias

The serious limitation of the sampling method is that it involves biased

selection and thereby leads us to draw erroneous conclusions. Bias arises when
the method of selection of sample employed is faulty. Relative small samples
properly selected may be much more reliable than large samples poorly selected.

2. Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample

Difficulties in selecting a truly representative sample produces reliable and

accurate results only when they are representative of the whole group. Selection
of a truly representative sample is difficult when the phenomena under study are
of a complex nature. Selecting good samples is difficult.

3. In adequate knowledge in the subject

Use of sampling method requires adequate subject specific knowledge

in sampling technique. Sampling involves statistical analysis and calculation of
probable error. When the researcher lacks specialized knowledge in sampling, he
may commit serious mistakes. Consequently, the results of the study will be
misleading.
4. Changeability of units

When the units of the population are not in homogeneous, the sampling
technique will be unscientific. In sampling, though the number of cases is small, it
is not always easy to stick to the, selected cases. The units of sample may be
widely dispersed.

Some of the cases of sample may not cooperate with the researcher and
some others may be inaccessible. Because of these problems, all the cases may
not be taken up. The selected cases may have to be replaced by other cases.
Changeability of units stands in the way of results of the study.

5. Impossibility of sampling

Deriving a representative sample is di6icult, when the universe is too small

or too heterogeneous. In this case, census study is the only alternative. Moreover,
in studies requiring a very high standard of accuracy, the sampling method may
be unsuitable. There will be chances of errors even if samples are drawn most
carefully.

TYPES OF SAMPLING

(a) (b)
(c) Figure 7. Sampling
Method

Sampling can be explained as a specific principle used to select

members of population to be included in the study. It has been rightly noted that
“because many populations of interest are too large to work with directly,
techniques of statistical sampling have been devised to obtain samples taken
from larger populations.”

In other words, due to the large size of target population, researchers

have no choice but to study the number of cases of elements within the
population to represent the population and to reach conclusions about the
population (see Figure 1 below).
 Sampling methods are broadly divided into two
categories: probability and non-probability.

Definition 5:

Probability sampling – is a sampling method that every member of population has

a known chance of participating in the study.

Non-probability sampling, on the other hand, sampling group members are

selected on non-random manner, therefore not each population member has
a chance to participate in the study.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

The main types of probability sampling methods are simple random sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and systematic random
sampling. The key benefit of probability sampling methods is that they guarantee that the
sample chosen is representative of the population. This ensures that the statistical
conclusions will be valid.

1. Simple random sampling. Simple random sampling refers to any sampling

method that has the following properties.

 The population consists of N objects.

 The sample consists of n objects.
 If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the
sampling method is called simple random sampling.

There are two ways in which researchers choose the samples in this
method of sampling: The lottery system and using number generating
software/ random number table. This sampling technique usually works around a
large population and has its fair share of advantages and disadvantages.

Figure 9. Simple Random Sampling

2. Stratified sampling. With stratified sampling, the population is divided into
groups, based on some characteristic. Then, within each group, a probability
sample (often a simple random sample) is selected. In stratified sampling, the
groups are
called strata.

As an example, suppose we conduct a national survey. We might divide the

population into groups or strata, based on geography - north, east, south, and
west. Then, within each stratum, we might randomly select survey respondents.

Figure 10. Stratified Sampling

3. Cluster sampling. With cluster sampling, every member of the population is

assigned to one, and only one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample of
clusters is chosen, using a probability method (often simple random sampling).
Only individuals within sampled clusters are surveyed.

Note the difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling. With
stratified sampling, the sample includes elements from each stratum. With cluster
sampling, in contrast, the sample includes elements only from sampled clusters.

Figure 11. Cluster Sampling

4. Systematic random sampling. With systematic random sampling, we create a

list of every member of the population. From the list, we randomly select the first
sample element from the first k elements on the population list. Thereafter, we
select every kth element on the list.
 This method is different from simple random sampling since every possible
sample of n elements is not equally likely.

Figure 12. Systematic Random Sampling

5. Multistage sampling. With multistage sampling, we select a sample by

using combinations of different sampling methods.

For example, in Stage 1, we might use cluster sampling to choose clusters

from a population. Then, in Stage 2, we might use simple random sampling to
select a subset of elements from each chosen cluster for the final sample.

Figure 13. Multistage Sampling

Nonprobability Sampling

The difference between nonprobability and probability sampling is that

nonprobability sampling does not involve random selection and probability sampling does.

1. Convenience Sampling. As the name suggests, this involves collecting a sample

from somewhere convenient to the researcher. Sometimes called accidental
sampling, opportunity sampling or grab sampling.
 Figure 14. Convenience Sampling

2. Haphazard Sampling. A sampling where a researcher chooses items

haphazardly, trying to simulate randomness. However, the result may not
be random at all and is often tainted by selection bias.

Figure 15. Haphazard Sampling

3. Purposive Sampling. A sampling where the researcher chooses a sample based

on their knowledge about the population and the study itself. The study
participants are chosen based on the study’s purpose.

Figure 16. Purposive Sampling

4. Expert Sampling: In this method, the researcher draws the sample from a list
of experts in the field.

Figure 17. Expert Sampling

5. Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling. A type of sampling where the

researcher deliberately choose members so that all views are represented.
However, those views may or may not be represented proportionally.

Figure 18. Heterogeneity Sampling / Diversity Sampling

6. Modal Instance Sampling: The most “typical” members are chosen from a set.

Figure 19. Modal Instance Sampling

7. Quota Sampling: where the groups (i.e. men and women) in the sample
are proportional to the groups in the population.
 Figure 20. Quota Sampling

8. Snowball Sampling: where research participants recruit other members for the
study. This method is particularly useful when participants might be hard to
find. For example, a study on working prostitutes or current heroin users.

Figure 21. Snowball Sampling

Difference between probability sampling and non-probability sampling:

Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Samples are selected on the basis of the

The samples are randomly selected.
Everyone in the population has an equal
chance of getting selected.
Researchers use this technique when they
want to keep a tab on sampling bias.
Useful in an environment having a diverse
population.
Used when the researcher wants to create
accurate samples.
Finding the correct audience is not simple.
researcher’s subjective judgment.
Not everyone has an equal chance to
participate.
Sampling bias is not a concern for the
researcher.
Useful in an environment that shares
similar traits.
This method does not help in representing
the population accurately.
Finding an audience is very simple.
 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 2
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING
I. Multiple Choice: Identify the choice that best completes the statement
or answers the question.

1. What is the best sampling technique to use for determining the

average speed of the cars on a section of highway?
a. simple random sample c. convenience sample
b. systematic sample d. a) or b)

2. Which method is most likely to produce a random sample of the members

of your class?
a. listing the first six students that come to mind
b. choosing the five oldest students in the class
c. writing the name of each student on a separate piece
of paper and then drawing these slips from a hat
d. selecting the first six students to arrive at class

3. A large corporation wants to find out which benefits plan its

employees would prefer. Which procedure would be most likely to
obtain a statistically unbiased sample?
a. surveying a random sample of employees from a list of all employees
b. inviting all employees to indicate their choices by e-mail
c. placing suggestion boxes at random locations in the company’s plant
and offices
d. assembling a group with one member from each
department and recording the preferences of
these employees

4. A college president wants to find out which courses students consider to

be of the most benefit to them. Which procedure would be most likely to
produce a statistically unbiased sample?
a. asking students to mail in a questionnaire
b. surveying a random sample of students taken from the list of all students
c. surveying the first hundred students on an alphabetical list
d. having students complete a questionnaire on the college web site

5. A pollster wants to find out if citizens are satisfied with the city council.
Which procedure would be most appropriate for obtaining a
statistically unbiased sample?
a. interviewing people at a popular local shopping Centre
b. surveying people whose names have been randomly
 chosen from the telephone book
c. placing an advertisement in the local newspaper asking for mail-in
responses
d. mailing a questionnaire to people whose names have
been chosen randomly from a list of customers of the
municipal utility company

II. Completion: Complete each statement.

6. The group of individuals who actually have a chance of being selected for a
survey is called
.

7. The set of all individuals who belong to the group being studied by a survey
is called
.

III. Short Answer: Identify what sampling methods was used in the following
statements.

8. A television reporter interviewed travellers stranded at an airport during

a snowstorm about the efficiency of air travel in Canada. Name the
sampling techniques used.

9. A soap company distributed free samples of a new laundry detergent to

all households in several randomly selected neighbourhoods. The
company requested the recipients to return a postage-paid card indicating
whether they thought the sample was better than their usual detergent.
What sampling techniques was the company using?

10. Identify the population implied in each statement.

a) Hockey Night in Canada is watched by 23% of the TV audience.
b) A politician has the support of the party.
c) Today’s teenagers prefer comfort over style.
d) A survey shows that 60% of adult respondents in Ontario
prefer toothbrushes with soft bristles

11. A psychologist is studying the sleep patterns of the 3960 students at her
university. She decides to start by asking a random sample of 30 students
how many hours of sleep they get weekday nights. Identify the type of
sample in each of the following survey methods.
a) The psychologist assigns each student a number from 1 to 3960. She
selects the sample by randomly choosing one of the first 132 numbers
and every 132nd number thereafter.
 b) The psychologist assigns each student a number from 0001 to 3960
and uses a computer to randomly generate a list of 30 numbers to
select the students for the sample.
c) Students are listed by the neighborhood they live in. The psychologist
randomly selects six neighborhoods and then randomly selects five
students from each one.
d) An equal proportion of students are randomly selected from
each discipline.

12. A particular school has 550 female students and 590 male students.
A random sample of 30 students was surveyed for suggestions about
social activities for the following school year.
a) Is it possible that the sample included only male students?
b) Would a sample consisting entirely of male students be representative
of the school population? Explain your reasoning.

IV. Additional Activity:

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/57f2d107e85b9a78203711b4/sampling-
techniques

ANSWER TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 2 (ASAQ 2)

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING

1. D
2. C
3. A
4. B
5. B
6. the sampling frame
7. the population
8. Convenience sample
9. voluntary-response within a cluster sample
10. either all people who own TVs or just those who are watching TV at the time
the program is on
a. all members of the party
b. people who are teenagers now
c. adult Ontario residents who use toothbrushes
 d. systematic sample
e. simple random sample
f. cluster sample
g. stratified sample
11.
a. Yes, although the probability is quite low.
b. Answers will vary. Since male students could well have different
interests than female students do, such a sample probably would not be
representative.
References:

Almeda, Josefina V. et al. (2011). Elementary Statistics. University of the Philippines Press.
Diliman Quezon City.

Brown, R.B. (2006) “Doing Your Dissertation in Business and Management: The Reality of
Research and Writing” Sage Publications

Proctor, T. (2003) “Essentials of Marketing Research”, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall

Source: Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business
Students” 6th edition, Pearson Education Limited

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