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Research Proposal Theories
Despite the fact that theories of emotional intelligence only really came about in
1990, much has been written about this topic since then.
It has been argued by some people that EQ, the ‘emotion quotient’, is even more
important than the somewhat less controversial ‘intelligence quotient’ or IQ.
Why bother studying EQ? Well, can you imagine a world in which you didn’t
understand any of your feelings? Or where you couldn’t perceive that another
person was angry with you by the ferocious look on their face? It would be a
nightmare!
This article aims to share theories of emotional intelligence, and the 5 components
of emotional intelligence will be discussed.
It is also hoped that some of your questions about emotional intelligence, such as
“does emotional intelligence involve specific competencies?” and “is emotional
intelligence linked to personality traits?” will be answered. Please enjoy!
Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our 3 Emotional
Intelligence Exercises for free. These science-based exercises will not only
enhance your ability to understand and regulate your emotions but will also give
you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or
employees.
“concerns the ability to carry out accurate reasoning about emotions and the ability to use
emotions and emotional knowledge to enhance thought”
(Mayer et al., 2008, p. 511).
[Reviewer’s Update]
Daniel Goldman, who received his PhD in psychology from Harvard and
cofounded the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning at
Yale’s Child Studies Center, expanded the four branches of Mayer et al.’s (2004)
emotional intelligence model (included in more detail below, they are: identifying
emotions on a nonverbal level, using emotions to guide cognitive thinking,
understanding the information emotions convey and the actions emotions generate,
and regulating one’s own emotions) to include emotional self-awareness, self-
regulation, social skills, empathy, and motivation (Resilient Educator, 2020).
1. Self-awareness
Self-awareness also includes recognizing that how we feel and what we do are
related, and having awareness of one’s own personal strengths and limitations.
2. Self-regulation
Self-regulation includes being flexible, coping with change, and managing conflict.
It also refers to diffusing difficult or tense situations and being aware of how one’s
actions affect others and take ownership of these actions.
3. Social skills
Different social skills include – active listening, verbal communication skills, non-
verbal communication skills, leadership, and developing rapport.
4. Empathy
Empathy refers to being able to understand how other people are feeling.
It enables people to sense power dynamics that play a part in all social
relationships, but also most especially in workplace relations.
Empathy involves understanding power dynamics, and how these affect feelings
and behavior, as well as accurately perceiving situations where power dynamics
come into force.
5. Motivation
People who are intrinsically motivated also experience a state of ‘flow’, by being
immersed in an activity.
They are more likely to be action-oriented, and set goals. Such individuals
typically have a need for achievement and search for ways to improve. They are
also more likely to be committed and take initiative.
This has been a brief introduction into the 5 components of Emotional Intelligence:
self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, empathy, and motivation.
What differentiates EI from the ‘personal’ intelligences is that EI does not focus on
a general sense of self and the appraisal of others – rather, it is focused on
recognizing and using the emotional states of the self and others in order to solve
problems and regulate behavior (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
What about proposed models of EI? Faltas (2017) argues that there are three major
models of emotional intelligence:
These three models have been developed from research, analysis, and scientific
studies. Now, let’s examine each of these in more detail…
Goleman’s EI Performance Model (Faltas, 2017)
emotional self-awareness
emotional self-control
adaptability
achievement orientation
positive outlook
influence
coaching and mentoring
empathy
conflict management
teamwork
organizational awareness
inspirational leadership
self-regard,
self-actualization,
emotional self-awareness,
emotional expression,
assertiveness,
independence,
interpersonal relationships,
empathy,
social responsibility,
problem-solving,
reality testing,
impulse control,
flexibility,
stress tolerance and
optimism.
Mayer and colleagues (2004) developed the four-branch ability model of EI.
They suggest that the abilities and skills of EI can be divided into 4 areas – the
ability to:
Also, each branch consists of skills that progress developmentally from more basic
skills through to more sophisticated skills.
According to Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey (2016), these skills are what define EI.
Mayer and colleagues suggested that EI is a broad, ‘hot’ intelligence (2008). They
include practical, social and emotional intelligence in their understanding of ‘hot’
intelligences.
So-called ‘hot’ intelligences are those in which people engage with subject matter
about people (Mayer et al., 2016). Mayer et al. (2016) invite comparison of EI with
the personal and social intelligences and they contend that EI can be positioned
among these other ‘hot intelligences’.
It was argued that the specific abilities that EI consists of are specific forms of
problem-solving (Mayer et al., 2016).
Research on EQ Characteristics
In the 1960s, the term EI was used incidentally in psychiatry and literary criticism
(Mayer et al., 2004).
EQ and Academia
One study of gifted students in Israel found that they scored more highly on EI
than those students who were not so academically gifted.
However, the incremental prediction of EI and general intelligence has only been
modest to slight (Mayer et al., 2004).
Even when both intelligence and personality variables are controlled for
statistically, EI is inversely related to bullying, violence, tobacco use and drug
problems (Mayer et al., 2004).
For example, one study showed that EI was negatively related to student-rated
aggression. In 2002, Swift studied the EI of 59 individuals who were part of a
court-ordered violence-prevention program, and it was found that Perceiving
Emotions was negatively related to psychological aggression (which took the form
of insults and emotional torment) (Mayer et al., 2004).
EQ and Success
Research has found an association between EI and a broad range of skills such as
making decisions or achieving academic success (Cherry, 2018).
EQ and Development
EI has been shown to consistently predict positive social and academic outcomes
in children (Mayer et al., 2008). A longitudinal study of three to four-year-old
children conducted by Denham et al. (2003) used ratings of children’s emotional
regulation and emotion knowledge.
EQ and Perceptions
A range of studies has found that those with high levels of EI are actually
perceived more positively by other people (Mayer et al., 2008).
EQ and Wellbeing
EI has been found to correlate with enhanced life satisfaction and self-esteem
(Mayer et al., 2008). Furthermore, EI correlates with lower ratings of depression
(Mayer et al., 2008).
Individuals scoring more highly on EI have also been shown to be ranked as more
liked and valued by members of the opposite sex!
Emotion regulation has been found to predict social sensitivity and the quality of
interactions with others (Mayer et al., 2004).
Studies have consistently shown that customer relations are positively influenced
by EI (Mayer et al., 2004). Even after personality traits have been controlled for,
individuals rated as higher EI generated vision statements of higher quality than
others (Mayer et al., 2004).
Furthermore, findings from neuroscience have shown that EI also involves the
same brain regions that are implicated in conscientiousness (Barbey, Colom, &
Grafman, 2014).
Neuroticism – r = -.17
Openness – r = .18
Conscientiousness – r = .15
Extraversion – r = .12
Agreeableness – r = .25
Thus, whereas previous studies have shown that EI was most closely related to the
facet of conscientiousness, more recently the most closely related personality
factor to EI was found to be agreeableness.
However, the very low levels of correlation have led researchers to conclude that
intelligence and socio-emotional styles are relatively distinct and independent
(Mayer et al., 2016).
For example, people who score higher in EI tend to be more likely to prefer social
occupations than enterprising occupations, as indicated by the Holland Self-
Directed Search (Mayer et al., 2004). In addition, individuals who score more
highly on EI also tend to display more adaptive defense mechanisms than less
adaptive ones, such as denial (Mayer et al., 2004).
For starters, they are able to quickly and accurately solve a range of emotion-
related problems (Mayer, 2009). A type of EI is being able to solve emotion-based
problems. Those who are high in EI can also perceive emotions in other people’s
faces accurately (Mayer, 2009). Therefore, a type of EI is facial perception.
People with high EI have an awareness of how certain emotional states are
associated with specific ways of thinking (Mayer, 2009). For example, people high
in EI may realize that sadness actually facilitates analytic thinking, so they may,
therefore, choose (if possible) to analyze things when they are in a sad mood
(Mayer, 2009). Thus a ‘type’ of EI is understanding emotions and how they can
drive thinking.
Highly EI individuals are able to manage the emotions of themselves and others
(Mayer, 2009). A ‘type’ of EI is effective emotion management. These individuals
also understand that people who are happy are more likely to be willing to attend a
social event compared to people who are sad, or afraid – therefore, a type of EI is
socio-emotional awareness.
Emotion may be described as “a natural instinctive state of mind that derives from
our current and past experiences and situations” (Faltas, 2017). Our feelings and
things that we experience affect our emotions.
On the other hand, EI is an ability (Faltas, 2017). It is having the awareness, and
skill, in order to know, recognize, and understand feelings, moods, and emotions
and use them in an adaptive way (Faltas, 2017).
EI involves learning how to manage feelings and emotions and to use this
information to guide our behavior (Faltas, 2017). EI drives how we act – including
decision-making, problem-solving, self-management and demonstrating leadership
(Faltas, 2017).
EI has been shown to be a relatively stable aptitude, as opposed to emotional
‘knowledge’ – which is the sort of information that EI actually uses. EI, in
comparison to emotional knowledge, is acquired more readily and can be taught.
In that key paper from 1990, Salovey and Mayer stated that the mental processes
related to EI are “appraising and expressing emotions in the self and others,
regulating emotion in the self and others, and utilization of emotions in adaptive
ways” (p. 190).
EI touches and influences every aspect of our lives (Faltas, 2017). Dimensions of
EI, therefore, include driving behavior and affecting decision-making.
Other dimensions of the concept include solving conflicts, and affecting both how
we feel about ourselves and also how we communicate with others (Faltas, 2017).
EI affects how we manage the stress that occurs in day-to-day life, as well as how
we perform in the workplace and manage and lead teams (Faltas, 2017).
EI has an effect on all areas of our personal and professional development (Faltas,
2017). It helps us to advance, to mature, and to attain our goals (Faltas, 2017).
As identified earlier in the article, one area of future research into EI is to clarify
the relationship (if any!) between EI and personality traits. You will soon read
some research from neuroscience, and this is most certainly another area of EI
research that will continue to grow.
The key researchers in EI – Mayer, Caruso, and Salovey – have also put forward
two suggestions for further research.
The first is in regards to the so-called ability measures of EI… the factor structure
is yet to be clarified (Mayer et al., 2016).
The second area is that, if EI is, in fact, a discrete intelligence, there would need to
be a separate reasoning capacity to understand emotions…there is some evidence
on this so far: Heberlein and colleagues demonstrated that the areas of the brain
that serve to perceive emotional expressions (such as happiness) can be
differentiated from the brain areas that are responsible for perceiving expressions
of personality (such as shyness) (Mayer et al., 2016).
Gender has been described as an inherently social process, and that certain traits
are seen as desirable for one gender but not another – for example, assertiveness is
a ‘typical’ male characteristic, whilst empathy is seen as a desirable female
characteristic.
According to Meshkat and Nejati (2017) males and females are socialized
differently – females are encouraged to be cooperative, expressive and tuned in to
their interpersonal world, whereas males are encouraged to be competitive,
independent and instrumental.
The cerebral processing of emotions has also been shown to differ between males
and females.
Findings of research from around the world into gender differences in EI have been
inconsistent.
In the study by Meshkat and Nejati (2017), the Bar-On Emotional Quotient
Inventory was administered to 455 undergraduate university students. Results
showed no significant difference between males and females on the total score
measuring EI.
A study of Sri Lankan undergraduate medical students also found females to have
a higher average level of EI. In younger students, a study in Delhi found that
female 10th graders demonstrated higher EI than their male counterparts, however
in a study that took place in Iran, 17-year-old female students had a lower EI.
Overall, it has been suggested that females tend to score higher EI than males.
However, even this finding is inconsistent!
In some cases, there are no clear differences – for example, a study in the UK
failed to find any relationship between gender and overall EI in a sample of
employees. Similarly, in a study based in Myanmar, no difference in EI was found
between male and female teachers.
Perhaps, then, we should examine the components of EI. Indeed, females ranked
more highly than males in terms of the interpersonal facet of EI, as well as in
empathy, emotional skills, and emotional-related perceptions (such as decoding
facial expressions).
There are also gender differences in the expression of emotions – females tend to
be better at expressing emotions.
It has been found that mothers use more emotion words when telling stories to
their daughters, and also display more emotion when interacting with females. It
has also been claimed that males actually fear emotions and struggle to name the
emotions experienced by themselves or others.
Research has shown that males are more likely to express high-intensity positive
emotions, such as excitement, whilst females tend to express low/moderately
intense positive emotions (such as happiness) and sadness.
Further, research suggests that females pay more attention to emotions, are more
emotional and tend to be better at handling emotions and understanding them. On
the other hand, males have been shown to be more skillful at regulating impulses
and coping with pressure.
Females tend to be more able to guide and manage the emotions of themselves and
others, and they also tend to be better at emotional attention and empathy than
males, who show superiority in emotion regulation.
In the workplace, more specifically in the area of leadership, males tend to be more
assertive, whilst females demonstrate higher levels of integrity than their male
leader counterparts.
One consistent finding into gender difference in EI was that in nearly all countries,
males were found to overestimate their EI whilst females tend to underestimate
their EI.
As you can see, the question of whether there are gender differences in emotional
intelligence is not easily answered. Overall, however, there does seem to be an
association between gender and EI.
Role of EQ in Self-awareness
Self-awareness can be defined as the ‘conscious knowledge of one’s own character
and feelings’. In his best-selling book “Emotional Intelligence” published in 1995,
Daniel Goleman defines self-awareness as ‘knowing one’s internal states,
preference, resources, and intuitions’.
The next step is another component of EQ: being able to identify the emotions
correctly (Cherry, 2018). Another feature of being self-aware is the capacity to
realize how our actions, moods, and emotions affect others – which is also a
component of EQ (Cherry, 2018).
Another factor in being self-aware is being able to notice the relationship between
our feelings and our behavior, as well as being able to recognize our own strengths
and limitations (Cherry, 2018).
As you can see, self-awareness is a key component of EQ, and the two are
interdependent.
The Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence was founded by Peter Salovey, and is
currently being directed by Marc Brackett. The Center “uses the power of emotions
to create a more effective and compassionate society”.
RULER was inspired by Marvin Maurer, a teacher who, in the early 1970s began
using an emotional literacy program. RULER has been associated with
improvements in students’ academic performance and social skills.
It has also been shown to help develop classrooms that are more supportive and
student-centered. It includes tools, such as the ‘mood meter’: a RULER tool that
helps students recognize and communicate their feelings.
Classrooms using RULER report less aggression among students than those
classrooms not using RULER.
To learn more about RULER, a research article has been listed as one of the
recommended papers in the earlier section of this article.
The Yale Center for EI’s mission is to utilize research to enhance real-world
practice. The success of RULER has led Yale to produce similar programs to be
delivered in ‘communities’ such as businesses, governments, and families.
Partners of the Center include the Born This Way Foundation, the Brewster
Academy, and CASEL (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional
Learning). The Yale Center is currently being supported by Facebook in
researching the nature and consequences of online bullying among adolescent
Facebook users.
Researchers have published over 400 scholarly articles, a number of curricula for
teaching EI and several books on the topic of EI. It looks into how EI skills are
taught and assessed in people of all ages. Further, it has investigated how best to
assess EI in a variety of contexts and the development of EI skills throughout life.
Researchers at the Yale Center for EI are also looking into the roles emotions play
in everyday contexts, including work and school. One example is the ‘Creativity,
Emotions and The Arts’ project.
The Center is also researching bullying, with the aim of creating positive, safe
emotional environments where bullying behaviors do not flourish.
Emotional Intelligence and the Brain: Advancements
in Neuroscience
In the past, cognitive and emotional processes were understood to be different
constructs. A study by Barbey and colleagues in 2014 provides neuropsychological
data to suggest that emotional and psychometric (i.e. general) intelligence are both
driven by the same neural systems – therefore integrating cognitive, social, and
affective processes.
Barbey’s study looked at the neural basis of EI in a sample of 152 individuals with
focal brain injuries (Barbey et al., 2014).
They then compared the cognitive abilities of those with damage to a particular
voxel, or cluster of voxels, with those who had no such injuries in the brain region
(Yates, 2013). Then they looked at the brain regions utilized to execute specific
cognitive abilities, those associated with general intelligence, EI, or both.
Barbey et al. (2014) found that impairments in EI related to specific damage to the
‘social cognitive network’. This network is made up of the extrastriate body area
within the left posterior temporal cortex, which is associated with perception of the
form of other human bodies, and the left posterior superior temporal sulcus, which
plays a role in interpreting movement of the human body in terms of goals (Barbey
et al., 2014).
The social cognitive network also comprises of the left temporoparietal junction,
which supports the ability to reason about what makes up mental states, and the left
orbitofrontal cortex, which is recognised as supporting emotional empathy and the
relations between two minds and an object – thus supporting shared attention and
collaborative goals (Barbey et al., 2014).
Although the study showed that the neural networks of EI were distributed, the
neural substrates of EI were concentrated in the white matter (Barbey et al., 2014).
Overall, the findings of Barbey et al. (2014) provide evidence that EI is supported
by the neural mechanisms that regulate and control social behavior, and that the
communication between these brain areas is critically important.
The orbitofrontal cortex is a key part of the neural network for regulating and
controlling social behavior (Barbey et al., 2014). It has been suggested that the
orbitofrontal cortex plays an important role in emotional and social processing –
studies have also supported the role of the medial orbitofrontal cortex in EI.
The neural system for EI also shared anatomical substrates with specific facets of
‘psychometric’ intelligence (Barbey et al., 2014).
“Intelligence, to a large extent, does depend on basic cognitive abilities, like attention and
perception and memory and language. But it also depends on interacting with other people.
We’re fundamentally social beings and our understanding not only involves basic cognitive
abilities but also involves productively applying those abilities to social situations so that we
can navigate the social world and understand others”.
This neuroscience study provides an interesting perspective on the interdependence
of general and emotional intelligence.
A Take-Home Message
Hopefully, by reading this article, you are now aware of the important part
emotional intelligence plays in each of our lives. EI provides life with flavor! By
understanding the feelings of ourselves and others, and allowing this knowledge to
enable us to reason and make decisions, we enjoy what is the unique experience of
being a human being.
I will readily admit that I have learned a lot about EI writing this article, and I am
hoping that you have learned something new too. Perhaps you are now interested
in spending some time reading one of the research papers that were recommended
earlier in the article, or for something a little lighter, why not check out our 15
Most Valuable Emotional Intelligence TED Talks.
I welcome your input on this diverse area of positive psychology – how are you
aware of EI in your day-to-day life? In your experience, do you think that EI can
be linked to personality traits? What would a world without EI look like?
We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our 3
Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free.
REFERENCES
Barbey, A. K., Colom, R., & Grafman, J. (2014). Distributed neural system
for emotional intelligence revealed by lesion mapping. Social Cognitive and
Affective Neuroscience, 9(3), 265-272.
Cherry, K. (2018). 5 Components of emotional intelligence. Very Well
Mind. Retrieved from https://www.verywellmind.com/components-of-
emotional-intelligence-2795438
Denham, S. A., Blair, K. A., DeMulder, E., Levitas, J., Sawyer, K.,
Auerbach–Major, S., & Queenan, P. (2003). Preschool emotional
competence: Pathway to social competence? Child Development, 74(1),
238-256.
Faltas, I. (2017). Three models of emotional intelligence. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314213508_Three_Models_of_E
motional_Intelligence/download
Mayer, J. D. (2009). What emotional intelligence is and is not. Psychology
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personality-analyst/200909/what-emotional-intelligence-is-and-is-not
Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (2016). The ability model of
emotional intelligence: Principles and updates. Emotion Review, 8(4), 290-
300.
Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human abilities:
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Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence:
Theory, findings and implications. Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 197-215.
Meshkat, M., & Nejati, R. (2017). Does emotional intelligence depend on
gender? A study on undergraduate English majors of three Iranian
universities. SAGE Open, 7(3), 1-8.
Resilient Educator. (2020, June 11). Daniel Goleman’s emotional
intelligence theory explained. Retrieved from
https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/daniel-golemans-
emotional-intelligence-theory-explained/
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination,
Cognition and Personality, 9(3), 185-211.
Yates, D. (2013). Researchers map emotional intelligence in the
brain. Illinois News Bureau. Retrieved from
https://news.illinois.edu/view/6367/271097
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