IWRM

Integrated Water Resources Management I

02 Introduction to global water aspects

IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management I

Global Water

1 Motivation for IWRM

2 Global water balance

3 Water use

4 Water scarcity

5 Virtual water

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 2
TU Dresden // 2022
Rain and population distribution

Precipitation mm/a Population density [P/km²]

People settle where water is available

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 3
TU Dresden // 2022
 Annual rain height

Rain depth (mm)

Peter Krebs
TU Dresden // 2022
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000

L
El ima

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La Gol
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V
Kh ega
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to
Al um
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At ía
Je he
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sa
M lem
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Bu re w
en sd
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Slide 4

Ai
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Zu s
N ric
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Ad w Y
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Ab
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C a
am Mia
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Ja
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Ta b
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ng
Ka
ua
i
Rainfall distribution
over the year 600 600
Bombay, India Georgetown, Guyana
500 500

Rain depth per month

Rain depth per month

400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

600 600
Adis Abeba, Harare, Zimbabwe
500 500
Rain depth per month

Rain depth per month

400 400

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 5
TU Dresden // 2022
We have to face that

Handelsblatt.com
13.05.2020
Droughts Foto: dpa

Extremes
• occur more often
• might appear in combination and amplify
dnn.de

• intensify impacts on societies and environment

17.08.2017
Floods Archiv/Michael Kappeler/ddp

Ecosystem m.willisauerbote.ch
10.04.2017
impacts Foto: lawa
t-online (12.01.22)

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 6
TU Dresden // 2022
We have to face that

Environmental extremes are

likely to happen and causing
most severe impacts

World Economic Forum

Global Risk Perception Survey (2021)

IWRM is a way to counteract

to these impacts!

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 7
TU Dresden // 2022
We have to face that
 Erosion of forests and soil
 High urban runoff
 Increasing pollutants (chemicals, bio-pollutants)
Business as usual  Loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity
is misleading  Self-amplifying dynamics
 Maladaptive infrastructure
 …

 Resilient forests
 Non-polluting cities
 Contaminants below harmful thresholds
 Stimulated ecosystem services and
biodiversity
 Controlled dynamics
IWRM is a way to develop
 Smart infrastructure
towards safe operating  ….
spaces!

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 8
TU Dresden // 2022
IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management

Global Water

1 Motivation for IWRM

2 Global water balance

3 Water use

4 Water scarcity

5 Virtual water

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 9
TU Dresden // 2022
Water balance
Precipitation P Evapotranspiration ET

S

Storage S
Runoff Q

Water shed ∆

Water shed, long-term

 Time horizon is decisive with regard to equilibrium

 Anthropogenic influence may disturb long-term balance

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 10
TU Dresden // 2022
Global water fluxes
and storages with
natural and
anthropogenic cycles

Taikan Oki, and Shinjiro Kanae (2006). Science, 313, 1068-1072

American Association for the Advancement of Science

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Peter Krebs Slide 11
TU Dresden // 2022
Global water Resources Volume Fluxes Mean
residence time
volumes and (∙103 km3) (%) % of AFW (∙103 km3/y)
fractions Sea water 1338000 96.5585 436.5 3000 y
Ice, snow 24064 1.7366 < 10 some 1000 y
Fossil groundwater 23000 1.6598 < 10 some 1000 y
Active groundwater 400 0.0289 64.1 30.2 13 y (< 50 y)
Lake water 175 0.0126 28.0 17.7 10 y
Soil moisture 17 0.0012 2.7
Wetlands 17 0.0012 2.7
Atmosphere 13 0.0009 2.1 512 9d
Rivers 2 0.0001 0.3 45.5 16 d
Total 1385688 100
Active freshwater (AFW) 624 0.045 100

Extracted from and estimated on the basis of: Oki T. and Kanae S. (2006), Science 313, 1068-1072; and
Gleeson, T., Befus, K. M., Jasechko, S., Luijendijk, E. & Cardenas, M. B. Nature Geosci. 9, 161–167 (2016).

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Peter Krebs Slide 12
TU Dresden // 2022
 Continent Area1 Area2 Precipitation3 Evapotranspiration4 Runoff5
Long-term water
(∙106 km2) (∙106 km2) (mm) (mm) (mm)
balance of globe
Africa 30.4 673 533 140
and continents
Asia 44.6 38.4 638 352 286
Europe 10.2 16.4 794 423 371
N America 24.7 655 388 267
S America 17.8 1608 962 646
Oceania 8.6 691 452 239
Antarctica 14.0
Continents 150.3 739 447 291
Oceans 359.7 1087 1209 -122
Globe 510.0 984 984 0

Data extracted and complemented from Müller Schmied H. et al. (2016). Hydrology and Earth System Sciences
Discussions. http://DOI:10.5194/hess-2015-527
1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continent,
2 corrected by reallocating Middle East without Egypt, used by Müller Schmied et al.,
3, 4 estimated from Müller Schmied et al. and Oki and Kanae,
5 3 minus 4

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Peter Krebs Slide 13
TU Dresden // 2022
Annually available
freshwater on
global average on average 0.74 m rain depth per year on land surface of the earth

 60 % evapotranspiration
 40 % runs off into the oceans

Available freshwater for

Agriculture
Drinking water
Potential (?) 15000 km3/a
Industrial use
Domestic use

uneven rain distribution   population distribution

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 14
TU Dresden // 2022
IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management

Global Water

1 Motivation for IWRM

2 Global water balance

3 Water use

4 Water scarcity

5 Virtual water

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 15
TU Dresden // 2022
Freshwater withdrawal
by sector in 2000

Global average:
70% agriculture
20% industry
10% domestic

World Resources Institute WRI (2000)

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Peter Krebs Slide 16
TU Dresden // 2022
Water requirement
in agriculture
Product Water input
1 kg of wheat 1–2 m3
1 kg of rice 1.5 – 4 m3
2200 kilocalories*
(equivalent to 1 kg bread) 1 m3

* Estimated average daily energy requirement per person

assumption: most efficient irrigation practice

 40% pre- and post-harvesting loss

 vegetarian production equivalent to app. 365 m3/(Ca·a) water use

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Peter Krebs Slide 17
TU Dresden // 2022
Vegetarian nutrition and
meat consumption
Meat production requires 10 (5 to 15) times more water
than vegetable food production to produce the same amount of kcal !

m3 water / (Ca ∙ a)

Average food 12% meat 10 ∙ 0.12 ∙ 365 = 438

composition 88% vegetable food 0.88 ∙ 365 = 321

“direct” water consumption ≈ 250

> 1000

World population 7.8 billion  7800 (km3 Water / a)

(Conservative estimation)

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Peter Krebs Slide 18
TU Dresden // 2022
Development of
water use
1800 1950 2000 year 2050

16 1900 1970

m /y)
14 theoretical freshwater water comsumption
potential ?

3
with 20% meat
12
12
Freshwater (10 10 readily available freshwater
8
6
4
water comsumption with
2 purely vegetable food
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Population (billions)

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Peter Krebs Slide 19
TU Dresden // 2022
IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management

Global Water

1 Motivation for IWRM

2 Global water balance

3 Water use

4 Water scarcity

5 Virtual water

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 20
TU Dresden // 2022
Water stress
in 2019

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_scarcity#/media/File:Water_stress_2019_WRI.png
Access 2021-04-19

https://i.redd.it/9e7hnd9rcp931.jpg

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 21
TU Dresden // 2022
 (some) Countries (m3 Ca-1 a-1)

Water availability WAI (m3 Ca-1 a-1) Iceland 495’050

Guyana 310’879
index WAI Sufficient > 2000
Bhutan 104’618
Water stressed 1000 – 2000 Gabon 79’426
Water scarce 500 – 1000 Canada 77’990

Beyond the barrier < 500 Norway 72’390

New Zealand 68’212
World Resources Institute (2002)
Colombia 43’856
Brazil 27’238
Annual per capita runoff USA 8’761
16000 World
Spain Indonesia 7’629
specific runoff (m3 Ca-1 y-1)

14000
Germany Argentina 6’630
12000 Kenya Angola 4’964
10000 Philippines
Switzerland 4’780
Nigeria
8000 France 2’991
6000 China 2’029
4000 Germany 1’295
2000 Nigeria 1’158
0 India 1’080
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Bangladesh 658
The Netherlands 642
Extracted from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC Hungary 613
Access 2021–04–20
Kenya 412
Pakistan 265
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Peter Krebs Slide 22 Qatar 21
TU Dresden // 2022
Egypt 10
per capita water
availability –
prediction for 2025

http://cyndiimenna.blogspot.com/2005/04/water-map-of-world.html
Access 2021-04-19
Or interactively: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?type=shaded&view=map&year=2017
Access 2021-04-19

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Peter Krebs Slide 23
TU Dresden // 2022
Water risk –
qualitative!

Water risk
·

Problem solving potential =

f (specific gross national product, water-related know-how, level of water
supply and sanitation, water quality conditions, infrastructure, efficiency
of institutions)

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 24
TU Dresden // 2022
Food security
in 2019

https://www.lanereport.com/123290/2020
/03/the-state-of-global-food-security/
Access 2021-04-19

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 25
TU Dresden // 2022
IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management

Global Water

1 Motivation for IWRM

2 Global water balance

3 Water use

4 Water scarcity

5 Virtual water

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 26
TU Dresden // 2022
Virtual water and
water footprint – Countries compensate for
their water shortage by
definitions importing products that
cause water consumption
in another country

 They import
virtual water

The water footprint

reflects the total water
use from internal and
external sources for the
national consumption

https://waterfootprint.org/en/water-footprint/national-water-footprint/ Accessed 2021-04-20

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 27
TU Dresden // 2022
Water balance for
Germany Internal
External water Total water use for

+ =
use for internal
water use for consumption
internal
internal  Water footprint
consumption
consumption
82.4 119.8 Numbers in (km3 y-1)
37.4 1426.2
980,7
445.6 Numbers in (m3 Ca-1 y-1)

+ + +
External

+ =
Internal Total virtual
water use
water use water export
for export
for export 64.3
42.3
22.0 766.0
503.6
262.4

= = =
Scheme from

+ =
Total internal Total virtual water Total virtual
water use import water budget
Hoekstra et al. (2011)
59.5 124.7 184.2
708.0 1484.3 2192.3 Values extracted from
Mekonnen and Hoekstra
(2011b), volume 2, appendices

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 28
TU Dresden // 2022
Water footprint –
per capita consumption

Mekkonen and Hoekstra (2011a)

https://www.waterfootprintassessmenttool.org/national-explorer/
Interactive mode, accessed 2021-04-20

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Peter Krebs Slide 29
TU Dresden // 2022
Land grabbing (i)
Investor country (ha) Target country (ha)
China 8,959,780 Russian Federation 12,438,803
Russian Federation 7,782,627 Papua New Guinea 3,767,303
USA 6,154,772 Brazil 3,442,520
UK 5,406,668 Ukraine 3,262,727
Switzerland 4,566,979 Indonesia 3,206,883
Malaysia 4,213,821 South Sudan 2,071,892
Japan 3,478,267 Mozambique 2,002,003
Brazil 2,406,329 Argentina 1,768,876
United Arabic Emirates 2,348,524 Guyana 1,375,001
India 2,259,497 Liberia 1,221,389

Source: https://landmatrix.org/ Accessed 2020-05-05

For the interconnections between countries, look at https://landmatrix.org/charts/web-of-transnational-deals

Accessed 2021-04-20

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Peter Krebs Slide 30
TU Dresden // 2022
Land grabbing (ii)

Purpose (%) Countries with Countries wi

Numbers in Mio hectares highest area gain highest area

Food industry

Bio fuel

Wood

Tourism

Speculation Type of land use

Mining
(%)
Others Fallow land Forest
Wetland
Agr. Products

Livestock

Industry

Renew. Energy

C-sequestration Arable Grass land

land

(from: Stuttgarter Zeitung, 17.11.2014. Source: : https://landmatrix.org/ )

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Peter Krebs Slide 31
TU Dresden // 2022
Land grabbing (iii)

https://www.oaklandinstitute.org/charts-top-5-land-grabbing-countries

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Peter Krebs Slide 32
TU Dresden // 2022
 Global average China India USA Indonesia Brazil Russia Mexico Japan Italy Australia Netherlands

Water input to Rice (paddy) 2291 1321 3850 1275 2150 3082 2401 2182 1221 1679 1022

agricultural
Rice (husked) 2975 1716 3702 1656 2793 4003 3118 2834 1586 2180 1327
Rice (broken) 3419 1972 4254 1903 3209 4600 3584 3257 1822 2506 1525

products (m3/t) Wheat

Maize
1334
909
690
801
1654
1937
849
498 1285
1616
1180
2375
1397
1066
1744
734
1493
2421
530
1588
744
619
408
Soybeans 1789 2617 4124 1869 2030 1076 3933 3177 2326 1506 2106
Sugar cane 175 117 159 103 164 155 171 120 141
Cotton seed 3644 1419 8264 2535 4453 2777 2127 1887
Cotton lint 8242 3210 18694 5733 10072 6281 4812 4268
Barley 1388 848 1966 702 1373 2359 2120 697 1822 1425 718
Sorghum 2853 863 4053 782 1609 2382 1212 582 1081
Coconuts 2545 749 2255 2071 1590 1954
Millet 4596 1863 3269 2143 2892 4534 3100 1951
Coffee (green) 17373 6290 12180 4864 17665 13972 28119
Coffee (roasted) 20682 7488 14500 5790 21030 16633 33475
Tea (made) 9205 11110 7002 9474 6592 3002 4940
Beef 15497 12560 16482 13193 14818 16961 21028 37762 11019 21167 17112 11681
Pork 4856 2211 4397 3946 3938 4818 6947 6559 4962 6377 5909 3790
Goat meat 4043 2994 5187 3082 4543 4175 5290 10252 2560 4180 3839 2791
Sheep meat 6143 5202 6692 5977 5956 6267 7621 16878 3571 7572 6947 5298
Chicken meat 3918 3652 7736 2389 5549 3913 5763 5013 2977 2198 2914 2222
Eggs 3340 3550 7531 1510 5400 3337 4919 4277 1884 1389 1844 1404
Milk 990 1000 1369 695 1143 1001 1345 2382 812 861 915 641
Milk powder 4602 4648 6368 3234 5317 4654 6253 11077 3774 4005 4255 2982
Cheese 4914 4963 6793 3457 5675 4969 6671 11805 4032 4278 4544 3190
from Hoekstra and
Chapagain (2007) Leather (bovine) 16656 13513 17710 14190 15929 18222 22575 40482 11864 22724 18384 12572

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 33
TU Dresden // 2022
The concept of
green and blue
Green water Rain–fed Evapotranspiration
water (“lost”)

Blue water Irrigation, Runoff, infiltration

extraction (management potential)

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 34
TU Dresden // 2022
The concept of
green and blue
water

Source: Oleson T. (2014). EARTH, the science behind the headlines; sketch, credit to Kathleen Cantner, AGI
https://www.earthmagazine.org/article/virtual-water-tracking-unseen-water-goods-and-resources
Accessed 2020-05-05

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 35
TU Dresden // 2022
Blue and green
water in cotton

Here:  Blue  – irrigation water from ground or surface water 

Green  – rain‐fed 
Chapagain et al. (2006)
http://waterfootprint.org/media/downloads/Report18.pdf

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 36
TU Dresden // 2022
Food import vs. Yang and Zehnder (2007)

specific water
○ 1980 – 1984
availability
● 1996 – 2000

Management potential

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Peter Krebs Slide 37
TU Dresden // 2022
Tragedy of the
commons
1

0,8

Fish population, fishing rate

a = 0.25 Population
0,6

a = 0.27 Population
a = 0.3 Population
0,4
a = 0.27 Fishing rate a = 0.25 Fishing rate

0,2 a = 0.3 Fishing rate

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (a)

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Peter Krebs Slide 38
TU Dresden // 2022
Options in IWRM

Introduce long-term monitoring

Reduce water consumption, recycle water and treated wastewater

Recycle nutrients  P

Increase efficiency in irrigation and food production, i.e. “more crop per drop”

Land use management to affect water balance

Reduce water pollution with technology and management approaches

Capacity development

Effect evaluation

 Action is more important than words

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 39
TU Dresden // 2022
References
Chapagain A.K., Hoekstra A.Y., Savenije H.H.G. and Gautam R. (2006). The water footprint of cotton consumption: An
assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton
producing countries. Ecological Economics, 60, 186-203.
Gleeson T., Befus K.M., Jasechko S., Luijendijk E. and Cardenas M. B. (2016). The global volume and distribution of
modern groundwater. Nature Geosci., 9, 161–167.
Hoekstra A.Y. and Chapagain A.K. (2007). Water footprints of nations: Water use by people as a function of their
consumption pattern. Water Resources Management, 21, 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-006-9039-x
Hoekstra A.Y., Chapagain A.K., Aldaya M.M. and Mekonnen M.M. (2011). The water footprint assessment manual:
Setting the global standard. Earthscan, London, UK.
Mekonnen M.M. and Hoekstra A.Y. (2011a). National Water Footprint Accounts: The green, blue and grey water
footprint of production and consumption. UNESCO-IHE, Research Report Series No. 50, Volume 1, Main Report.
Mekonnen M.M. and Hoekstra A.Y. (2011b). National Water Footprint Accounts: The green, blue and grey water
footprint of production and consumption. UNESCO-IHE, Research Report Series No. 50, Volume 2, Appendices.
Müller Schmied H., Adam L., Eisner S., Fink G., Kim H., Oki T., Reinecke R., Portmann F., Riedel C., Song Q., Zhang J. and
Doell P. (2016). Variations of global and continental water balance components as impacted by climate forcing
uncertainty and human water use. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 2016.
https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-2015-527
Oki T. and Kanae S. (2006). Global Hydrological Cycles and World Water Resources. Science, 313, 1068-1072.
Yang H. and Zehnder A. (2007). “Virtual water”: An unfolding concept in integrated water resources management.
Water Resources Research, 43, W12301. https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006048

HSE ∙ IWRM ∙ 02 Global water

Peter Krebs Slide 40
TU Dresden // 2022