Chapter 3-Phy 102-Hydrostatics and Surface Tension (Part 1)

Phy 102: Properties of
Matter & Waves
Professor Dr M Mahbubur Rahman

Department of Physics
Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342
Email: M.Rahman@Juniv.edu
1
Matter & Waves
Topics to Cover for This Chapter
Chapter 3: Hydrostatics & Surface Tension
Hydrostatic pressure; Change of pressure with
elevation; Pascal’s law; Hydrostatic paradox; Thrust on
an immersed plane; Center of pressure; Equilibrium of
floating bodies; Pressure gauges: Force against a dam.
Surface tension; Surface energy; Pressure difference

across a surface film; Minimal surfaces; angle of
contact and capillarity; Measurement of the angle of
contact; Experimental determination of surface
tension; Factors affecting surface tension.
7 Lectures 2
Matter & Waves
Books Needed
1. Physics for Engineers Vol. I (Gias Uddin Ahmad)
2.Properties of Matter & Waves (Brijlal)
3.University Physics (F W Sears)
3
Chapter 3: Hydrostatics &
Surface Tension
Hydrostatics
4
Surface Tension
Fluid: A fluid is a substance that can flow under a system of
forces. Liquids and gases are called fluids.
Hydrostatics: The branch of physics that deals with the study

of fluids at rest is called hydrostatics.
Hydrodynamics: The branch of physics which deals with the

study of fluids in motion.
Aerodynamics: The special branch of hydrodynamics that

deals with the flow of gases and of air, in particular, is called
aerodynamics.
5
Surface Tension
All such substances as water, oil,
mercury, steam, air, or any kind of gas
are called fluids, but in order to obtain a
definition of a fluid, we have to find a
property which is common to all these
different kinds of substances, and which
does not depend upon any of the
characteristics by which they are
distinguished from each other.
6
Surface Tension
This property is found in the
extreme mobility of their particles
and in the ease with which these
particles can be separated from the
mass of fluid and from each other,
no sensible resistance being offered
to the separation from a mass of
fluid of a portion whether large or
small. 7
Surface Tension
A Fluid is a substance, such that a

mass of it can be very easily divided
in any direction, and of which
portions, however small, can be
very easily separated from the
whole mass
8
Surface Tension
Pressure is a fundamental property

of a fluid. The pressure of a fluid on
any surface with which it is in
contact is perpendicular to the
surface.
9
Surface Tension
Change of Pressure with Elevation: It is familiar fact that
atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude and
that the pressure in a lake or in the ocean increases as the
depth below the surface increases.
To find the general expression for the rate of change of
pressure with elevation, we consider an element in the form of
slab whose faces have an area A and thickness dy as shown in
Figure 1.
If ρ is the density of the fluid, the mass of the element is ρAdy
(m = ρV) and its weight dW is ρgAdy. The force exerted on the
element by the surrounding fluid is everywhere normal to its
surface. By symmetry, the resultant horizontal force on its rim
(structure) is zero. 10
Surface Tension
11
Surface Tension
Let P represents the pressure at the lower face of the
element and (P+dP) the pressure at its upper face. The
upward force on the lower face is PA and the downward
force on the upper face is (P+dP)A. Since the fluid is in
equilibrium,
Thus,
Upward force = Downward force
⇒ PA = (P+dP)A + dW ⇒ PA = PA + dPA + ρgAdy
⇒ dPA = - ρgAdy ⇒ dP/dy = -ρg……………...(1)
12
Surface Tension
The quantities ρ and g are both positive so that dy (an
increase in elevation) is accompanied by a negative dP
(decrease in pressure). If P1 and P2 are the pressures at
elevations y1 and y2 respectively above some reference
level, integration of Eq. (1) gives,
13
Surface Tension
y2
y1
Figure 2. Pressure Variation in an Incompressible Fluid at rest with a Free

Surface. 14
Surface Tension
If we consider an expanse of fluid with a free surface,
where the pressure is defined as P2 = P1, which is equal
to atmospheric pressure. We apply this equation to the fluid
(see Figure 2). We take a point at any level and let P2 represent
the pressure at this point. We take another point at the top
where the pressure is atmospheric pressure P1. Then we can
write,
…………..(3)
It is seen that the shape of the fluid does not affect the
pressure and that the pressure is the same at all points at the
same depth. 15
Surface Tension
Therefore, Eq. (3) gives the

expression of hydrostatic pressure p
at a point whose vertical depression
from the free surface is h.
16
Surface Tension
It also follows from Eq. (3) that if the pressure
at the upper surface is increased in any way
(say by inserting a piston at the top surface and
pressing down it), the pressure P at any depth
must increase by exactly the same amount.
This fact was stated by the French scientist
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) in 1653 and is called
Pascal’s law.
17
Surface Tension
The pressure at a given depth in a static
liquid is the sum of the weight of the liquid
acting on a unit area at that depth plus any
pressure acting on the surface of the liquid.
Figure 3.
18
Surface Tension
Following Eq. (3), in a similar way we can write
…………..(4)
Thus, the difference in pressure between two

points in an incompressible fluid at rest can be
expressed in terms of the vertical distance
between the points. This result is known
as Torricelli's principle, which is the basis for
differential pressure measuring devices. The
pressure p1 at free surface is the local atmospheric
pressure. 19
Surface Tension
Pascal’s Law
This law states that “pressure applied to an
enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every
portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing
vessel”. Pascal’s law can be illustrated by the
operation of a hydraulic press shown in Figure 4. A
piston of small cross-sectional area ‘A1’ is used to
exert a small force ‘p1’ directly on a liquid.
The pressure p1 = F1/A1 is transmitted through the

connecting pipe to a large cylinder equipped with a
large piston of area ‘A2’. 20
Surface Tension
Figure 4.
21
Surface Tension
Since the pressure is same in both cylinders, so,
p1 = F1/A1 = F2/A2 and F2 = F1(A2/A1). Or,
22
Surface Tension
It follows that the hydraulic press is a force

multiplying device, the ratio of the forces being
equal to the ratio of the areas of the pistons.
Barber chairs, car lifts, and hydraulic brakes all

make use of the principle of the hydraulic press.
23
Surface Tension
Measuring Pressures
Pressure Gauges (Gages)

24
Surface Tension
Pressure Gauges (Gages)
Pressure measurement is the analysis of an
applied force by a fluid (liquid or gas) on a
surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force
per unit area. Many techniques have been developed for
the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments
used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit
are called pressure meters or pressure
gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer is a good
example, as it uses the surface area and weight of a
column of liquid for measuring and indicating pressure.
25
Surface Tension
A vacuum gauge is a pressure gauge

used to measure pressures lower than
the ambient atmospheric pressure, which
is set as the zero point, in negative
values (such as −15 psig or
−760 mmHg equals total vacuum).
26
Surface Tension
Everyday pressure measurements, such as vehicle tire
pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In
other cases, measurements are made relative to a vacuum or
to some other specific reference. When distinguishing between
these zero references, the following terms are used:
Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect

vacuum, using an absolute scale. So it is equal to the gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air

pressure. Thus, it is equal to the absolute pressure minus
atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted. 27
Surface Tension
Types of Pressures
28
Surface Tension
Atmospheric Pressure
29
Surface Tension
Atmospheric Pressure
30
Surface Tension
Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure is the pressure

measured by considering the
atmospheric/ambient pressure as
the reference.
31
Surface Tension
Gauge Pressure
32
Surface Tension
Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the pressure measured
by considering the absolute vacuum pressure
or zero pressure as the reference.
33
Surface Tension
Vacuum Pressure
The pressure below the atmospheric/ambient

pressure is called the vacuum pressure. It is
measured with respect to the ambient
pressure. It is also known as the suction
pressure or the negative pressure.
34
Surface Tension
Comparison of Various Pressures
35
Surface Tension
Comparison of Various Pressures
36
Surface Tension
Units of Pressure
37
Surface Tension
Units of Pressure
Pounds per square inch (PSI) is a common unit of
pressure used in many different pressure measuring
applications.
This unit is used non-SI industrial and technical

purposes such as tire pressure, fuel storage &
distribution, waste water management, and
test & measurement activities.
38
Surface Tension
Many other units are such as inches of

water column, Pascals, Bar, Torr, in Hg
are also widely used in other purposes.
The terms absolute and gauge are

universal.
39
Surface Tension
40
Surface Tension
Psia- Psi Absolute
Absolute pressure is measured relative to a full
vacuum. The pressure of a vessel completely void of
any air molecules would be 0 Psia, while average
atmospheric surface pressure (at sea level) is
roughly 14.7 Psia.
Barometric pressure is measured on weather stations

and data buoys using absolute pressure sensors; the
data gathered by these sensors helps meteorologists
track and predict severe weather like hurricanes and
typhoons. 41
Surface Tension
Psig- Psi Gauge
Gauge pressure is measured relative to
ambient atmospheric pressure.
A vessel completely void of any air molecules

(at sea level) would be roughly -14.7
Psig, and
The ambient air pressure is always measured

as 0 Psig, regardless of whatever current
barometric pressure is. 42
Surface Tension
43
Surface Tension
CGS Equivalent of I Torr: We know that the pressure of 1
mm Hg is called 1 torr and 1 atmospheric pressure = 760 mm
Hg = 760 torr.
Thus, 760 Torr = 1.013 × 106 dynes/cm2.
∴ 1 Torr = (1.013 × 106 )/760

= 1.33 × 103 dynes/cm2.
Similarly, the MKS or SI equivalent of
1 Torr = (1.013 × 105)/760 = 1.33 × 102 N/m2 or Pa.

44
Surface Tension
Buoyancy
Buoyance is the upward thrust acting on a body
immersed in a fluid. This force is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced.
∴ Buoyancy = Weight of displaced fluid.
The force that tends to lift the body is called the

buoyant force: FB.
The buoyant force is caused by the increase of

pressure in a fluid with depth.
45
Surface Tension
Buoyancy, Resilience, Floatage
প্লবতা
46
Surface Tension
47
Surface Tension
The buoyant force acting on the plate is equal to

the weight of the liquid displaced by the plate.
The buoyant force is independent of the distance of the

body from the free surface.
It is also independent of the density of the solid body.

48
Surface Tension
The buoyant force acting on a body
immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body, and it
acts upward through the centroid of the
displaced volume. That is,
Apparent weight loss = Weight of displaced liquid.
This is known as the Archimedes Principle.

49
Surface Tension
50
Surface Tension
51
Surface Tension
Archimedes Principle
(Alternative Statement)
When a body is immersed in a fluid, the fluid

exerts an upward force on the body. This force
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
That is,
Apparent weight loss = Weight of displaced liquid.
52
Surface Tension
If W be the weight of a body and W’ be the
Buoyancy, then
1. If W > W’, then the body sinks.
2. If W < W’, then the body floats, partial

sinking.
3. If W = W’, then the body floats in a sinking

condition.
53
Surface Tension
Summary
54
Surface Tension
Hydrostatic Paradox
Nowadays, it is well known that the
hydrostatic paradox basically arises from our
failure to accept, at first sight, the conclusion
published by Blaise Pascal in 1663:
“The pressure at a certain level in a fluid is

proportional to the vertical distance to the
surface of the liquid”.
55
Surface Tension
Bangla Meaning of Paradox
56
Surface Tension
57
Surface Tension
58
Surface Tension
59
Surface Tension
Reasons of Hydrostatic Paradox
60
Surface Tension
Center of Pressure
The center of pressure is the point where the
total sum of a pressure field acts on a body,
causing a force to act through that point. The
total force vector acting at the center of
pressure is the value of the integrated vectorial
pressure field. The resultant force and center of
pressure location produce equivalent force and
moment on the body as the original pressure
field. 61
Surface Tension
62
Surface Tension
63
Surface Tension
As any object moves through a fluid,
the velocity of the fluid varies around the
surface of the object. The variation of velocity
produces a variation of pressure on the surface
of the object as shown by the thin red lines on
the figure. Integrating the pressure times the
surface area around the body determines
the aerodynamic force on the object.
64
Surface Tension
We can consider this single force to act through the
average location of the pressure on the surface of the
object. We call the average location of the pressure
variation, the center of pressure in the same way
that we call the average location of the weight of an
object, the center of gravity.
The aerodynamic force can then be resolved into two

components, lift and drag, which act through the
center of pressure in a flight.
65
Surface Tension
Determining the center of pressure is very

important for any flying object.
To determine the stability of a rocket it is

necessary to know the location of the center of
pressure relative to the center of gravity.
66
Surface Tension
67
Surface Tension
68
Surface Tension
69
Surface Tension
Equilibrium of Floating Bodies
1. The equilibrium of a body submerged in a liquid requires that
the weight of the body acting through its cetre of gravity should
be colinear with an equal hydrostatic lift acting through the
centre of buoyancy.
2. In general, if the body is not homogeneous in its distribution

of mass over the entire volume, the location of centre of
gravity G does not coincide with the centre of the volume,
i.e., the centre of buoyancy B.
3. Depending upon the relative locations of G and B, a floating

or submerged body attains three different states of equilibrium.
70
Surface Tension
Let us suppose that a body is given a small angular
displacement and then released. Then it will be said to be in:
(i) Stable Equilibrium: If the body returns to its original

position by retaining the originally vertical axis as vertical.
(ii) Unstable Equilibrium: If the body does not return to

its original position but moves further from it.
(iii) Neutral Equilibrium: If the body neither returns to

its original position nor increases its displacement
further, it will simply adapt to its new position.
71
Surface Tension
Consider a submerged body in equilibrium whose centre
of gravity is located below the centre of buoyancy (Fig.
1a). If the body is tilted slightly in any direction, the
buoyant force and the weight always produce a restoring
couple trying to return the body to its original position (Fig.
1b, 1c).
Stable Equilibrium:
72
Figure 1. Stable equilibrium.

Surface Tension
On the other hand, if point G is above the point B (Fig. 2a), any
disturbance from the equilibrium position will create a
destroying couple which will turn the body away from its
original position (2.b, 2c).
Unstable Equilibrium
73
Figure 2. Unstable equilibrium.

Surface Tension
When the centre of gravity G and the centre of
buoyancy B coincides, the body will always assume the
same position in which it is placed (Fig. 3) and hence it
is in neutral equilibrium.
Neutral Equilibrium
74
Figure 3. Neutral equilibrium.

Surface Tension
Therefore, it can be concluded that a submerged body will be
in stable, unstable, or neutral equilibrium if its centre of
gravity is below, above, or coincident with the centre of
buoyancy respectively (Fig. 4).
75
Figure 4. (a) Stable equilibrium (b) Unstable equilibrium (c) Neutral equilibrium
76

Chapter 3-Phy 102-Hydrostatics and Surface Tension (Part 1)

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Chapter 3-Phy 102-Hydrostatics and Surface Tension (Part 1)

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Phy 102: Properties of

Matter & Waves

Professor Dr M Mahbubur Rahman

Surface tension; Surface energy; Pressure difference

2.Properties of Matter & Waves (Brijlal)

3.University Physics (F W Sears)

Hydrostatics: The branch of physics that deals with the study

Hydrodynamics: The branch of physics which deals with the

Aerodynamics: The special branch of hydrodynamics that

A Fluid is a substance, such that a

Pressure is a fundamental property

Figure 2. Pressure Variation in an Incompressible Fluid at rest with a Free

Therefore, Eq. (3) gives the

Thus, the difference in pressure between two

The pressure p1 = F1/A1 is transmitted through the

It follows that the hydraulic press is a force

Barber chairs, car lifts, and hydraulic brakes all

Pressure Gauges (Gages)

A vacuum gauge is a pressure gauge

Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect

Gauge pressure is zero-referenced against ambient air

Gauge pressure is the pressure

The pressure below the atmospheric/ambient

This unit is used non-SI industrial and technical

Many other units are such as inches of

The terms absolute and gauge are

Barometric pressure is measured on weather stations

A vessel completely void of any air molecules

The ambient air pressure is always measured

Thus, 760 Torr = 1.013 × 106 dynes/cm2.

∴ 1 Torr = (1.013 × 106 )/760

Similarly, the MKS or SI equivalent of

1 Torr = (1.013 × 105)/760 = 1.33 × 102 N/m2 or Pa.

∴ Buoyancy = Weight of displaced fluid.

The force that tends to lift the body is called the

The buoyant force is caused by the increase of

Buoyancy, Resilience, Floatage

The buoyant force acting on the plate is equal to

The buoyant force is independent of the distance of the

It is also independent of the density of the solid body.

Apparent weight loss = Weight of displaced liquid.

This is known as the Archimedes Principle.

When a body is immersed in a fluid, the fluid

Apparent weight loss = Weight of displaced liquid.

1. If W > W’, then the body sinks.

2. If W < W’, then the body floats, partial

3. If W = W’, then the body floats in a sinking

“The pressure at a certain level in a fluid is

The aerodynamic force can then be resolved into two

Determining the center of pressure is very

To determine the stability of a rocket it is

2. In general, if the body is not homogeneous in its distribution

3. Depending upon the relative locations of G and B, a floating

(i) Stable Equilibrium: If the body returns to its original

(ii) Unstable Equilibrium: If the body does not return to

(iii) Neutral Equilibrium: If the body neither returns to

Figure 1. Stable equilibrium.

Figure 2. Unstable equilibrium.

Figure 3. Neutral equilibrium.

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