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gol 1. Introduction to Object Oriented Programming 41.1 Issues with Procedure Oriented Programming Eas Global variables are visible throughout the program and can be’accessed by all function of Program. So if eny function uses the local variable with the same declaration as globsl variable then value of local variable is used in place of global variable throughout the function, 1 Brogram length is long and by some dilemma value of global variable-is changed then It tc difficult to detect exact location where error takes place. ifincludeciostream> iHinclude using namespace std; inta=2; void add()( coute<"The value of global variable a in add function: " Value of global vartable changes to 3. coute<"The value of global variable a in add function changes to: “< using namespace std; void ma (int i) coute<"int-argsi"< lt using namespace std; SEERA Int main gg cout<<"hello world”< This line is a preprocessing directive. All preprocessing directives within C++ source code begin with e # symbol. This one directs the preprocessor to add some predefined source code to our existing source cade before the compiler begins to process it. This process is done automatically and is invisible to us. 2. Using namespace std The two items our program needs to display a message on the screen, cout and endl, have longer names: std::cout and std:endl, This Using namespace std directive allows us to omit the std:prefix and use their shorter names. name std stands for “standard,” and the Using namespace std line indicates that some of the names we use in our program are part of the so-called “standard namespace.” 3. Int main() ‘This specifies the real beginning of our program. Here we are declaring a function named mi Q, Why always main? Is it possible to use any other name besides main? ‘Ans: Compiler has instruction to search for keyword main. if compiler is instructed to search for other name as your choice besides main then the program must have you search name Which you instruct to search for compiler, Return value O is also not necessary, you can return any integer value. But compiler does not care about any value:you return. So it is considered better to return 0, * acoutecthelle werld" ‘The body of our main function contains only one statement. This statement directs the. executing program to print the message hello world on the screen. fundamental unit of execution in a Avstatement is the C++ program, Functions contain statements that the ‘compiler translates into executable machine language instructions. All statements in Cr+ end with a semicolon (;). 3.2 Character Set and Tokens 3.2.1. Keywords. Keywords are predefined, reserved words used in programming that have a special meaning. Keywords example: ‘are part of the syntax and they cannot be used as an identifier, For int money; Here, int isa keyword that indicates ‘money’ is a variable of type Integer Keywords: auto const double float int short struct unsigned break continue else — for eng signed switeh void Gase default enum = goto.—sregister sizeof typedef volatile char do extern if return static union while asm dynamic_cast namespace reinterpret_cast try bool ewplicie, new static_cast typeid catch false operator template typename class friend private his using const_cast inline public throw vireual aplere mitable protected true wehar_t M3.2.2 Identifiers, as ‘An Identifier is a sequence of characters used to denote one of the following: Object or variable name Class, structure, or union name Enumerated type name Member of a class, structure, union, or enumeration Function or class-member function typedef name Label name Macro name Mecro parameter Rules for writing an Identifier, A valid identifier can have letters (both uppercase end lowercase letters), digits and underscores. ‘The first letter of an identifier should be either a letter or an underscore: However, Its discouraged to start an identifier name with an underscore, There is no rule on length of an identifier. However, the first 31 characters of identifiers are discriminated by the com Identifier must be unique, They are created to give unique name to a entity to identify it during the execution of the program. For exemple: int money; double accountBalance; Here, money and aecountBalance are identifiers Also remember, identifier names must be different from keywords. You cannat use int as an identifier bocause int is a keyword. 153.2.3 Constants/Literals 2 onstant fe 2 value or an identifier whose value cannot Be altered:inia program:=For example: 2, 2.5, "C programming is easy", ett, As mentioned, an“identifiar also can ibe: defined as a constant. red + Suppose we are writing a program to determine which members of a population are eligible to vote, permitted to drink, both or neither. slew iel const DRINKING_AGE ~ 24; const VOTING_AGE = 18; 4 and 21 are literals. We can use these literals in all aeae of our program. For example, ii{age > 18) or iflege < 21). But we can make our ‘code more understandable if we use constants instead. if{age > VOTING_AGE) is easier to ‘understand, Other benefits of using constants are constants free the programmer from having to remember what each literal should be. Often ceince that stay constant throughout the program have © basins! meaning. If there are valaes Meuch values, the programmer can define them all in the beginning of the program sand then work with the easier-to-remember constant names ir business requirements dictate that the constant be changed (for example, if the drinking ae lowered to 20 in the futur), itis much easier to ada the program, If we use literals Throughout the program, the change will be hard to do ‘and there is @ good chance some instances will not be corrected. 3.2.4 Operators and Punctuators punetuators: They are mostly used for formatting statements and expressions, Examples are[] () (.3 1 * ele. operators: They are used for computations on data Hems They are of following types: ‘Arithmetic Operators : 4-5" / Jncrement/Decrement Operators : + Relational Operators: =, <>) < ‘Logical operators : &&, |! Conditional Operators : 163.3 Variable Declaration and Expression {n Progremming, a verlable is @ container (storage area) to hold data. To indicate the storage area, each variable should be given a unique name (identifier). Variable names are just the symbolic representation of a memory location. For example: int playerScore = 95; Here, playerScore is a variable of integer type. The variable is assigned value: 95, The value of a variable can be changed, hence the name ‘variable’, 3.4 Statements A statement is 2 block of code that does something. An assignment statement assigns a value to a variable. A for statement performs a loop. {In C++ Statements can be grouped together as one statement using curly brackets { statement; statement2; } 3.5 Datatype: Note : Suppose, you bid for share on new project. Luckily your share got selected then Your account has certain area on that project. How much share you get depends upon the ‘weight of money you put. In above scenario, account resembles as variable which hold storage area and money resembles as Data type which defines how much area is to be used in storage, Data type defines how much space has to allocate in memory for variable related to ‘Types of data types: 1. Primary Data Types: char (1 byte}, int (4 byte}, long (4 byte}, float (4 byte}, double byte) uv2. User Defined Data Types : class, structure 1 Une bediendd Date fi 3, Derived Data Types: function, array, pointer buriand Eman Tops ‘Type modifies Type modifiers alternate the meaning of data ‘yess. There are 4 types of type modifiers. Tay are unsigned, signed, short [2 byte, long (Abyte)- practical example: Suppose you want to make 2 Wicket booking syster- Tick amount may be iin negative value for which itis better to used signed modifiers and amount may be long umber so better to used long, for ticket number itis better to used unsigned modifier and ticket number is small in Tength so better to used short. ‘Template for variable declaration: ‘Type modifiers (signed/unsigned) or Type modifiers (short/long) oF primitive data type + variable name. ex signed short int; -> convert 4 byte int into 2 byte unsigned long int -> corvert 4 byte int nto 4 byte Rules: 2, char: Char is used with only unsigned and signed 95 i. Unsigned char signed char 2. ints Int is used with all types of modifiers. i. Signed short int (2 byte) ji, Signed long int (4 byte) iii, Unsigned shortint (2 byte) i, fv. Unsigned long int (4 byte) 183. Long: Long is used with all modifiers except short. i. Signed tong long (8 byte) i, Unsigned long fong(@ byte) 4. Float: Float does not prefix any modifiers. 5. Double Double used only long among modifiers 1. Long double (12 byte) Finding Range: i. Unsigned char: (1 byte= sbit) In unsigned case there is no case of positive or negative sign. It is always positive number where lowest value=0 {2 0 o 0 oO 0 2 0 ‘And highest value = 11111111 binary value to decimalis, =1xpow(2,7}#1xpow(2,6}+1xpowl2,5}#1xpow(2,4)+1xpow(2,3)+1xp owl2,2}+1xpow(2,1}+2xpow!2,0) +24448416+324644128 where & 8 in geometric series, ec = (248}-3) = 255 ji, Signed char (1 byte= 8bit) In signed case there is case of positive or negative sign. For positive case MS8 Is zero whereas for negative case MSB is 1 with negative sign. 19For pasitive case, os . Lower value =0 ‘ " 0 0 0 0 a o oor s ‘And highest value = 127 MsB ts o i L 2 z iL a z 11111111 binary value to decimal is, =0xpow(2,7}+1xpow(2,6)+2xpow(2,5)+1xpow(2.4}+1pow(2,3)+1%P ow(2,2)+bepow(2,1}+1xp0w(2,0) +.24448416+32464 where a=1,1=2,n-8 in geometric series. = (297) =127 For negative case, Lower value =0 1000000 binary value to decimal is, a xpowl2,7}+0xpowl2,6}40xpow(2,5)}+0xpow(2,4)+Oxpow(2,3}+Oxpow(2,2) nol 40xpow(2,1}40xpow2,0) ¥ 20=128 Ranges is from -128 ta 127 Unsigned short ints (Oto 65535) Unsigned long int:(0 to 4294967295) : (-32768 to 32767) (-2147483648 to 2147483647) Note: Process of prove of range of int value is similar as that of char. If any value of variable with respective type modifier goes out of given range then it started to shift with the number equal to the difference between given number and maximum range. For example : unsigned short Int a=65535; It prints 3=65535 but if unsigned short int 2=65536; then it prints 0 because 655536 exceed maximum range 65535 by 1 bit. So it shift one bit and reached to 0 the position and hence it prints 0 but if unsigned short int ‘365537 then It prints 1 and so on. Computer is deterministic automata it always gives deterministic value which is not garbage value. 3.7/3.8/3.9/3.10 already discussed. 3.12 read yourself same as in C. 3.6/3.1 discusses on later chapters. “Challenges are what make life interesting and overcoming ther is what makes life meeningful’— Joshua J, Marine a3. 3.13 Functions fe 3.13.1 Function syntax #includeciostream> using namespace std; int main(i{ add\); sD return O; , vold add{) 3 int-3,b,¢———_—_—_____—> coute<”Enter a” >a; coutce”Enter b”<>b; czar; coutee”c value “ccc using namespace std; void mi(int if cout<<"Int-arg: } void m1 (float f){ cout<<"Float-args:"<double> double Char ex Hineludesiostream> using namespace std void mi(char ¢}{ coutee"char-args:"< using namespace std; int main(){ int a22,b=3; float ¢; c=a/b; cout<<"The value of e:"< using namespace std; int main0{ Int a=2,b=3; float c; ceffoat}a/b; cout<<"The value of e:"< using namespace std; Inline void ad() inta,bycs cout<<"Enter a” >a; coutee” Enter b"<>b ceath; couteee value "ccc < using namespace std; void add{int a, int b=10){ int cath; coute<"value of cis:”< = default valve 10 as my argument otherwise | toh his pockedins 0 for me, itis the concept of default argument. wae 3.13.5 Reference variables Int a=5; Int &r Here ris aliases of a Le. r paints on the same memory location as that ofa and holds the same value as that of a. Here, Coutecaccend; Coutcer< using namespace std; void swapfint& a,int& b){ int temp; temp= nt main(){ i int =2,y=3; ing shy coute<"Before swap: "e using namespace std; void swapfint *a,int *){ int temp; temp=*a; Yaatb; “betemp; , int main(){ int x=2,y=3; cout<<"Before swap: “esendl; couts int main() { Int *ptr = new int; // dynamically allocate an integer ptr =7; // put a value in that memory location. delete ptr; // return the memory to the operating system. ptr is now ad angling pointer. ptr=0; //ptr is now a nullptr return 0; } Array: It is collection of data of same types. Declaration: One dimensional array Data_type + array_name|size of data) Ex int af5], float [6] ‘Two dimensional array Data_type + array_name[size of datal{rowl{colurnn} Ex int afrow{columnl, float f[row][column] Initialization: One dimensional array Int af3]=(1,2,3) Int afl=(2,3) ‘Two dimensional array nt af2)/3)=(0,2,3,4,5,6) Int af2]3}=({1,2}{3.4115,6)) BBy: Bishwas Pokharel 4/6 Class, objects with inheritance syntax Class class_name( Private: I)statement Public: Iistatement i Class_name object_name; — Object_name.statement; | = Object creation ‘Accessing members of class using object Here, private has visibility throughout the class whereas public has visibility Dutside the class, Protected member of class is access without using the public function from class and derived class. 4.1/0.2/4.3/4.4 Class and objects Hincludectostream> using namespace std; class Iphoneversionfirst{ private: string model; strine color: int welght; public: vyold setinformation(string imodel, string icolor, int iwelght){ model=imod: a4void getinformation(){ cout<<"model "< access member func tion 132. setinformation ("13","wi 131, getinformation(); 132, getinformation(); returnd; } Output: Model i3 Color black Weight 32 Model i3 Color white Weight 30 Class Is an interface to create an object. It binds data and function together in @ single unit. Before creating an abject it is just like a variable which claims right on. the memory but only after creating an object, the memory is allocated, The size of ‘memory space of class or object depends upon the data type of attributes it holds. ‘After creating an object, it can then access the attributes and function, inside from the main () function which is declared under Public: because only public can visible from outside the class. Attributes and functions under Private: can visible only inside the class. After creating an object, it binds the data within itself and functions are shared by objects, For above example, the concept is shawn as below in fig: 35Zaramtan for both 15d end 13z{member Functions] getinformation ((} setinformation (string,stringyint)(} display()t} Model 13, Model 13) Coler black Color white Weight 30 Weight 30 iat 6. Inheritance: suppose, Apple company faunched (3, after some YeoT ig, 15 and so on. You ove better notice, the i features=i3 features + some extra features, 15 testures-it Features + some extra features and so on, HAT you can see, for if you only have to add extra features and for other remaining features you ‘can use original features of (3. Here you can see 4 extends the features of (3 By using previous features of i3, time can be saved because there is no need te make again the same features for if which Is already in i3 and such concept in Object oriented programming Is called inheritance. It helps to reuse code. suppose, i3 has some features which is ret suitable or efficient then in i4 wyou may find same features with better efficiency because same features is re-written in i ‘And such concept of rewriting the code in, OOF either 10 ii timptementation or to change implementation is called method overriding. Ex finclude using natnespess 225 class Iphoneversionfirst{ private: string model; 36string color; . int weight; protected: string check="Derived”; public: void setinformation(string Imodel, string icolar, int iweight){ model=imodel; color=icolor; weight=iweight; } void getinformation(){ cout<<"model "< protected member o Fase class Iphoneversionfirst::dlisplay(); calling display of bas e ? % int main(}{ Iphoneversionscondt 31,132; objec tereation 31, Setinformation (” er function 132. setinformation ("i3" "white" 30); 131, getinformation(); 11.display()} > calling overriding funct “black',32};—s. access memb ion 132. getinformation(); returnd; ) 37Output: Model is Color black ‘Weight 32 Base Display of Iphoneversionsecond Derived ‘Base Display of Iphoneversionfirst ‘Model i3 Color white Weight 30 rere, ishoneversionsecond is the derived class which Posse all the features of iphoneversionfirst except one whichis redefined $9 ‘called overriding function. tere protected member has visibility upto derived class, without calling public feection of base class to access protected member, You Co" easily access the protected member of base class from derived class. sf you want to call errridden function af base class from derived class then use syntax 25 syntax: Baseclass_namer: function_name () Le. Iphoneversionfirst=cisplav(); Constructor: a constructor isa function that i called automaticaly ©2¢P time an object is created, You have been using constructors) along in your progrems, evan if you haven’ realized it When You declare @ simple scalar Pea aint somneNumber;, C++ cals af Internal conse that vatmrves a memory location of the correct size for an Invests and attaches reserves @ omeNumber to that location. The valve at he ‘someNumber A aight be anything; in other words, C++ does not automatically rrrgatize the variable, and its contents af& garbage. The definition int rae grnber= 23; call a diferent constructor that reserves TATOT foran int, attaches an identifier to it, and assigns 2 value, This definition sends the ar eat value 23 to the constructor, This definition does Tr took like It orth a function call the following one does: int sometiumber{23); This carta does exactly the same tings as the one that ws $e assignment definition does rpcates, memory, attaches the name someNumbers and assigns a value. suppose, two object of an Account class are created, Both objects contal sree tutes defined on class Aceount. Suppose, both person openan 38account in a bank with non-zero opening balance policy, After opening account their acc_balance must have to initialized with some value but how to inttalized isa big problem? Ex Hineludectostream> using namespace std; class Account{ private: int ace_batance; string name; public: void set_balance(){ couts namespace std; lass Account{ private: Intace_balance=10; string name="your name"; public: 39void set_batancel)( coutecace_balanceccendl; cout using namespace std; class Accoumt{ private: Intace_batance; string name; public: ‘Account{)(| ————_ ‘ace_balance=0; ———— o="null; constructor overloading.” ) Account(int acch, string namel }{ acc_balancesacch; name=namel; wid set balance(){ ‘caute<"Account balance: "< #includecconio.h> using namespace std class Example ( [1 Nariable Declaration int a,b; publi J{constructor with Argument Example(int x,nt vb { bey; coute<"\nim Constructor"; 1 void Display() eouts<"\nvalues :"6 using namespace std; class Base {int public: Basel) { cout << "Base default constructor*< using namespace std; dass Base : { int x; public: Base() {cout << "Base default constructor" using namespace std; class A { public: AQ) { cout << "Constructor called"< using namespace std; class Object private: string name; int acc_bal; public: void setdata(string namel,int bal){ namesnamel; acc_bal=bal; 50} vold display(Object obj_1}{ cout< object pass return 0; } Output: Harke 200 How to pass and return objects to a function? Hineludeciostream> using namespace std; class Object{ private: string name; int ace_bal; public: 51

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