Energy 257 (2022) 124813

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Characteristics of spraying and ignition of coal-water fuels based on

lignite and liquid pyrolysis products of wood waste
D.V. Gvozdyakov a, b, c, *, A.V. Zenkov a, c, A. Zh Kaltaev a
a
School of Energy & Power Engineering, National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia
b
Laboratory of Catalysis and Conversion of Carbonaceous Materials to Obtain Useful Products, Gorbachev Kuzbass State Technical University, Russia
c
Laboratory of Catalysis and Processing of Hydrocarbons, National University of Science and Technology “MISIS”, Russia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the modern realities of the energy market, the use of coal-water slurries with liquid industrial waste is
Received 8 February 2022 a promising way to solve several problems (economic, environmental and energy). This article presents
Received in revised form the results of experimental studies of the characteristics of spraying and ignition of promising coal-water
11 July 2022
slurries. Lignite, water and liquid pyrolysis products of wood waste were used as fuel components. It was
Accepted 11 July 2022
Available online 14 July 2022
found that substitution of 10% of coal with liquid pyrolysis products of wood waste decreases the dy-
namic viscosity of the fuel by 3.2 times in comparison with two-component coal-water fuel. Density for
all the slurries studied (changes in the mass of the components: coal e from 40 to 50%; water e from 40
Keywords:
Lignite
to 50%; pyrogenetic liquid e from 0 to 10%) differs by no more than 22%. Introduction of liquid pyrolysis
Pyrogenetic liquid products of wood waste into the coal-water fuel composition significantly changes the jet structure. Its
Coal-water fuel characteristic parts e core, middle and peripheral zones e increase. The number of droplets with high
Spraying velocities (30e40 m/s) increases significantly. The average size of fuel droplets in the jet decreases by 5
Ignition e12% in comparison with two-component coal-water fuel. Ignition delay time of a single droplet of
slurry at oxidizer temperature 1273 K increases by 23% in comparison with two-component coal-water
fuel when 10% of coal is replaced by liquid pyrolysis products. In the case of water substitution with the
same amount of the third component, the ignition delay time at an oxidizer temperature of 1273 K
decreases by 26%. The most preferred of the studied coal-water fuels, from the point of view of appli-
cation in the energy sector, are those in which water is replaced by the same amount of liquid pyrolysis
products of wood waste.
© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Credit author statement
D.V. Gvozdyakov: Investigation, Methodology, Writing - original
draft. A.V. Zenkov: Investigation, Writing - review & editing. A.Zh.
Kaltaev: Investigation, Visualization.
1. Introduction
The number of metropolises and the population in them has
increased over the past few decades [1]. New enterprises are being
commissioned, electric transport is rapidly developing, and the
number of small power production and consumption facilities
* Corresponding author. School of Energy & Power Engineering, National
Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russia.
E-mail address: dim2003@tpu.ru (D.V. Gvozdyakov).
increases [2]. The latter include small and medium-sized busi-
nesses that have their own sources of power generation. In order to
cover such a rapidly growing demand for energy in many countries
of the world, new power units are being commissioned or existing
ones are being improved [3]. Moreover, one of the main criteria for
new energy sources is reduction of greenhouse gas emissions into
the atmosphere [4]. Such new environmental requirements are
imposed on all energy facilities, regardless of capacity.
In the modern world, about 40% of all energy produced is
accounted for by coal-fired power plants [5]. Their rapid conversion
to eco-friendly fuels, for example, natural gas or an alternative
energy source (hydrogen), is not always possible. There are a
number of objective reasons for this: the absence of gas or gas
transmission systems in the region (country), climatic conditions
(short daylight hours or windlessness), the absence of rivers or
their seasonal drying, and others. Such reasons are the basis for the
creation and development of new fuels consisting mainly of

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.124813
0360-5442/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
affordable and inexpensive energy raw materials. For example, co-
combustion of coal with biomass [6]. Coal is currently the most
affordable energy raw material [7], but at the same time the dirtiest
one. It is mined and used on almost all continents of the planet. To
abandon coal today is unprofitable from an economic point of view
[8]. It is necessary to search for new fuels and substantiate their
energy efficiency [9].
Wood briquettes are considered as a fairly promising and
environmentally friendly fuel in many countries [10]. As a rule, they
are made from pressed sawdust or wood chips. In addition, one of
the methods of manufacturing wood fuel briquettes is pyrolysis
[11], which is also a way to dispose of wood waste. As a result, semi-
coke (bio-coal) is obtained [12], which is an independent high-
calorie raw material. Such fuel, from an ecological point of view,
is clean and safe for humans and the environment [13]. However, its
production is accompanied by the formation of a sufficiently large
amount of pyrogenetic liquid [14]. The latter contains various
compounds of phenols and acids [14] (direct disposal into the
sewage system is prohibited), but at the same time has a calorific
value (approximately 1e4 MJ/kg, depending on the technological
conditions of the pyrolysis process). At the same time, the chemical
composition of pyrogenetic liquid strongly depends on the raw
material (type, properties, and others) [15,16]. The above sub-
stances provide pyrogenetic liquid with natural antioxidant and
antimicrobial activity [17]. However, according to Ref. [18], the
main antibacterial components of pyrogenetic liquids and their
interactions are still unclear. In addition, the use of such liquids is
limited by the fact that phenols and other active compounds are
sensitive to environmental factors such as temperature, light, ox-
ygen, and others [19,20]. It should be noted that when using
pyrogenetic liquid as a raw material for the production of fertilizers
or medical needs, significant energy costs will be required for
chemical extraction by freezing or thermal fractionation. Therefore,
one of the options for its disposal is combustion by mixing with
traditional liquid fuels, for example, fuel oil or coal-water fuel
(CWF).
CWF has proven itself well as an alternative to fuel oil in the
production of electric energy [21]. Its main advantages in com-
parison with coal are low emissions of pollutants into the atmo-
sphere [22] and a wide range of available components, including
various kinds of waste [23]. For example, the authors of [24] found
that the content of sulfur and nitrogen oxides decreases by almost
two and four times, respectively, during CWF combustion. A team
of scientists [25] has substantiated the efficient possibility of co-
incineration of municipal and industrial waste with coal-water
fuel. Another great advantage of CWF is its preparation simplicity
(directly at the power plant or boiler house). This positive factor can
significantly reduce the cost of such fuel and energy.
In the modern realities of the energy market, the use of coal-
water slurries with liquid industrial waste is a promising way to
solve several problems. Environmental - the volume of emissions of
coal combustion products into the atmosphere decreases, waste is
disposed of. Economic - the opportunity to use low grade inex-
pensive coals more widely in the energy production cycle. Energy -
increase of the calorific value of coal-water slurries by introducing
liquid combustible components.
Currently, a fairly large number of works devoted to the research
of coal-water fuels are presented. They can be conditionally clas-
sified in the following areas:
- preparation of coal-water fuels and their rheology [26e29]. For
example, the authors of [26] found that addition of surfactants
to CWF composition provides sufficiently low values of viscosity
with a mass content of crushed coal from 60% to 70%. The paper
[27] presents the results of experimental studies of CWF
2
Energy 257 (2022) 124813
morphology using electron microscopy. Single coal particles in
the form of a suspension were found to be randomly distributed
in the volume, while groups of them form separate agglomer-
ates. Authors of [28] analyzed the effect of pre-microwave
treatment of the initial coal on the change in coal-water fuel
properties. It was shown that this approach helps to reduce the
viscosity of the resulting slurry and, accordingly, reduce costs
during its transportation through pipelines. In addition to sur-
factants, application of various kinds of organic solvents for CWF
preparation was proposed [29]. The authors of [29] proved that
such approach allows to destroy hydrogen bonds and increase
the activation surface area during CWF combustion.
- Ignition and combustion [30e33]. It was experimentally estab-
lished in Ref. [30] that convective heat exchange has a signifi-
cant effect on the ignition and combustion characteristics. The
ignition time of single droplets with a radius of 0.25e1.5 mm can
be reduced by 20e25 s. A team of scientists [31] studied the
effect of electromagnetic processing of CWF on the ignition and
combustion characteristics. Such treatment was proven to
reduce the ignition delay time by 7.5%, while combustion tem-
perature increased by 5%. The results of experimental studies
[32] showed the possibility of efficient co-incineration of waste
oil products with coal-water fuel. The authors of [33] presented
the results of numerical simulation and experimental studies.
Mathematical modeling was proven to perform predictive cal-
culations of ignition and combustion of CWF droplets with
sufficient accuracy. At the same time, intense heating, evapo-
ration of moisture and thermochemical reactions should be
taken into account.
- Spraying and atomization [34e37]. The results of experimental
studies of various types of nozzles were presented in Ref. [34].
Reduction of CWF viscosity was found to significantly improve
the quality of spraying. This contributes to the jet homogeni-
zation after spraying, for example, with an effervescent nozzle
[35]. This approach was noted to separate the liquid and solid
components of CWF after spraying, which will have a positive
effect on the ignition characteristics of the fuel. The spraying
efficiency of the two-jet nozzle is presented in Ref. [36]. It was
established that trajectories of small-sized fuel droplets during
such spraying are oriented at a small angle relative to the lon-
gitudinal axis of spraying. The authors of [37] found that
introduction of sufficiently typical and affordable alcohols into
the coal-water fuel composition increases the number of small
droplets by 6e13% in comparison with two-component CWF.
- Environmental characteristics [38,39]. A team of researchers [38]
experimentally studied the component composition of com-
bustion products of composite fuels with various additives. It
was found that the amount of sulfur oxides during the slurry
combustion with biomass decreases by 12%. The amount of ni-
trogen and sulfur oxides increases by 1.2e2.8 times with in-
crease in the temperature in the combustion area by 300 K. The
results of experimental studies [39] showed high efficiency of
CWF combustion in an oxygen atmosphere. The concentration
of nitrogen oxides in such conditions decreases by 85%.
Analysis of the literature [26e39] showed that coal-water fuels
have been studied quite actively over the past few decades. Despite
comprehensive research and a wide range of positive qualities, such
fuels are not particularly implemented in large and small power
engineering. First of all, this is connected to the water content in
them (40e60% by weight). As a result, their calorific value is
significantly inferior (by about 50%) to ordinary coal [40]. In gen-
eral, taking into account the negative qualities, the main disad-
vantage of coal-water fuels is their low reactivity in the ignition
zone (long ignition delay time e up to 30 s). At the same time,
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev Energy 257 (2022) 124813

various additives and their quantity can significantly reduce the Table 1
ignition delay time, however, sufficiently large droplets (with a Coal characteristics.

diameter of more than 1.5 mm) will form after spraying such fuels. Parameter Lignite
One of the reasons for this is increase in the viscosity and density of Ash content Ad, % 8.0
the fuel. As a result, the characteristics of their ignition and com- Volatile content Vdaf,% 42.5
bustion in the combustion chambers will deteriorate again. Carbon content, % daf 72.1
Hydrogen content, % daf 5.8
Total percentage of oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur, % daf 22,1
2. Solved problems Humidity, % 9.0
Calorific value, MJ/kg 26.4
Taking into account the sufficiently favorable properties (vis- Average size of particles, microns less than 200
Absolute density, kg/m3 1342
cosity, density, calorific value) of pyrogenetic liquid and close
rheological characteristics to ordinary water, such liquid compo-
nent of CWF will solve a number of problems related to coal-water
fuels e increase the calorific value and reduce the ignition time
after spraying. This approach leads to the safe disposal of the liquid
fraction of the wood waste pyrolysis. Thus, the power industry will
receive a new type of coal-water fuel based on liquid waste from
pyrolytic production. The properties of such three-component coal-
water fuel have not been studied and have not been presented in
the literature. Obtaining experimental data on the characteristics of
spraying and combustion of coal-water fuel with pyrogenetic liquid
will lead to further application of this information in the design of
combustion chambers of boilers and spraying devices.

2.1. Aim of the work

The aim of the work is to substantiate the efficient use of coal-

water fuels based on fairly typical low-grade coal e lignite e and
liquid pyrolysis products of wood waste in power boilers based on
the results of experimental studies of the characteristics of spraying
and combustion.

3. Coal-water fuels and their preparation Fig. 2. PL e appearance and fluidity.

3.1. CWF components

PL characteristics are presented in Table 2.
The following components were used for the preparation of Ordinary water was obtained from the water supply system.
coal-water fuels: lignite, water and pyrogenetic liquid (liquid py- Water characteristics e density 997.0 kg/m3, dynamic viscosity
rolysis products of wood waste). Lignite was crushed in a jaw 0.98 mPa
s, pH 6.8. All liquid components of CWF were not
crusher to a fraction with a characteristic size of no more than
30 mm (Fig. 1a). After that, it was grinded in a disintegrator until a
fine fraction was obtained. Next, the coal was sieved through a Table 2
vibrating sieve with a cell size of 200 mm (Fig. 1b). PL characteristics.
Lignite characteristics are shown in Table 1.
Parameter Value
Pyrogenetic liquid (PL) was obtained at a specialized enterprise
for wood waste processing (chips, shreds). It was delivered to the Density (r), kg/m3 1044.0
Dynamic viscosity (h), mPa
s 2.24
laboratory in 5 L containers. The appearance of the component is
Kinematic viscosity, mm2/s 2.12
shown in Fig. 2. pH 2.31
Calorific value, MJ/kg 2.7

Fig. 1. Lignite a) after grinding in the jaw crusher; b) sifted fine fraction.

3
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
subjected to heat treatment. Water and PL were filtered through
laboratory filter paper to exclude mechanical impurities in the
slurry.
3.2. CWF preparation
Grinded lignite, PL and water were placed in a ceramic drum
with a total volume of 3 L with preloaded grinding media (ceramic
balls with a diameter of 30 mm) in accordance with the component
composition of each CWF (Table 3). The mass ratio of the grinding
balls and lignite was 1:1.
CWF compositions were prepared in which, in one case, a part of
water was replaced by a fraction of PL, and in the second case, a part
of coal was replaced by a fraction of PL in order to assess the PL
effect on the studied fuel characteristics.
Analysis of the literature [41e44] showed that method of
preparation (the speed and time of CWS mixing, the order of
components addition) is a vital stage in terms of CWS properties
and characteristics (viscosity, stability, spraying, and combustion),
as well as during storage and transportation [41]. For example, the
duration of the mixing process has a significant effect on the CWS
viscosity with simultaneous addition of the CWF components (coal
and water) and at a constant speed of its rotation. Its value can be
reduced by two times [42]. The type of mixing device also matters.
For example, comparison of a homogenizer and a laboratory colloid
mill for the preparation of a three-component CWS (coal sludge,
water and waste oil) shows that high deposition rate of coal par-
ticles is characteristic of the colloid mill [43]. At the same time, as
the authors note [42], all the above differences can be considered
insignificant on an industrial scale of the CWS production. Also, the
authors of [44] note a positive effect of the time of slurry prepa-
ration on its stability. Thus, taking into account the analysis of the
literature [41e44], the duration of slurry preparation in our studies
was 1 h. Therefore, such duration of CWS preparation will be suf-
ficient in the conditions of spraying and burning immediately after
mixing.
4. Methods of experimental research
4.1. Measurement of viscosity and density of coal-water fuels and
liquid components
Experimental determination of dynamic viscosity was per-
formed using Brookfield RVDV-II þ Pro rotary viscometer (Fig. 3a).
The liquid with a volume of 600 ml was poured into a cylindrical
glass with a diameter of 0.1 m. After that, the spindle of the
viscometer was immersed in the studied medium. The dynamic
viscosity was estimated at a spindle shear rate of 100 s1. Experi-
mental determination of density was carried out using hydrome-
ters (Fig. 3b).
The measurement errors of CWF density and viscosity, taking
into account the error of the devices and the number of experi-
ments (at least 5) were:
Table 3
Coal-water slurries.
Composition, No. Lignite (C) Water (W) PL Designation
%, by weight
1 50 50 0 C-50%; W-50%
2 45 50 5 C-45%; W-50%;
3 40 50 10 C-40%; W-50%;
4 50 45 5 C-50%; W-45%;
5 50 40 10 C-50%; W-40%;
Energy 257 (2022) 124813
- for viscosity (h) e not more than ±3.5%;
- for density (r) e not more than ±3.0%.
Studies of the PL effect on changes in the dynamic viscosity and
density of CWF were performed at ambient temperature of 293 K.
4.2. Measurement of velocity, average droplet size and jet spraying
angle
Experimental studies of CWF spraying characteristics were
performed using specialized setup (Fig. 4). The installation was
designed to study jet characteristics of liquid and dry fuels after
spraying, as well as injectors of power plants.
Droplet velocities were determined by the PIV method (Particle
Image Velocimetry) [45e47] (Fig. 5). The method is based on laser
anemometry by the droplets (particles) image. Droplet sizes were
determined using the IPI method (Interferometric Particle Imaging)
[45e47] (Fig. 6). The method is used to measure the instantaneous
spatial size distributions (from 10 to 1000 mm) of droplets in a
stream. It is based on the reconstruction of droplet sizes by the
frequency of the interference pattern from point light sources that
occur on spherical liquid droplets when they are illuminated by a
powerful laser light pulse (laser sheet). Interference images appear
in the form of narrow lines since the IPI method uses cylindrical
lenses that compress these images along one of the coordinates to
prevent their spatial overlap. Velocities and diameters of the
droplets were calculated by the Actual Flow software [45e47].
A schematic diagram of the setup is shown in Fig. 7.
Experiments on CWF spraying were carried out at a fuel pres-
sure (Pf) equal to 0.3 MPa and air pressure (Pa) equal to 0.28 MPa.
The pressure of the latter was set to 0.02 MPa less than CWF
pressure in order to exclude the reverse flow of liquid through the
fuel pipeline. This is due to the design feature of the nozzle. The
selected pressure values are typical for full-scale power plants
running on liquid fuel [48]. Duration of each experiment ranged
from 100 to 120 s.
Fig. 8 schematically shows the areas of the jet in which droplets
were recorded to determine their sizes and velocities (the repre-
sentation is similar to Ref. [49]).
The jet spraying angle was determined by the standard method
[50]. This method was to process jet images using a professional
graphics application. For this, at least 20 high-speed photos of each
CWS composition were taken. While the images were being pro-
cessed, the edges of the jet were approximated. After that, two
orthogonal lines were drawn to the longitudinal axis of the nozzle
(Fig. 9). The jet spraying angle Q was obtained summing up the
values of the two halves of the angle (Qa and Qb).
A nozzle with an internal mixing chamber of CWF and air was
used during the experiments. A nozzle similar in design (of larger
dimensions and fuel flow rate) was used during tests at a direct-
flow vortex gasifier (Fig. 10) with a synthesis gas capacity of
16,000 m3/h.
The general view of the nozzle used during the experiments is
shown in Fig. 11. The pneumatic nozzle for CWF spraying was made
of stainless steel alloy. It consisted of three parts: casing, fuel line,
head. They were connected by thread.
The nozzle of this design has proven itself well during experi-
mental studies of spraying sufficiently viscous slurries and multi-
component CWF [37,51e53].
4.3. Studies of coal-water fuel ignition
PL-5%
PL-10% Experimental studies of ignition characteristics were performed
PL-5% in a high-temperature muffle furnace. The oxidizer temperature
PL-10%
ranged from 1073 to 1473 K. These temperatures correspond to the
4
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev Energy 257 (2022) 124813

Fig. 3. Measurement of dynamic viscosity (a) and density (b) of CWF. a) 1 e viscometer; 2 e cylindrical glass vessel; 3 e CWF; 4 e spindle, b) 1 e hydrometer; 2 e cylindrical glass
vessel; 3 e CWF.

Fig. 4. Research setup. 1 e appearance; 2 e CWF supply pump; 3 e nozzle; 4 e CWF supply line; 5 e air supply line; 6 e laser (Beamtech Vlite-200); 7 e cross-correlation camera
(ImperX Bobcat B2020); 8 e temporary storage tank of waste CWF; 9 e nozzle attachment rail; 10 e CWF tank; 11 e exhaust ventilation; 12 e computer and backup monitor.

conditions of real combustion chambers of steam boilers [54]. The
temperature step was 50 K. High-speed visualization of the pro-
cesses of CWF droplets ignition was carried out using Photron
FASTCAM Mini UX100 video camera (shooting speed up to 4000
frames per second at a resolution of 1280 by 1024 pixels; 6400
frames per second at HD (1280  720) resolution, the maximum
shooting speed is 800,000 frames per second). The general view of
the stand is shown in Fig. 12.
Similarly to Ref. [55], several (at least three) series of 10 exper-
iments were performed for each CWF. The characteristic droplet
size was 1 mm.
5. Results and discussion
5.1. Viscosity and density of coal-water fuels
Viscosity and density of liquids, including CWF, are very
important parameters that determine the qualitative and quanti-
tative characteristics of the jet (for example, the average size of
droplets) after spraying [56e58]. Authors of [57] noted that the
highest value of the dynamic viscosity of coal slurries should not
exceed 1.2 Pa
s (at the shear rate of viscometer 100 s1). It is
possible to effectively spray fuel oil, minimize the cost of pumping,

5
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
Fig. 5. PIV method a) general view; b) after processing.
Fig. 6. IPI method a) general view; b) after processing.
reduce the likelihood of clogging of fuel lines and injectors at such
values of viscosity (and less). In addition, liquids with low viscosity
are better susceptible to dispersion in air (or oxidizer at high
temperatures) [53]. In general, as the authors of [58] noted, the
spraying characteristics will be influenced by the value of the mass
6
Energy 257 (2022) 124813
Fig. 7. Sketch of the experimental setup. 1 e chamber for spraying; 2 e tank with the
sample; 3 e pump; 4 e tank for waste liquid; 5 e nozzle; 6 e laser; 7 e cross-
correlation camera; 8 e synchronization unit (SP-2.0); 9 e personal computer.
ratio of the liquid and the spraying gas, the geometric character-
istics of the nozzle and its outlet channel, the viscosity and density
of the sprayed media.
Fig. 13 shows the dependences of changes in the dynamic vis-
cosity and density of CWF on the PL content in them.
It was found that the lowest value of dynamic viscosity
(464 mPa
s) is characteristic of Sample 3. This is 3.2 times less than
the value of the dynamic viscosity of two-component coal-water
fuel (1488 mPa
s). In the case of 5% of coal substitution, the dy-
namic viscosity decreases by 19%. Substitution of 5% of water for the
same amount of PL leads to an increase in CWF viscosity by 24%.
When 10% of water is replaced with PL, the value of the dynamic
viscosity of CWF increases by 33%. Such changes in the dynamic
viscosity of the studied CWF are certainly associated with different
dynamic viscosity of the liquid components (water and PL) sepa-
rately. The difference is 2.24 times (with a value of dynamic vis-
cosity for water equal to 1.0). Such changes of dynamic viscosity
will certainly have an impact on the characteristics of CWF spray-
ing, transportation and storage. Operating parameters of the
equipment such as pressure, flow rate and temperature will also
affect the spraying process.
A distinctive feature of PL is the appearance of very thick ag-
glomerates after cooling. They can form sufficiently large solid
fragments in combination with coal particles. This may become an
additional factor that negatively affects the rheological properties
of CWF with PL (regardless of its quantity).
The density change shown in Fig. 13 depending on the PL
amount does not illustrate significant differences. The density for
all the studied compositions differs by no more than 22%. This is
explained by the fact that density values of water and PL are not
very different e no more than by 4%. In turn, even such relatively
insignificant changes in CWF density can have significant impact on
the atomization process of fuel droplets after spraying. The liquid
density is known to affect the processes of droplets atomization
after spraying [59,60]. According to the research results [60], CWF
density affects the characteristics of the primary atomization of
droplets. At the same time, large values of liquid densities will lead
to deterioration of the droplet formation process.
It is logical to evaluate the influence of the density and viscosity
of CWS on spraying characteristics (size, speed and number of
droplets) together with the surface tension. In general, with regard
to the effect of only the density of the slurry on the characteristics
of its spraying, we can say the following: increase in the CWS
density will lead to increase in the kinetic energy of the droplets
after spraying. As a result, when such droplets collide, the process
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
Fig. 8. Areas of recording velocities and sizes of CWF droplets.
Fig. 9. Geometric characteristics of the jet. - - - - jet edge;
of their destruction will occur more intensively. Thus, CWS with
high density is better susceptible to fragmentation.
The effect of the CWS viscosity on the characteristics of spraying
can be estimated as follows: more intensive fragmentation of
droplets is characteristic of CWS with low viscosity. At the same
time, the spraying characteristics (droplet size) of highly viscous
slurries may be better than for less viscous CWS. This is because the
higher the viscosity, the greater the internal friction force and the
greater the kinetic energy with which the droplets will interact.
This will lead to the fact that a new toroidal shape is formed after
the collision of such droplets [61]. And such a droplet disintegrates
forming a large number of small droplets [61]. Thus, it is impossible
to evaluate the characteristics of spraying only by the CWS
viscosity.
It is possible to evaluate the effect of the surface tension of the
CWS by several criteria e the formation of new droplets during
their movement in the air and their shape. The slurry droplets can
also be destroyed due to the velocity when CWS with low values of
surface tension is sprayed. The surface layers of the droplet will tear
away forming new small fragments. In addition, CWS droplets with
low surface tension will have different shapes during movement
(elongated and compressed droplet). In the latter case, such droplet
will be easily subject to destruction due to aerodynamic drag forces.
7
Energy 257 (2022) 124813
______
orthogonal line.
CWS droplets with a high surface tension value will be less sus-
ceptible to fragmentation due to speed and shape. At the same
time, it should be noted that CWS is a multicomponent liquid,
which contains solid particles of coal. Their presence, even in a
highly viscous slurry during spraying, will lead to good fragmen-
tation of the droplet. This is explained by the fact that the surface of
such droplets will not be smooth during movement. The liquid
“core” of the droplet will shift, forming an elongated shape. A
surface with coal particles will form on the front side of the droplet
(uneven surface [62]). As a result, the former, due to their facets,
will contribute (“cut”) to the destruction of the droplet. At the same
time, the speed of the droplet is also important. Thus, it can be
concluded that it is correct to evaluate the characteristics of
spraying, taking into account changes in density, viscosity, and
surface tension of the CWS. However, taking into account the
complex structure of CWS droplets, it can be assumed that it is fair
to evaluate the characteristics of CWS spraying by two parameters
e density and viscosity.
Comparison of the studies results with known data, for example
[56], showed that viscosity of Sample 3 is close to that of a slurry
based on lignite (50% by weight of coal and 50% by weight of water).
At the same time, particle size distribution in Ref. [56] is 80e100
mm. On the one hand, this similarity can be explained by the use of
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
Fig. 10. Appearance of the experimental-industrial CWF gasifier.
Fig. 11. Nozzle for CWF spraying.
Fig. 12. Stand for determining CWF ignition delay times. 1 e high-speed camera; 2 e muffle furnace; 3 e CWF droplet holder; 4 e holder drive; 5 e personal computer.
8
Energy 257 (2022) 124813
Fig. 13. Changes in viscosity and density of CWF depending on the PL content in them.
different spindles of viscometers during experiments. It should be
noted that particle size distribution of coal will also affect the vis-
cosity and density of the slurry e finer grinding of coal will lead to
higher viscosity. But at the same time, stability of such slurry will be
better.
5.2. Velocity, average size of droplets and jet spraying angle
Fig. 14 shows the results of high-speed recording of the velocity
of CWF droplets (Table 3) during the spraying process at a pressure
ratio of Pf/Pa ¼ 0.3 MPa/0.28 MPa. The presented velocity fields
allow us to estimate changes in the values of droplet velocities in
four cross-sections of the jet (at distances of 25, 50, 75, and 100 mm
from the nozzle). Analyzing the results, the jet structure is seen to
be divided into three characteristic parts: the jet core e where the
fuel droplets have the highest velocities (highlighted in red and
yellow); the middle zone of the jet (indicated in green and cyan)
and the peripheral zone e velocity of fuel droplets decreases to
0 m/s (highlighted in blue).
The experimental results (Fig. 14) showed that introduction of
PL into CWF composition and the subsequent change in the vis-
cosity has significant effect on the distribution of droplet velocities
in the jet. After spraying two-component CWF (Sample 1), fuel
droplets with maximum velocities (up to 40 m/s) in greater quan-
tities (95%) are located at a distance of 0e25 mm from the nozzle.
When 5% of coal is replaced by the same amount of PL, the velocity
distribution of the slurry droplets changes significantly. A large
number of CWF droplets with velocities of 30e40 m/s are distrib-
uted in 25e50 mm section. A small number of droplets (about 7%)
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
Fig. 14. Instantaneous velocity distributions of CWF droplets in a jet. a e Sample 3; b e
Sample 2; c e Sample 1; d e Sample 4; e  Sample 5.
with high velocities were identified on the 75e100 mm segment.
Further PL content increase (to 10% by weight) leads to about 12% of
fuel droplets with high speeds also appearing in the fourth study
area (75e100 mm). Changes were also established in the jet
structure in the case of water substitution in CWF composition.
Mainly, high velocities of CWF droplets were detected on 0e25 mm
and 25e50 mm segments.
Such changes in CWF droplets velocities after PL introduction
into its composition can be explained quite simply.
In the case of coal replacement by PL, the fuel viscosity de-
creases several times (Fig. 13). Droplet velocities and their sizes
after spraying are known to be significantly influenced by the
rheological properties of the liquid [63,64]. Droplets of less viscous
liquids are better susceptible to dispersion.
In the case of water substitution, the fuel viscosity increases
(Fig. 13). This provides sufficiently large fragments of droplets in the
jet on 0e25 mm and 25e50 mm segments. During movement, their
velocity decreases due to the aerodynamic drag forces of the
environment. At the same time, their shape also changes. As a
result, the initial droplet is destroyed into several small ones. Their
velocity is significantly lower than the velocity of the initial droplet
[65e69].
Fig. 15 shows distribution of the average droplet velocities over
the cross-sections for the studied CWF compositions. The de-
pendences drawn based on the results of experiments illustrate
quite well the effect of PL on the change in droplet velocities. The
average droplet velocity of Sample 1 differs by 10e20% from that of
CWF with PL in the composition.
Fig. 15. Changes in average cross-section velocities.
9
Energy 257 (2022) 124813
According to the studies results of the PL effect in CWF
composition on fuel droplets velocity after spraying several con-
clusions can be drawn. PL introduction into CWF composition
significantly changes the jet structure, its characteristic parts in-
crease. The distribution of droplets with high velocities (30e40 m/
s) increases significantly. They appear at distances up to 50 mm
from the nozzle. Such changes in the jet structure will significantly
alter the ignition zone of the droplets e its location will be much
further from the nozzle in comparison with the case of spraying
two-component CWF. In practice, this can cause significant changes
in the design of the combustion chambers of boilers.
Fig. 16 shows an image illustrating the process of CWF droplets
recording to determine their average characteristic size (d). The
geometric characteristics of the recording area were 30 mm in
height and 90 mm in length. During the experiments, the jet
recording area was divided into three zones. Large (~1.0 mm in
diameter) droplets are clearly visible on enlarged images of CWF in
zone 1. Their presence at a short distance from the nozzle is
explained by the fact that not all large fuel droplets were destroyed
in this area of the jet. Such behavior of individual CWF droplets in
close proximity to the nozzle is quite characteristic of coal-water
slurries [49].
The PL effect on the change in the average size of CWF droplets is
shown in Fig. 17 in the form of histograms.
Several conclusions can be drawn according to the studies re-
sults of the PL effect on the size of CWF droplets after spraying.
When replacing water in CWF composition, the presence of
large fuel droplets in close proximity to the nozzle outlet was
observed. The average size of fuel droplets in the jet decreases by
5e12% in comparison with two-component coal-water fuel. In the
case of spraying more viscous fuels (Sample 4 and Sample 5), there
is no unambiguous change in the average size of CWF droplets.
Under the conditions of the specified fuel/air pressure and CWF
viscosity, the predominant majority of large droplets after spraying
disintegrate into small ones [58].
The jet spraying angle is an important parameter when spraying
liquid materials [67]. It determines the boundaries of the fuel
ignition zone, the efficiency of its combustion process and, as a
consequence, the completeness of combustion. Fig. 18 shows the
change in the jet spraying angle of the studied samples (Table 3).
Analyzing the results of these experiments, we have established
a positive effect of PL on the het spraying angle. With water
replacement by PL in CWF composition (Sample 4 and Sample 5),
the jet spraying angle increased by up to 14%. This effect of PL on the
jet spraying angle is primarily due to a decrease in the fuel viscosity.
As a result, more small droplets are formed. Their trajectories
during spraying are oriented more chaotically. Due to this, the jet
spraying angle increases. Less than 2% decrease in q value was
observed for Sample 2 and Sample 3. Thus, it can be concluded that
PL addition instead of coal did not lead to a significant change in the
jet spraying angle.
5.3. Ignition of coal-water fuels
Fig. 19 shows the dependences characterizing the change in
CWF ignition delay time. The experiments were carried out at high
temperatures (from 1073 to 1273 K), similar to the combustion
chambers of boiler units. The characteristic size of the droplets was
1.0 mm. Droplets of such sizes appear in the jet after CWF spraying
(Fig. 16).
Analysis of the results (Fig. 19) showed that PL has an effect on
the ignition delay time of CWF droplets. When replacing up to 10%
by weight of coal with PL, the ignition delay time at the oxidizer
temperature of 1273 K increases by 23% in comparison with two-
component coal-water fuel. In the case of water substitution with
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev Energy 257 (2022) 124813

Fig. 16. The process of CWF droplets recording to determine their average characteristic size.

Fig. 17. Change in the average size (d, m) of CWF droplets in three characteristic zones of the jet.

10% of PL, the ignition delay time at an oxidizer temperature of
1273 K decreases by 26%. Such PL effect can be explained quite
simply. In the case of replacing the proportion of coal with the same
amount of PL, the amount of non-flammable liquid prevails in the
fuel composition. It takes more time for moisture to evaporate from
the surface of the droplet to initiate the ignition of the combustible
component. In the case when water is replaced with the same
amount of PL, the decrease in ignition delay time improves as PL
has calorific value. This makes it possible to reduce the ignition
delay time of such fuel. In general, the ignition mechanisms of CWF
droplets with PL correspond to conventional two-component coal-
water fuel. Figs. 20e22 show typical ignition frames of the studied
CWF.
The results in Figs. 20e22 allow us to distinguish the difference
in the ignition process of CWF droplets with PL in comparison with
two-component coal-water fuel e there is no destruction of the

10
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev Energy 257 (2022) 124813

Fig. 18. Changes in the jet spraying angle.

Fig. 19. Dependences of the change in CWF ignition delay times.

Fig. 20. Video frames of ignition and combustion of two-component CWF. (Sample 1) at oxidizer temperature T ¼ 1273 K.

droplet. All other ignition stages can be divided into several phases
according to Refs. [68e70]:
1) heating of the droplet, drying of the near-surface layers, inten-
sive evaporation of the liquid from its surface (Fig. 20a, c;
Fig. 21a and b; Fig. 22a and b);
2) ignition of volatiles accompanied by additional heating of CWF
droplets (Fig. 20 c; Fig. 21b and c; Fig. 22b);
3) ignition and start of heterogeneous carbon combustion (Fig. 20d
and e; Fig. 21d and e; Fig. 22d and e);
4) carbon residue burnout (Fig. 20a; Fig. 21a; Fig. 22a).
Experiments have shown that the ignition characteristics of our

11
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
Fig. 21. Video frames of ignition and combustion of CWF with PL. (Sample 3) at oxidizer temperature T ¼ 1273 K.
Fig. 22. Video frames of ignition and combustion of CWF with PL. (Sample 5) at oxidizer temperature T ¼ 1273 K.
CWS are generally identical to the known ones [68e70]. As noted
above, the only difference is the lack of the droplet destruction. This
factor determines the duration of combustion. First of all, this is due
to the influence of the density and viscosity of slurries. For such
CWS, the dehydration of the near-surface layer of the droplet and
the beginning of gas-phase combustion proceeds faster (the effect
is exerted by PL). However, the process of dehumidification of the
inner layers is slower than for two-component coal-water fuel. The
high density and viscosity of slurries help to reduce the filtration
rate of volatiles and oxygen through dense layers of the droplet into
its depth. As a result, the core of the droplet becomes isolated from
oxygen diffusion. Therefore, we observe longer combustion of
Sample 4 and Sample 5.
The obtained results of experimental studies of the PL effect in
CWF composition on the ignition delay time and combustion
duration of such fuels allow us to draw several conclusions. Firstly,
the ignition mechanisms of such CWF droplets are close to con-
ventional two-component coal-water fuel. Secondly, the replace-
ment of water with the same amount of PL contributes to a
significant (by 26%) reduction in the ignition delay time of a CWF
droplet. At the same time, such fuels are more viscous and have
longer combustion time, but their spraying characteristics differ
slightly from conventional CWF. At the same time, in cases in which
coal was replaced by PL, combustion duration was not very
different from Sample 1. Thus, Sample 4 and Sample 5 are the most
preferable for the power industry application from the point of
view of ignition and combustion.
5.4. Comparison of research results with known data
In order to understand the difference between the results of our
research from similar works by other authors, we compared the
results with the known data [36,56,71e84]. Tables 4e6 below
12
Energy 257 (2022) 124813
present the CWF characteristics previously published by other
scientists.
Comparing the rheological properties of various coal-water
slurries with our results, we can conclude that the range of
changes in the dynamic viscosity of our CWF is comparable with
the results of other papers [56,71e77]. As for the density of fuels, in
the case of slurries based on biomass and waste engine oil, the
range of variation is insignificant.
Analysis of the research results of a few studies [36,56,78,79] on
the spraying of coal-water fuels illustrates a fairly wide range of
changes in the analyzed parameters. First of all, this is connected to
the fact that researchers [36,56,78,79] use nozzles of various de-
signs when conducting their experiments. At the same time, the
value of the spraying parameters is also very different. Thus, it is not
entirely correct to compare the spraying results of this work with
the known ones.
Analysis of the studies results of ignition and combustion of
CWF showed that coal-water fuel with PL is similar to organo-coal-
water slurries in terms of ignition characteristics. The ignition delay
times of single CWF droplets differ by 2e8%. Such a close similarity
with OCWF is explained by the fact that pyrolysis oil is present in PL
composition. The ignition characteristics of pyrolysis oil are close to
waste engine oil and oil sludge.
In general, it can be concluded that introduction of PL into CWF
composition does not particularly worsen its rheological proper-
ties, spraying and combustion characteristics. When replacing the
part of coal in CWF composition with the same amount of PL, the
quality of spraying is significantly improved in comparison with
two-component fuel, while combustion characteristics are worse.
Such qualities of PL allow us to consider it as an additional
component of coal-water fuels. The issue of its disposal is also being
resolved. Incineration in the combustion chambers of CWF with PL
will not cause the equipment reconstruction in many cases. The use
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev Energy 257 (2022) 124813

Table 4
Rheological properties of coal-water slurries.

No. Parameter Type of slurry Reference

Dynamic viscosity at 100 s1 shear rate, h (mPa
s) Density, r (kg/m3)

1 157e632 1252e1300 Coal-water slurries with additives of biomass and waste engine oil [56]
2 700e1500 e Coal-water fuel with microscopic plastic additives [71]
3 250e7500 e Slurries based on water, rice husk bio-oil, coal [72]
4 700e1700 e CWF with a dispersant and stabilizer in the composition [73]
5 200e1000 e Slurry based on oil, coal and water [74]
6 50e1500 e Slurry based on light oil, coal and water [75]
7 600e800 e Slurry based on residual oil, coal and water [76]
8 230e780 e Slurry based on coal sludge [77]

Table 5
Characteristics of CWF spraying.

No. Parameter Type of slurry Reference


Droplet velocity, m/s Droplet size (diameter), microns Jet spraying angle,

1 2e12 50e200 67e81 CWS [36]

2 up to 20 50e120 27e55 Coal-water slurries with additives of biomass and waste engine oil [56]
3 ~150 10e58 25 Two-component coal-water fuel [78]
4 1e8 50e600 e Coal-water fuel [79]

Table 6
Characteristics of ignition and combustion of coal-water fuels.

No. Parameter Type of slurry Reference

Ignition delay time of droplets (1.0e1.5 mm in size at oxidizer temperature T ¼ 1073 K), s

1 ~8 CWF [80]
2 ~6 CWF with TiO2 addition [81]
3 ~9 BioCWF [82]
4 ~11 BioCWF [83]
5 ~4 Organo-coal-water fuel [84]

of such third component makes it possible to solve the problem of
low reactivity of CWF e to reduce the average size of droplets after
spraying and, as a result, to reduce their ignition delay time.
6. Conclusions
1) Substitution of 10% by weight of coal with the same amount of
PL contributes to a decrease in its dynamic viscosity by 3.2 times
in comparison with two-component CWF. Substitution of 10% by
weight of water with the same amount of PL contributes to an
increase in its dynamic viscosity by 1.5 times in comparison with
two-component CWF. The density value for all the studied CWF
compositions differs by no more than 22%.
2) PL introduction into CWF composition significantly changes the
jet structure. The size of its characteristic parts (core, middle,
and peripheral zones) increases. The number of droplets with
high velocities (30e40 m/s) increases significantly. They appear
at distances up to 50 mm from the nozzle. Such changes in the
jet structure will significantly alter the ignition zone of the
droplets e its location will be much further from the nozzle in
comparison with the case of spraying two-component CWF.
3) When replacing water in CWF composition with the same
amount of PL, large fuel droplets are present in close proximity
to the nozzle outlet. The average size of fuel droplets in the jet
decreases by 5e12% in comparison with two-component coal-
water fuel.
4) In the case of water substitution in CWF composition with the
same amount of PL by weight, the jet spraying angle increases
by up to 14%. Less than 2% decrease in the jet spraying angle was
observed for CWF compositions with coal substitution by PL.
13
5) Ignition delay time of a single droplet of CWF at oxidizer tem-
perature 1273 K increases by 23% in comparison with two-
component coal-water fuel when 10% of coal is replaced by PL.
In the case of water substitution with 10% of PL, the ignition
delay time at an oxidizer temperature of 1273 K decreases by
26%.
6) The most preferred compositions studied are those in which
water is replaced by the same amount of liquid pyrolysis prod-
ucts of wood waste at a constant concentration of coal from the
point of view of application in the energy sector.
7) Analysis of the results allowed us to formulate promising areas
for future research work: studies of the CWS spraying charac-
teristics prepared with pyrogenetic liquid additives in order to
establish the role of the Reynolds, Bond and Weber criteria in
the formation of a gas-drop jet.
Funding
Experiments to determine the rheological properties and igni-
tion characteristics of coal-water fuels were carried out with the
support of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the
Russian Federation (project No. 075-00268-20-02 (ID: 0718-2020-
0040)), studies of spraying characteristics of coal-water fuels were
performed with financial support according to additional contract
No. 075-03-2021-138/3 on subsidy from Russian Federal budget for
financial support of governmental task realization for govern-
mental services (internal number 075-GZ/X4141/687/3).
D.V. Gvozdyakov, A.V. Zenkov and A.Z. Kaltaev
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal
relationships which may be considered as potential competing
interests: Dmitriy Gvozdyakov reports financial support was pro-
vided by The Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the
Russian Federation. Dmitriy Gvozdyakov reports financial support
was provided by Russian Federal budget for financial support of
governmental task realization for governmental services. Dmitriy
Gvozdyakov reports a relationship with The Ministry of Science and
Higher Education of the Russian Federation that includes:
employment. Dmitriy Gvozdyakov reports a relationship with
Russian Federal budget for financial support of governmental task
realization for governmental services that includes: employment.
National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
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