Crack Type : - LAMELLAR TEARING

Location : - Parent Material

Steel type : - Any type of steels
Suspectible Micro structure : - Low through thickness ductility

Causes

When welding of joints, where high contractional stresses are passed in the through thickness direction of
one of the plates in the joint.
This short transverse direction is lacking in ductility in cold rolled plates.
A stepped like crack may initiate in the affected plate, just below the HAZ , in horizontal plane. Micro
inclusions of impurities such as sulphides & silicates, which occur during steel manufacture, cause this
poor through thickness ductility. When subjected to hig short transverse stress this may lead to Lamellar
Tearing.

Lamellar Tearing (Ferritic steels )

Corner joints, butt joints, T-joints, lap joints.
Through thickness contractional strain

To assess the risk of a material suspectbility , lamellar tearing through thickness tensile tests is of two
types

1. Conventional short transverse tensile test.

2. Compound welded cruciform joint tensile tests.

Prevention of Lamellar Tearing

1. Check the cheical analysis , and for laminations with UT & PT on the plate edges
2. A buttering layer of high ductility weld metal may be deposited where the vertical member is to be
welded, which will enable the plastic strain to be absorbed
3. A gap can be left between the horizontal & vertical members enabling the contractional movement
to take place.
4. joint design may be improved to reduce or change the direction of stresses.
5. A complete re-design of the welded joint may be required using arc formed T-pieces.

Methods of controlling the occurance of Lamellar tearing

1. Change the weld design

2. Use weld meatl buttering layer
3. Minimise restraint
4. Use preformed T-piece for critical joints.
Crack Type : - INTER CRYSTALLINE CORROSION

Location : - Weld HAZ ( Longitudinal )

Steel type : - Austenitic Stainless steels
Suspectible Micro structure : - Sensitised Grain boundaries

Causes
1. During welding of stainless steels, temp gradient are met in the HAZ, where chromium carbides can
be formed form carbon & chrome,
2. This carbide formation depletes the affected grains of chromium, which will severly reduce the
corrosion resisteance.
3. Immediately after such an affect has occurred, we can say that the stainless steel has been
sensitized, then it is to say that it has become sensitive to corrosion.
4. If no further tratment is given, corrosion will appear parallel to the weld toes, within the HAZ.
5. This will occur only when the weld is subsequently put in service. This is commonly known as
Weld decay.
6. This corrosion initiates as localized pitting which is stainless steel may lead to relatively rapid
failure
Prevention of Weld Decay in Stainless steels.

1. To prevent the occurance of weld decay, we can use parent material with a carbon content below
0.03%C. This reduces the free carbon available to form chromium carbides. For ex. E316 S/S
containing a low carbon content is designated as E316L
2. Another option is to add other elements such as Niobium, & Titanium to the plate and electrodes to
stabilize the steel. These are termed stabilizing elements and tie-up any free carbon by forming
preferential carbides, thus leaving chromium within the grain. Where it will perform its function in
resisting corrosion.
3. The conversion of chromium & carbon into chrome carbides occurs between approximately 500 –
850deg c. Most welding procedures are designed to reduce the amount of time that the HAZ is
undergoing this temp range.
4. A sensitized stainless steel may be solution annealed after welding by heating to 1100deg c and
quenching . This dissolves the chromium carbides and inhibits their re-association.
Crack Type : - HYDROGEN CRACKING ( Cold Cracking )

Location : - HAZ ( Longitudinal )

Weld metal transverse or Longitudinal
Steel type : - All Hardenable steels
HSLA steels or QT steels
Suspectible Micro structure : - Martensite

Causes

1. Hydrogen cracking is a Cold cracking mechanism. It may occur in the HAZ or the weld metal
depending on the type of steel being used.
2. Hydrogen may be absorbed into the arc from water on the plates, moisture in the air, paint or oil on
the plates or the breakdown of gas shielding gas.
3. Hydrogen will easily dissolve in the molten weld metal , & remain in solution on solidification to
austenitic , when the weld will cool down and transform to ferrite, where the hydrogen has less
solubility and will want to diffuse to the HAZ, which will be still Austenitic.
4. If the HAZ is unhardenable, it will transform to ferrite and the hydrogen, which has some
solubility in ferrite will eventually diffuse out of the weldment.
5. If the HAZ is hardenable, then the tranformation of the HAZ will be from austenite to martensite,
which has no solubility for hydrogen.
6. This will result in great internal stress, occurring in a micro structure, which is very brittle. Cracks
may occur at areas of high stress concentrations, such as toes of a weld and move through the
hardened HAZ and in extreme cases, the weld metal.
The four minimum critical factors are…
a. Hydrogen content : > 15ml / 100gm of deposited weld metal
b. Hardness : > 350 VPN
c. Stresses : > 0.5 of the yield stress, higher the CE : lower the weldability, Higher the CE:
higher suspectibility to britlleness
d. Temperature : < 300deg C.

Prevention of Hydrogen HAZ cracking :-

To control Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ, it may be necessary to pre-heat the weldment. Pre-heating
retards the rate of cooling and suppresses the formation of Martensite and other hand structures, which is
formed rapid cooling.
It will also allowed some trapped hydrogen to diffuse back to the atmosphere, Elements that are to be
considered when calculating pre-heat are
a. Hardenability of the joint
b. Thickness of metal and joint type
c. Arc energy input
d. Hydrogen scale , or achievable limit
Hydrogen induced weld metal cracking is found when welding HSLA ( High Strength Low Alloy ) steels,
which are alloyed with micro amounts of Titanium, Vanadium or Niobium ( typically 0.05% )
In order to match the weld strength to plate strength, weld metal will increase carbon content is used. As
carbon content increases tensile strength ,. A graph showing the effect of carbon on the properties of plain
carbon steels given below…
This results in a hardenable steel weld deposit , in which the Austenite of the weld transforms directly to
martensite, causing the same condition as found in the HAZ previously & cracking may now occur within
the weld metal.
Prevention of H2 for these steels is as per H2 HAZ cracking, by the preheating of the weld area, but this is
principally to allow any trapped hydrogen, the time at temp to diffuse from the weld & HAZ area back to
atmosphere.

Tensile test

Hardness

Ductility

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5…0.8……1.6%

It can be clearly seen from the graph that addition of carbon upto 0.83%C will increase the tensile strength
of plain carbon steel , while this will serve the purpose of cheaply matching the weld metal strength to the
base metal. It will also give the weld metal much higher hardenability.
This may now result in H2 cracking in the weld metal, as the weld will transform from Austensite to
Martensite trapping the hydrogen in weld, before it is able to diffuse to HAZ. It can also be seen from the
graph that higher carbon steels have very little ductility.
Prevention of Hydrogen cracking in the weld metal of HSLA or micro alloyed steels is very much the
same as for hydrogen cracking in the HAZ , of other low alloy steels

Summary of prevention methods:-

1. Use of low hydrogen process & or hydrogen controlled consumables
2. Maximise arc hydrogen
3. Use correctly treated H2 controlled consumables
4. Minimise restraint
5. Ensure plate is dry & free from rust , oil , paint or other coatings
6. Use a constant and correct arc length
7. Ensure pre-heat is applied & maintain before any arc is struck
8. Control interpass temp.
9. Ensure welding is carried out controlled environmental condition
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING

It is a welding process that was 1st developed in the late 19th century using bare wire electrodes. Mostly
used in both site and workshop.

Defintions :-

MMA :- Manual Metal Arc Welding

SMAW :- Sheilded Meal Arc Welding

Introduction:

MMA is a simple process in terms of equipment and consumables, using short flux covered electrodes.
The electrode is secured in the electrode holder and leads for this ans power return cable are placed in the
+ or – electrical ports.
The process demands high skill from the welder to obtain high quality welds but mostly used in industry.
The electrode core wire is often very low quality and easily added to he flux coating that can produce high
quality weld metal.
The arc is struck by striking the electrode onto the surface of the plate and withdrawing it a small distance,
as you would strike a match box, care should be taken to maintain a short and constant arc length and
speed of travel.

Basic Equipment Requirements.

1. Power source Transformer / Rectifier

2. Holding Oven , Temp upto 150deg C
3. Inverter power source
4. Electrode holder
5. Power cable
6. Welding visor
7. Power return cable
8. Electrodes
9. Electrode oven , Bakes electrodes at upto 350deg C
10. Control panel , On / Off / Amperage / Polarity / OCV

Variable Parameters

1. Voltage : - The OCV Open Circuit Voltage, is the voltage required to initiate or re-ignite the
electric arc and will change with the type of electrode being used. Most basic coated electrodes
require an OCV of 70 – 90volts, which most rutile electrodes require 50volts.
2. Current and Polarity : - The type and value of current used will be determined by the choice of
electrode classification , electrode diameter, material type and thickness and the welding position.
Electrode Polarity is generally determined by the operation I,e. surfacing / joining and the type of
being electrode used. Most surfacing and non-ferrous alloys require DC- for correct deposition.
Electrodes burn off rates will vary with AC or DC + or – depend on the coating type and the
choice of polarity will also effect heat balance of the electric arc.
Important Inspection points . checks when MMA welding

1. The welding Equipment : - A visual check should be made to ensure the welding equipment is in
good condition.
2. The Electrode : - Check should be made to ensure that the correct spec of electrode is being used,
electrode correct diameter, and the flx coating is in good condition.

a. Baked at 350deg C for 1hour.

b. Held in holding ovens at between 120 – 150deg C max
c. Issue to the welder in a heated quiver , normally around 70deg C.

Vacuum pack pre heated electrodes do not need to undergo this pre-baking treatment , but only if the
vacuum seal is observed to be broken at the point of inspector.

3. OCV : - Must check that the euipment can produce the OCV required by the consumable and the
voltage selector has been moved to correct place.
4. Current and Polarity : - check that the current type and rage is as detailed on the WPS.
5. Other variable welding parameters: - check that the correct angle of electrode and gap distance,
speed of travel , and all other essential variables given on the approved welding procedure.
6. Safety checks : - check should be made on the current carrying capacity , or duty cycle of
equipment and that all electrical insulation is sound, check should be made that correct eye
protection.

And check should always be made to ensure that the welder is qualified to weld the procedure being
employd.

Typical welding imperfections

1. Slag inclusions.
2. Porosity
3. Lack of root fusion or penetration
4. Undercut
5. Arc strikes
6. Hydrogen cracks

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Field or shop use 1. High skill factor required
2. Range of consumables 2. Arc strikes / Slag inclusions
3. All positional 3. Low operating factor
4. Very portable 4. High level of generated fumes
5. Simple equipment 5. Hydrogen control

Operating Factor : O/F The percentage of Arc On time in a given time span