GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

PRACTICAL 1: STUDY OF STEAM BOILERS
3110006- BASIC MECAHNICAL ENGINEERING
B.E. SEM –I/II
Objective:
1. Definition and application of boiler.
2. Classification of boiler.
3. Understanding the working of different boilers
4. Selection of boiler

Theory:

The function of a boiler is to transfer heat produced by burning of fuel to water and thus
to produce steam at desired temperature and pressure. Steam boiler may be defined as
“A closed pressure vessel in which, steam is generated with capacity exceeding 25 liters,
gauge pressure greater than or equal to 1kg/cm2, and water is heated at 100⁰C or
above”.

Application of steam generated from boiler:

• To operate steam engines and steam turbines
• For industrial process work (e.g. drying process)
• For heating purpose

Classification of Boiler:
• Fire tube (smoke tube) and water tube
• Internally fired and externally fired
• According to number of tubes
• According to types of fuels used
• According to pressure at which steam generated
• According to position of drum/shell
• Stationary and portable
• Natural circulation and Forced circulation

General terms used in Steam Boiler

1. Cylindrical shell
It is made up of steel plates bent into cylindrical form and rewetted and welded
together. The ends of shell are closed by means of plates in different shapes. It
should have sufficient capacity to contain water and steam.

2. Combustion chamber
Itisthespace,generallybelowtheboilershell,meantforburningfuelinordertoproduce
steamfromthe water contained in the shell.

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3. Grate
It is a platform, in the combustion chamber, upon which fuel is burnt. The grate
consists of cast iron bars which are spaced apart so that air can pass through
them.

4. Furnace
It is a chamber formed by the space above grate and bellows the boiler shell in
which combustion take place. It is also called a Fire box.

5. Fire Hole
It is the hole through which coal is added to the furnace.

6. Ash Pit (ash pan)

It is the area in which the ash of burnt coal is collected.

Simple Vertical Boiler

7. Smoke chamber (smoke box)

The waste gases are collected here and then releases to the chimney and then to
atmosphere.

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 8. Man Hole
It is a hole provided onto the boiler shell so that a workman can go inside the
boiler for inspection.

9. Hand Holes
It is a hole provide don the shell to give to give east access for the purpose of
cleaning of water tubes or some other internal parts of boiler.

10. Mud box

It collects all impurities present in the water. It is at the bottom of the barrel or
shell. These impurities are removed time to time by help of blow off cock.

11. Steam collecting pipe

When steam leaving the boiler, it contain certain amount of water Anti-priming
pipe is used to separate water particles from the steam and to collect dry steam
from boiler.

12. Mountings
These are the safety devices for the safe working of steam boiler and they are
mounted on the steam boiler like Water indicator valve, pressure gauge, fusible
plug etc.

13. Accessories
These devices are used for increasing the efficiency of boilers. They are integral
parts of the boiler and are not mounted on the boiler. They include Super heater,
Economizer, etc.

COCHRAN BOILER

Specification:
 Shell diameter = 2.75 m
 Height = 5.75 m
 Working pressure = 6.5 bar
 Heating surface area 120 m2
 Steam capacity = 3500 kg/hr (Max. = 4000 kg/hr)
 Efficiency = 70 to 75 %

Advantages
1. It is compact and portable boiler therefore minimum floor area is required.
2. Initial cost of boiler is less
3. It can be moved and set up readily in different locations.
4. Quick and easy installation.
5. Any type of fuel can be used. (Coal or Oil)

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Disadvantages
1. Steam raising capacity is less due to vertical design.
2. Water along with steam may enter the steam pipe under heavy loads sue to small
steam space.
3. Efficiency is poor in smaller sizes.

LANCASHIRE BOILER

Specification:
 Shell diameter = 2 to 3 m
 Length of the shell = 7 TO 9 m
 Working pressure = 16 bar
 Steam capacity = 8000-9000 kg/hr
 Efficiency = 50 to 70 %

Advantages
1. Response of pressure build up is less.
2. The furnace is inside the tubes therefore the grate area is restricted.
3. Due to three passes of flue gases, the heating surface area per unit volume of
boiler is large.

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 4. The fluctuations in load can be easily met by this boiler due to large reservoir.
5. Easy operation, low maintenance costs, easy to clean and inspect.
6. By use of economizer and superheater, maximum heat of flue gases is utilized, so
efficiency of boiler
7. can be increased.

Lancashire boiler
Disadvantages
1. Maximum working pressure is limited to 16 bar.
2. Due to brick work, more floor area is required.

BABCOCK AND WILCOX BOILER

Specification
 Diameter of the drum = 2000 to 4000.
 Length = 6000 to 9000 mm.

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  Size of the water tube = 76.2 to 101.6 mm
 Size of upper header tube = 38.4 to 57.1 mm
 Maximum working pressure = 42 bar
 Maximum steam capacity = 40,000 kg/hr
 Efficiency = 60 to 80 %

Babcock And Wilcox Boiler

Advantages
1. The steam generation capacity of the boiler is very high, about 2000 to 40000
kg/hr.
2. Replacement of defective tubes is easy.
3. The draught losses as compared to other boilers are minimum.
4. It is used in power station for generating large quantity of steam.
5. Boiler is required less space area compared to fire tube boilers, and offers greater
operational safety.

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Review Question :

1. Define boiler. State its applications.

2. Explain classification of boiler with example in detail.
3. Explain the difference between the fire tube and water tube boiler. What are its
merits and demerits?
4. Explain function of below mentioned basic parts of boiler:
1) Anti-priming pipe
2) Furnace
3) Man hole
4) Mud box
5. Draw neat sketches and explain construction and working of following boilers in
detail:
1) Lancashire boiler (orthographic views)
2) Cochran boiler
3) Babcock and Wilcox boiler

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 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
PRACTICAL 2 : STUDY OF BOILER MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES
3110006- BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
B.E. SEM –I/II

Objective:
1. Describe the construction of different mountings and accessories.
2. Understand the working of various mountings and accessories.
3. Effect of mountings and accessories on performance.

Theory:
Boiler Mountings
The necessary devices installed or mounted for the safety of boiler and its control are called
boiler mountings.

Boiler Mountings for safety:

1) Two water level indicators
2) Two safety valves.
3) Combined high steam and low water safety valve.
4) Fusible plug.

Boiler Mountings for control:

1) Pressure gauge
2) Steam stop valve
3) Feed check valve
4) Blow-off cock
5) Man hole and mud hole

1. Water level indicators

It is an important fitting, which indicates the water level inside the boiler to an observer. It is a
safety device, upon which correct working of boiler depends. This fitting may be seen in front
of boiler, and are generally two in number.

Water level indicators Steam stop valve

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2. Steam stop valve
To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main steam pipe. To shut off the steam
completely when required.

3. Safety valves
It is the device attached to the steam chest for preventing explosions due to excessive internal
pressure of steam. A steam boiler is usually, provided with two safety valves. These are
directly placed on the boiler. Following are the four types of safety valves are used.

1) Lever Safety Valve

2) Dead Weight Safety Valve
3) High Steam Low Water Safety Valve
4) Spring Loaded Safety Valve

Lever Safety Valve Spring Loaded Safety Valve

4. Pressure gauge
It is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the steam boiler. The pressure gauges
generally used are of Bourdon tube type.

Pressure gauge Feed check valve

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5. Feed check valve
Its function is to regulate the supply of water, which is pumped into the boiler, by the feed
pump.

6.Fusible plug
The main function of the fusible plug is to extinguish fire when water level in the boiler falls
below an unsafe level.

Fusible plug Blow Off Cock

7. Blow Off Cock

Function It may discharge a portion of water when the boiler is in operation to blow out mud,
scale or sediments periodically. It may empty the boiler when necessary for cleaning and
repair.

Boiler Accessories
The devices which are installed in the boiler for their efficient operation and smooth working
are called Boiler Accessories.
1. Economiser
2. Superheater
3. Air preheater
4. Injector
5. Feed pumps
6. Steam separator
7. Steam trap
8. Damper

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1. Economiser
An economizer is a device in which the waste heat of the flue gases is utilized for heating
the feed water.

Economiser

2. Superheater
Superheater increases the temperature of the steam above its saturation temperature by
utilizing exhaust gases.

Superheater

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3. Air preheater
Air preheater increase the temperature of air before it supply to the furnace using
heat from flue gases passing through the chimney.

Air preheater

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Review Question :
1. Define boiler mountings and boiler accessories.
2. Explain the function, location, construction and working of following
mountings with neat sketch:
1) Safety valve
2) Water level indicator
3) Pressure gauge
4) Steam stop valve
5) Feed check valve
6) Blow off cock
7) Fusible plug
3. Explain the function, location, construction and working of following
accessories with neat sketch:
1) Economiser
2) Super-heater
3) Air preheater
4) Damper

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 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
PRACTICAL 3: STUDY OF TWO AND FOUR STROKE PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES
3110006- BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
B.E. SEM –I/II
Objective:
1. Understand working of Petrol and Diesel engine.
2. Evaluate difference between 4 stroke and 2 stroke engine.
3. Construction difference of CI and SI engine.

Theory:
Any machine, which derives heat energy from the combustion of fuel and converts part
of this energy in to mechanical work, is known as heat engine. Heat engines are mainly
divided in to: external combustion and internal combustion engines.

Steam engine falls under the category of external combustion engine where as internal
combustion engine (popularly known as I C Engine) are those engines in which the
combustion of the fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder.

These are commonly used in trucks and buses, scooters and cars, ships and locomotive,
agriculture and earth moving machinery, many industrial applications and for power
generation.

Classification:
The I C Engines may be classified as follows:
1. According to the types of fuel used
2. According to the number of strokes
3. According to the cycle of operation
4. According to the method of ignition
5. According to the method of cooling
6. According to the method of governing
7. According to the speed of the engine
8. According to the arrangement of cylinder

Engine Components :

1. Cylinder
It is the heart of the engine in which the fuel is burnt and the power is produced.
Cylinder has to withstand very high pressure and temperature because the
combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder. Therefore cylinder
must be cooled. To prevent the wearing of the cylinder block, a sleeve will be
fitted tightly in the cylinder.

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2. Cylinder head
Cylinder head covers top end of cylinder. It provides space for valve mechanism,
spark plug, fuel injector etc.

3. Piston
The piston is a close fitting cylindrical plunger reciprocating inside the cylinder.
The power developed by the combustion of the fuel is transmitted by the piston
to the crank shaft through connecting rod.

I C Engine I C Engine Components

4. Piston Rings
The piston rings are the metallic rings inserted into the circumferential grooves
provided at the top end of the piston. These rings maintain a gas-tight joint
between the piston and the cylinder while the piston is reciprocating in the
cylinder.

5. Piston pin or Gudgeon pin

It is the pin joining small end of the connecting rod and piston. This is made of
steel by forging process.

6. Connecting rod
It is the member connecting piston through piston pin and crank shaft through
crank pin. It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of
the crankshaft. It is usually made of steel forging.

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 7. Crank and Crankshaft
The crank is a lever that is connected to the big end of the connecting rod by a pin
joint with its other end connected rigidly to a shaft, called crankshaft. It rotates
about the axis of the crankshaft and causes the connecting rod to oscillate.

8. Valves
Engine has both intake and exhaust type of valves which are operated by valve
operating mechanism. The valves are the device which controls the flow of the
intake and the exhaust gases to and from the engine cylinder.

9. Flywheel
It is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft of the engine. It minimizes cyclic
variation in speed by storing the energy during power stroke, and same is
released during other stroke.

10. Crankcase
It is the lower part of the engine, serving as an enclosure of the crankshaft and
also as a sump for the lubricating oil.

11. Carburetor
Carburetor is used in petrol engine for proper mixing of air and petrol.

12. Fuel pump

Fuel pump is used in diesel engine for increasing pressure and controlling the
quantity of fuel supplied to the injector.

13. Fuel injector

Fuel injector is used to inject diesel fuel in the form of fine atomized spray under
pressure at the end of compression stroke.

14. Spark plug

Spark plug is used in petrol engine to produce a high intensity spark for ignition
of air fuel mixture in the cylinder.

Four-stroke Petrol engine:

 Suction stroke:
During this stroke, inlet valve opens and exhaust valve is closed, the pressure in
the cylinder will be atmosphere. As the piston moves from TDC to BDC, the
volume in the cylinder increase and pressure decrease. This creates a pressure
difference between the atmosphere and inside the cylinder. Due to this pressure
difference the petrol and air mixture (charge) in case of petrol engine and only air
will enter into the cylinder.

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  Compression stroke:
During this stroke, both the inlet valve and exhaust valve are closed, the piston
moves from BDC to TDC. In this stroke the charge or (air in case of diesel engine)
will be compressed, so pressure and temperature will increase.

 Expansion stroke:
During this stroke, both the inlet valve and exhaust valve are closed, the piston
moves from TDC to BDC. The high pressure and high temperature burnt gases
force the piston to perform this stroke, called power stroke. This stroke is also
known as expansion or working stroke. The engine produces mechanical work or
power during this stroke.

 Exhaust stroke:
During this stroke, the inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve opens. The piston
moves from BDC to TDC and during this motion of the piston pushes the exhaust
gases out of the cylinder at constant pressure.

Working of Two-Stroke I.C. Engine:

In two-stroke engine, the cycle is completed in two stroke, i.e. all the four operations are
completed in two stroke of the piston or one revolution of the crankshaft.

17
In two-stroke engine, ports (holes) replace the valves. The movement of the piston
controls the opening and closing of port. The exhaust gases are removed from the
cylinder with the help of fresh compressed charge and it is called scavenging. A specific
crown shape is given to the piston, which helps to prevent the loss of incoming charge
and helps for exhausting the hot gases effectively. In case of single cylinder engines as
used in scooter and motorcycle, three ports are provided as exhaust, transfer and inlet.
Through the exhaust port, the hot gases are pushed out. Through the transfer port, the
fresh charge from the bottom of the engine piston/crankcase is supplied to the cylinder
and also helps for exhaust. Through the inlet port, fresh charge from the carburetor is
taken in to the cylinder crankcase.

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Review Questions:
1. List various elements (components) of I.C Engines. Explain the function of each
component.
2. Differentiate I.C. engine and E.C. engine by giving examples.
3. Draw working sketch (with p-v diagram) of four stroke gasoline (petrol) and
diesel engine. Explain any one of them.
4. Draw working sketch of 2-stroke gasoline (petrol) and diesel engine. Explain any
one.
5. Differentiate between S.I. and C.I engine.
6. Differentiate between 2-stroke and 4-stroke I.C engine.
7. Give reason for the following.
(a) Fins are provided on the surface of the cylinder.
(b) Piston is provided with 3 different rings.
(c) Flywheel of four-stroke engine is heavier than that of two-stroke engine.
(d) Mechanical efficiency of 2-stroke engine is higher than the 4-stroke
engine?
(e) Why diesel engines are called C.I engines?

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 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
PRACTICAL 4: TO DETERMINE BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF AN I. C. ENGINE
3110006- BASIC MECAHNICAL ENGINEERING
B.E. SEM –I/II
OBJECTIVES:
• To determine performance parameter of diesel engine.

ENGINE SET UP:

Product
Engine

Dynamometer
Air box
Fuel tank
Speed indicator
Temperature sensor
Water meter
Number of cylinder
Fuel oil

Orifice dia of Air Measurement

Type of dynamometer
Outer dia of drum
Air density

PROCEDURE:
• Ensure cooling water circulation for brake drum and engine jacket.
• Start the set up and run the engine at no load for 4-5 minutes.
• Gradually increase the load on the engine
• Wait for steady state (for @ 3 minutes) and collect the reading as per data.
• Fill up the observations worksheet to get the results and performance plots.
• Gradually decrease the load and shut down the engine.

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ENGINE TEST SET UP (SINGLE CYLINDER, 4 STROKE, DIESEL)
S. no. System Constant Value
1. Orifice diameter (m)
2. Drum radius (m)
3. Dead weight (Kg)
4. Co eff. of discharge for orifice ,Cd
5. Rope diameter (m)
6. Ambient temperature (Deg C)
7. Fuel density(kg/m^3) (diesel)
8. Fuel Calorific value (KJ/kg)
9. Cylinder diameter (m),D
10. Stroke(m),L
11. No of cylinders
12. No. of rev./cycle
13. Specific heat of exhaust(KJ/Kg. Deg K)

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Drum Mano Fuel flow Rate

Dead Spring balance
Speed deflection
weight (Kg) weight (Kg)
(RPM) (mm) Volume Time

Calculation :

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22
RESULT / ANALYSIS TABLE
BP BMEP BSFC BTh.eff. Air flow Vol eff A/F
(Kw) (Bar) (kg/kwH) (%) (kg/hr) (%) Ratio

Conclusion :
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Review Questions:
1. Explain the following terms related to I.C. engines:
a. Swept volume
b. Compression ratio
c. Indicated power
d. Brake power
e. Friction power
f. Specific fuel consumption
g. Mechanical efficiency
h. Thermal efficiency
i. Air standard efficiency
j. Relative efficiency
k. Specific fuel consumption
l. Specific output

2. A four cylinder two stroke petrol engine with stroke to bore ratio 1.2 develops 32 kW
brake power at 2500 rpm. The mean effective pressure in each cylinder is 9 bar and
mechanical efficiency is 86%. Determine
1. Diameter and stroke of each cylinder
2. Brake thermal efficiency
3. Indicated thermal efficiency
4. Brake specific fuel consumption in kg/kwhr.
Take Petrol consumption = 9 kg/hr and Calorific value of petrol = 43 MJ/kg.

3. The following readings were taken during the test on a single cylinder four stroke IC
engine:
Cylinder diameter : 270mm
Stroke Length : 380mm
Mean Effective Pressure : 6bar
Engine speed : 250rpm
Net load on brake : 1000N
Effective mean diameter of brake : 1.5m
Fuel used : 10kg/hr
Calorific value of Fuel : 44400kJ/kg
Calculate:
a) Brake Power
b) Indicated Power
c) Mechanical Efficiency
d) Indicated thermal efficiency

5. Determine the brake thermal efficiency of an engine with following data:

Brake Power = 80 kW
Fuel consumption rate = 20 kg/hour
Calorific value of the fuel = 43 MJ/kg

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6. The following readings were observed during a test on Two Stroke Single
Cylinder Diesel engine:
Bore = 22 cm
Stoke = 28 cm
Speed = 350 rpm
Net brake load = 65 kg
Effective brake drum diameter = 100 cm
Mean Effective Pressure = 3 bar
Fuel consumption = 4 kg/h
Calorific value of fuel = 43 MJ
Calculate:
a) Indicated Power
b) Brake Power
c) Mechanical Efficiency
d) Brake thermal Efficiency

25
 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
PRACTICAL 5: STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF AIR COMPRESSORS
3110006- BASIC MECAHNICAL ENGINEERING
B.E. SEM –I/II
Objective:
1. Understand the working of air compressor.
2. Know the classification and application of compressor
3. Know the construction details of important parts of air compressor.

Theory:

An air compressor is a device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or
gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed
air).

Uses of Compressed air

The compressed air has number of application in different industries. They are listed
as under:
1. Operating pneumatic drill, hammers for the formation of rivet heads.
2. For filling air in automobile tyres.
3. For spray painting.
4. Increasing inlet pressure of I.C. Engine.
5. To operate air motor in mines where fire risks are more.
6. Pumping of water.
7. Gas turbine power plant.
8. Conveying the materials like sand and concrete along a pipe line.
9. For sand blasting.
10. Operating blast furnaces.
11. Operating air brakes used in buses, trucks, trains etc.

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Classification of compressors
The air compressor can be classified in number of ways.
According to method of compression
a. Reciprocating compressor
b. Rotary Compressor
c. Centrifugal compressor
According to method delivery pressure
a. Low pressure - up to 1.1 bar
b. Medium pressure - 1.1. to 8 bar
c. High pressure – 8 to 10 bar
d. Very high pressure - above 10 bar
According to principle of operation
a. Positive displacement
b. Roto dynamic or steady flow compressor
According to the number of stages
a. Single stage compressor - pressure up to 5 bar
b. Multistage compressor - pressure above 5 bar
According to method the number of cylinder
a. Single cylinder
b. Multi cylinder
According to method the pressure limit
a. Fans - pressure ratio 1 to 1.1
b. Blowers - pressure ratio 1.1 to 2.5
c. Compressor - pressure ratio above 2.5
According to volume of air delivered
a. Low capacity - volume flow rate up to 9 m3/min
b. Medium capacity - volume flow rate 10 m3/min to 300 m3/min
c. High capacity: Volume flow rate above 300 m3/min
According to fluid to be compressed
a. Air compressor
b. Gas compressor
c. Vapour compressor

Centrifugal Compressor
A centrifugal compressor is used to supply large quantities of air at low pressures.

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Air at low velocity and atmospheric pressure enters the compressor through eye E. It
lows radially outward through the impeller blades. This air is subjected to a centrifugal
force while passing through the impeller. The pressure and velocity increases in the
impeller.

The high-velocity air passes through the convergent passages formed by diffuser blades.
The velocity is reduced. This decrease in velocity (K.E) of the air increases its pressure. It
is found that, nearly half the pressure of the air is developed in the impeller and the
remaining half in the diffuser. The compressor shown in fig. is a single stage centrifugal
compressor. The pressure ratios of 4 to 6 are common. For higher pressure ratios, multi-
compressors are used.

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Review Questions:
1. Write the classification of Air compressor. Write the uses of compressed air.
2. Draw the neat sketches of compressor with P–V diagram with and without
clearance.
3. What are the advantages of multistage compression?
4. Define the following terms:
a. Compression ratio,
b. compressor capacity,
c. volumetric efficiency,
d. free air delivery(FAD).
5. Classify rotary air compressors. Explain construction and working of centrifugal
compressor with neat sketches.
6. Explain with neat sketch construction and working of axial flow air compressor.
7. Differentiate between reciprocating compressor & centrifugal compressor with
respect to principle of working.

29
 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
PRACTICAL 6 : STUDY OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
3110006- BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
B.E. SEM –I/II
Objective:
1. List out different applications of refrigeration and air conditioning.
2. Understand the construction and working of
a. vapour compression Refrigeration system.
b. vapour absorption Refrigeration system.
c. Window Air conditioner.
Theory:

Refrigeration is the process of cooling or reducing and maintaining the temperature of an

enclosed space below surrounding temperature. In order to maintain the low temperature of
the refrigerated space, it is necessary to remove heat continuously equal to the amount of
heat leaking into the system, rejecting the same to the surrounding atmosphere at higher
temperature. The machine that produces cold is known as “refrigerator.”.

Theoretically, refrigerator is a reversed heat engine, or a heat pump which pumps heat from
a cold body and deliveries it to a hot body with the help of external work.

The working fluid used in refrigerator is known as refrigerant. It is mainly classified as

Inorganic, hydrocarbon (HC), hydrofluorocarbons(HFC), hydro-chloro-fluorocarbon (HCFC),
chloro-fluorocarbons (CFC) and azeotrope.

The commonly used refrigerants are Ammonia R-717(NH3), R-12 (CCl2F2), R-22 (CHClF2),
R134a (C2H2F4) and R404A (R125/143a/134a {44/52/4}) and R410A (R32/125 {50/50})

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

This system consist of following components

1. Evaporator
2. compressor
3. condenser and
4. expansion device.

In vapour compression refrigerator, vapour used as the refrigerant. It is circulated in system

in which it alternately evaporates (liquid to vapour) and condenses (vapour to liquid) thus it
undergoes a change of phase. In the evaporation it absorbs the latent heat from the space to
be cooled. In the condensing or cooling, it rejects heat to atmosphere.
e.g. Domestic Refrigerator.

30
 Domestic Refrigerator

Vapour absorption Refrigeration system (VARS)

This system is shown in figure consists of (i) evaporator, (ii) condenser, (iii) generator, (iv)
absorber, (v) pump and (vi) expansion device.

Vapour absorption Refrigeration system

In this system the refrigerant coming from evaporator is absorbed by absorber. The
absorbing medium may be solid or liquid. In VAR system, the compressor is replaced by an

31
absorber and generator. Ammonia is refrigerant has characteristic as it is easily absorbed by
water at low pressure and temperature, but at high pressure and temperature, the solubility
of ammonia in water is reduced. Therefore when mixture of water and ammonia is heated by
generator, the ammonia vapour is separated from water. This principle is used in the vapour
absorption refrigeration system. Here the ammonia is refrigerant and
water is absorbent.

Window Air conditioner

The window air conditioner mainly used for conditioning of air in the room. Commonly it is
mounted in a window, hence it is known as window air conditioner.

Window Air conditioner

The window air conditioner unit consists of following components as shown in fig.
Refrigeration unit Evaporator/cooling coil,
1. condenser,
2. compressor,
3. expansion device
4. Air circulation fan

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Review Questions:
1. Explain Principal of Refrigeration.
2. What is Refrigerant? Write properties of good Refrigerant .
3. Define Following Terms.
a. 1 Ton of Refrigeration
b. Co efficient of performance
c. Air conditioning
4. Explain the working of VCRS with neat sketch.
5. Why ammonia is used as a refrigerant in VARS. Explain the working of VARS with neat
sketch.
6. Write advantages of Split air conditioner over Window air conditioner.

33
 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
PRACTICAL 7 : STUDY OF DIFFERENT TYPES CLUTCHES COUPLING AND BRAKES
3110006- BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
B.E. SEM –I/II
Objective:
1. State the working of different types of Couplings clutches and brakes
2. Know the construction and operation of different types of couplings, clutches and
brakes
3. Application of couplings clutches and brakes.

Theory:
Coupling:
Couplings are used for joining sections of long transmission shafts. They are also used for
connecting the shaft of a driving machine to the shaft of a separately built machine so as to
give an effect of continuous shaft.

Rigid coupling Flexible coupling

1. Rigid coupling
Rigid couplings are used to connect two shafts when they are in perfect axial alignment.
1) Sleeve or Box or Muff coupling:
2) Split muff or clamp coupling:
3) Flange couplings:

2. Flexible coupling
These types of couplings are used to protect the driving and driven machines from effect of
shocks excesses stresses due to deflection and vibrations, which may arise from
misalignment of shafts.
1) Bush pin type flange coupling:
2) Oldham coupling:
3) Universal coupling

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Clutch:
The flow of mechanical power is controlled by means of a clutch. The clutch is a mechanical
device, which is used to connect or disconnect the source of power from the remaining parts
of the power transmission systems at the will of the operator.

An automotive clutch can permit the engine to run without driving the car. This is desirable
when the engine is to be started or stopped or when the gears are to be shifted.
1. Single plate friction clutch
2. Multi disc clutch
3. Cone clutch
4. Centrifugal clutch

Brake:
A brake is a mechanical device by means of which artificial resistance is applied to a moving
system or machine in order to slow down or completely stop the motion of a machine.

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In performing this function, the brake absorbs either kinetic energy of moving members such
as rotating drum, machine, automobile vehicle or potential energy given up by objects being
lowered by hoists, elevators. The energy absorbed by a brake is converted into heat energy
and dissipated in the surroundings air.

There are two distinct functions of vehicle brakes.

 To stop or slow down the vehicle in the shortest possible distance in emergencies.
 To control the vehicle to be retained when descending a hill.

Types of brakes:
According to the means used for transforming the energy by the braking elements, the brakes
are classified as
1. Hydraulic brake
2. Electric brake
3. Mechanical brake.
Depending upon the shape of the friction material the mechanical brakes are classified as
a. Block brake
b. Internal expanding brake
c. Band brake

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Review Questions:
1. What is the function of clutch in automobile vehicle? What are various types of
clutches? Name only which type of clutch is used in scooter and car.
2. What is the function of coupling? Name only various types of couplings. Explain
Oldham coupling.
3. Differentiate between clutch and coupling. Describe Disc clutch.
4. What is function of brakes? How they are classified? Explain with a neat diagram
working of internal expanding shoe brake.
5. What is the essential difference between coupling and clutch?
6. With a neat sketch describe the centrifugal clutch.
7. Explain band and shoe brake.

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 GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALSAD
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
PRACTICAL 8: STUDY OF POWER TRANSMISSION DRIVES
3110006- DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
B.E. SEM –I/II
Learning Objectives:
1. Know different power and motion transmission elements
2. Understand the different types of belts and ropes used in practice along with
their material.
3. Understandtheworkingofchaindrivealongwiththeiradvantagesanddisadvantages.
4. Know the different types of gear trains.

Theory:

Mechanical power transmission is the transfer of energy from where it’s generated to a
place where it is used to perform work using simple machines, linkages and mechanical
power transmission elements.

Nearly all machines have some kind of power and motion transmission from an input
source. This is usually an electric motor or an internal combustion engine which
typically provides rotary driving torque via an input shaft–coupling combination.

1. Generated power or energy can be converted into a useful form

2. Physical constraints limit the power generation at the place where it is used
hence it can be transferred from source to a place where it is needed
3. It can be used to change direction and magnitude such as speed or torque
4. It can be used to change the type of energy i.e. rotational to linear and vice versa.

Elements of power transmission

The main elements of power transmission system are Nuts, bolts, pins, keys and
couplings, etc. which are provided to hold the two components of machine elements
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together. Driving and driven shafts for transmit motion and power from one place to
another place. Belts, chains, gears are as connectors for transmission of motion and
power from driving shaft to driven shaft. Axles, bearings, brackets etc. to provide
support to other elements of a machine.

SHAFT, SPINDLE AND AXLE

Shaft
A shaft is a rotating machine element which transmits power. The power is
delivered to the shaft by the application of tangential force and the resulting turning
moment set up in the shaft allows the power to be transmitted from one point to another
point. Generally shafts of cylindrical shape are used but shafts with square and
hexagonal cross section are also used in practice. Hollow shafts are preferred since these
are 50 % lighter in weight compared to solid shafts for the same rigidity and stiffness.
Hollow shafts also used whenever it is required to pass through components of a
machine.

Shaft Spindle Axle

Spindle
A spindle is a short revolving shaft that transmits motion either to a cutting tool or a
work piece.

Axle
An axle is a machine element which is used for transmitting bending moment and carries
such rotating parts as wheels and gears. An axle gives support to the rotating body.

Types of mechanical drives

There are mainly three types of mechanical drives
1. Belt drive
2. Chain drive
3. Gear drive

1. Belt drive
One of the most common devices, belt drives are used to transmit motion from one shaft
to another with the help of a thin inextensible band that runs over two pulleys. It is
basically a looped strip of flexible material that mechanically link the rotating shafts.

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 Belt Drive

There are various kind of belt drives available in the market such as flat belt, V-belt, rope
drive, and timing belt. It is important to select the right kind of belt drive, depending
upon:
• Power to be transmitted
• Direction of belt motion
• Shaft’s velocity and Velocity ratio
• Service conditions
• Distance between shafts, and space available

Chain Drive
Chain drives are most commonly used to transmit power between two components that
are at a greater distance, but they may also be used for short distances. They are one of
the five most frequently used mechanical power transmission methods alongside shaft
couplings, gear drives, belt drives and lead screws.

Chain drive is a type of mechanical power transmission system that uses chains to
transfer power from one place to another. A conventional chain drive consists of two or
more sprockets and the chain itself. The holes in the chain links fit over the sprocket
teeth. When the prime mover rotates, the chain wrapped on the shaft’s sprocket rotates
with it. This applies mechanical force onto the driven shaft, transmitting mechanical
power in the process.

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Gear Drive
A gear is a rotating machine part having cut teeth, or cogs, which mesh with another toothed
part in order to transmit toque and power. In order to transmit a definite power from one
shaft to another shaft to the projection on one disc and recesses on another disc can be made
which can mesh with each other.

In early days, friction discs as shown in figure were used for transmitting the power from one
shaft to another shaft. In such a case, the power transmission capacity depends on friction
between surfaces of two discs. Therefore, this method is not suitable for transmitting higher
power as slip occurs between the discs.

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Review Questions:
1. List various power transmission elements with their applications.
2. What are bearings? How they are classified? Explain Thrust Bearing.
3. Explain types of belt drive.
4. Write short note on helical gear, spiral gear and bevel gear. (Draw Sketch)
5. What is V- belt drive? How it differs from a flat belt drive. List the various belt drives
and explain cross belt drive.
6. Compare Belt drive, Chain drive and Gear drive.
7. Explain the following terms with respect to gear

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