LESSON 9

GLASS FRACTURE ANALYSIS, FRAGMENTS

LESSON CONTENT:

Definition of terms

1. Concentric cracks are fractures forming in an approximately circular pattern around the point of
2. impact. They are usually in straight segments that terminate in an existing radial crack.

3. Cone or crater (Hertzian cone) is a funnel-shaped area of damage caused by a high-velocity

4. impact.

5. Hackle is a line on the crack surface running parallel to the local direction of crack spreading.

6. Radial cracks are fractures extending outward from the point of impact.

7. Ream is an imperfection; nonhomogeneous layers of flat glass.

8. Wallner lines (ridges) are rib-shaped marks with a wave-like pattern. Wallner lines are called rib
marks or ridges to describe their shape and are almost always concave in the direction from
which the crack was propagating.

Significance and Use

Fracture patterns are unique. Fracture features in a piece of glass reflect the nature of the glass
and the direction of travel and velocity of the breaking object. Glass fracture examinations can
provide information as to the direction of the breaking force and the sequence of multiple impacts.
A physical match of two pieces of glass establishes that they came from the same source to the
exclusion of all other sources.

What is GLASS?

Glass is a super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and rigidity. It is a non-crystalline inorganic
substance.

Composition of Glass

Glass is usually composed of oxides like SiO2 (silica), B2O3 (boric oxide), phosphorus pentoxide
(P2O5). For commercial use silica is the most important oxide. It is the base of commercial glasses. It
is made of silica sand and other metallic oxides. Oxide is for fluxing, durability and reduction of
viscosity. Glass like window and plate that are made in mass production is fairly uniform in
composition. These may contain incidental impurities and the presence of these substances in
invaluable for the identification and comparison of glass by spectrographic analysis. Glass has also
presence of trace elements which maybe sufficient to establish or negate the fact of a common source of
two samples of glass.

Analysis/Test for Glass

1. SPECTROGRAPHIC TEST – an instrumental method of analysis that determines the presence

of trace element. Shows the constituent elements of a glass. It will not give sufficient
information to establish the origin of the samples examined. A rapid examination and an
adequate method for glass analysis since it requires only a small amount of sample.

2. X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS – not as effective as the spectrographic analysis. Determines

the type of pattern of glass. The type of pattern depends upon the composition of glass.
 3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES EXAMINATION – the most sensitive method of determining
differences of composition in glass samples and it depends upon the study of the physical
properties of glass. Properties like specific gravity or density, refractive index.

4. ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT EXAMINATION – determines the differences in the appearance of their

fluorescence thus indication of physical and chemical differences.

5. POLISH MARKS – optical glass and other fine glassware are usually polished. In the polishing
of glass fine marks are often left on the surface that can sometimes serve as a basis of
comparison.

Glass as Evidence of Crime

In the field of Forensic Chemistry, emphasis is placed on:

1. Automobile glass in case of hit and run.

2. Broken windows caused by pressure, blow or bullet in case of robbery.
3. Broken bottles, drinking glass or spectacles found at the scene of assault or other crimes of
violence.

Analysis of Glass from Vehicle

Hit and run accidents represent a good percentage of crimes. If an automobile or any vehicle for that
matter is discovered in which fragments of the lens can be found, a comparison maybe made with the
fragments found at the scene of accident employing the methods of analysis for glass.

How Glass Breaks?

When the blow strikes the glass on one of its surface, the front for example. The glass first bends a little
owing to its elasticity. When the limit of elasticity if reached the glass breaks along radial lines starting
from the point where the destroying force is applied originating form the opposite surface of the glass,
because this is the portion or surface which is more subjected to stretching by bending. The front
surface is only pushed. While the radial fractures are taking place the newly created glass triangle
between the radial rays also bend away from the direction of the destroying force. By this bending the
glass is stretched along the front surface and when the limit of elasticity is reached the glass breaks in
concentric cracks. These originate on the front of the glass because of stretching.

Glass Fracture Analysis

Physical Reconstruction
Ensure that all pieces of glass could have originated from the same object. Coatings, the float surface,
and other features may be used to aid in the orientation of glass pieces prior to reconstruction. Align the
edges of two pieces of glass that appear to match physically. Two pieces of glass will not slip past one
another with gentle pressure when there is a physical match. Examine the broken edges using low-
power light microscopy to observe corresponding Wallner lines (ridges) and/or hackle marks on the
matching pieces of glass. Features, such as surface scratches or ream, may also match across a fracture.

Types of Fractures
Low-velocity impact, high-velocity impact, and thermal fractures may be observed in glass and can be
differentiated.

1. Low-velocity impact fractures

Low-velocity projectiles produce cracks in the glass, which radiate outward from the point of impact
(radial cracks). If a pane is firmly held on all sides, concentric cracks can form around the point of
impact. The sequence of multiple impacts can be deduced when the cracks caused by a subsequent
impact terminate at previously formed cracks.
By observing the Wallner lines (ridges) on the radial cracks, the direction of breaking force can often be
determined. Observe only the Wallner lines on the radial cracks nearest the point of impact. If the
impact site is not preserved, the glass must be reconstructed. The original orientation of the glass must
be known to complete the determination.

The ridges (Wallner lines) on radial cracks nearest the point of impact are at right angles to the side
opposite, or to the rear, of the impact. This phenomenon is referred to as the 4R rule, (Ridges on Radial
cracks are at Right angle to the Rear.) The 4R rule is unreliable for laminated glass, tempered glass, and
small windows tightly held in a frame (Koons et al. 2002).

2. High-velocity impact fractures

A high-speed projectile striking a piece of glass will produce a cone or crater. If the projectile passes
through the glass, the opening on the exit side will be larger than the opening on the entry side. If the
impact site is not preserved, the glass must be reconstructed to observe any coning effects. However,
because of the small size of the shattered fragments at the impact site, the reconstruction of a
sufficient portion of the object to display coning effects may not be possible. The size of the hole and the
diameter of the crater cannot be used to reliably predict the size of the projectile. Projectiles that
pass through the glass at an angle to the surface produce an elongated hole.

Radial cracks may also develop from high-velocity impact. The sequence of multiple impacts can be
deduced when the cracks caused by a subsequent impact terminate at previously formed cracks.

3. Thermal fractures

In nontempered glass a typical heat crack is curved, has a smooth edge, and has no indication of the
point of origin of the crack. Localized heating of thick pieces of glass can cause cracks with a feathered
appearance. The side to which the heat was applied cannot be determined from fracture edges
(Frechette 1990).

Analysis of Broken Windows

Broken windows caused by bullet holes

On one side of the hole numerous small flakes of glass will be found to have been blown away giving the
hole the appearance of a volcano crater. Such appearance indicates that the bullet was fired from the
opposite direction of the hole from which the flakes are missing.

If the shot was fired perpendicular to the window pane the flake marks are evenly distributed around
the hole.

If the shot was fired at an angle from the right, the left side will suffer more flaking than the right.
Excessive flaking on the right side of a window pane would indicate a shot fired at an angle from the
left.

Broken windows caused by fist or stone or hurling projectile

The direction of the blow in case a fist or stone smashed the window is quite difficult but the principles
of radial cracks and concentric cracks or fractures will apply.

The Principle of 3Rs Rule for Radial Crack

3Rs Rule – “Stress lines on a radial crack will be at right angle to the rear side of the glass.”
The front side is referred to as the side that was struck.

The Principle of RFC Rule for Concentric Crack

RFC Rule – “Stress lines on a concentric crack will be at right angle to the front side” that is the side
from which the blow came, rather than the rear side.

PROCEDURE: Piece together as many as you can gather of the glass fragments as possible. Select a
triangular piece bounded by two radial cracks and one concentric crack. The triangular piece must be
adjacent to the point of impact, it this is not a available select a piece as close as possible to the point of
impact.

Where there are two bullet holes in a window pane

The problem of which one was fired first becomes important to determine who the aggressor is. It will
be found that the fractures caused by the first bullet will be complete, especially the radial cracks,
whereas the fractures from the second will be interrupted and end-stopped at points where they
intersect those from the first.

Fractures on Safety Glass

Laminated glass, which is now being used in automobiles, does not shatter when struck sharply.
Frequently the cracking of safety glass is not complete; the radial cracks do not extend to the side of
impact and the spiral cracks do not extend to the other side.

References:
https://www.asteetrace.org/static/images/pdf/02%20Glass%20Fractures.pdf

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=skidnrpzumQ