Performance evaluation concept for crack healing in bacterial concrete using

EMI technique with PZT patch

Krishna Kumar Maurya1*, Anupam Rawat2, Rama Shanker3

1Ph.D. Research Scholar, krish01990@gmail.com

2Assistant Professor, anupam@mnnit.ac.in

3Associate Professor, ramashanker@mnnit.ac.in

123 Department of Civil Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, 211004, India

Abstract
Beginning and development of cracks reduce the structural performance and durability, thus a novel strategy is
required to prevent such kind of occurrence. The incorporation of bacteria in the concrete system is likewise a
technique to prevent the growth of the cracks by the microbial induced calcite precipitation. The Electro
mechanical impedance (EMI) technique is the smart sensor-based technology that is an efficacious technique to
examine the health of structures, whereas the prediction of frequency band and corresponding healing damage
indicator for real-life application is the governing factor. The examination of crack healing performance in
bacterial concrete by EMI technique with PZT sensors was not reported by previous studies to date. This
research is motivated by the quality evaluation of crack healing in bacterial concrete beam specimens using the
EMI technique with surface-bonded PZT patch and concrete vibration sensor (CVS). For the fabrication of
bacterial concrete beam specimen, the Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis bacteria have been used. To induce the
structural damage, the two-point loading was applied to the prepared concrete beam specimen. The optimal
frequency range was determined which resulted in the structural condition for that the four statistical indices
were investigated with various crack severities in several sub-frequency bands. Further, the crack healing
performance was investigated with a pre-evaluated optimal frequency band using the statistical damage indices.
The developed concept is resulted in significantly evaluating the healing quality of the cracks by bacterial
incorporation with the time.

Keywords: EMI technique; Bacterial concrete structure; Cracks; PZT patch;; CVS sensor; Healing of cracks

1. Introduction

Concrete is the most plentiful available material for the creation of numerous types of structures viz., buildings,
water retaining systems, roads, dams, and other engineering infrastructures globally. The concrete comprises
easily existing constituents such as cement, water, aggregates, reinforcement, and other admixtures [1]. The
mixture of these constituents resulted in heterogeneous hard solid substance which is referred to as concrete, has
the great quality to withstand several environmental factors [2,3]. Concrete contributes higher compressive
strength than other construction materials, whereas exhibits lower tensile strength. Thus, the concrete structures
are able to endure compressive stresses, however vulnerable to the tensile stresses. The reason for the
development of tensile stresses in the concrete structures emanates from external loads, shrinkage, sulfate attack,
deformation, and alkali-aggregate reactions [4–6]. These factors develop the beginning and movement of
damages/ cracks in the concrete structures, thus the strength of infrastructures reduces. Damages in the concrete
infrastructures allow the ingress of different injurious ingredients that enhances the size of damages, which
causes the failure of concrete structural systems. Cracks in the structures cause loss of strength and the structure
may collapse if treatment of cracks is not remediated in the specified time interval. To minimize the
development of cracks in the concrete systems several materials can be applied to strengthen and durable
structures [7,8].
Engineering structures are the most significant assets of all society [9,10], several techniques were proposed
to prevent the initiation and progressions of cracks during the initial period in the concrete systems. These
techniques contain strategies by mortar, epoxy resins, acrylic resins, silicon-based polymers, polyvinyl chloride,
polyurethane, and chlorinated rubber [11,12]. Whereas, the incorporation of these materials in the concrete
system produces complications like non-compatibility with concrete, high cost, non-biodegradable, not

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environmental friendly, moisture sensitivity, and low heat resistance, thus the use of these materials is limited in
the concrete structures. As a result, several modern investigations have appeared with the idea of bacterial
concrete that is significant for the viable solution to the cracks developed in concrete systems. The methodology
of bacterial concrete is the incorporation of bacteria cells in concrete to develop the CaCO3 that heals the cracks
effectively [13,14]. The application of bacteria in concrete converts the calcium present in the concrete into
calcium carbonate through the respiratory metabolism process. The primary constituents for the function of
bacteria in concrete systems are the presence of moisture and carbon-di-oxide. Further, the microbial-induced
calcite precipitation is due to the bio-mineralization effect [15]. Generally, the bacteria cell surface is negatively
charged, the positive calcium ion present in the concrete reacts and adheres to the surface of bacteria and makes
nucleic sites. Further, the H2O and CO2 reacts and makes carbonic ion that reacts with calcium ion adhere to the
bacteria cell surface and deposit calcium carbonate around the bacteria, the phenomenon is termed the bio-
mineralization process. From the studies, it has been found that for the optimum compressive strength the
bacteria concentration of 105 cells/ml can be used [16], however for the healing of cracks 107 – 109 cells/ml can
be considered [17]. Therefore, the application of bacteria heals the cracks automatically without human
involvement that provides sustainable concrete infrastructure [18,19].
Several researchers studied bacterial concrete for crack healing and developed the concept of the bacterial
phenomenon. Wictor and Jonker (2011), considered Bacillus alkalinitrilicus an alkali-resistant soil bacterium for
crack healing in the concrete matrix, and the crack was healed upto 0.46 mm in width [20]. Nugroho et al.
(2015), examined the effect of various concentrations 104, 105, and 106 cells/ml of Bacillus subtilis bacteria on
the self-healing of cement mortar matrix. The flexural test was conducted to induce the cracks upto 0.22 mm
and further, placed for the curing. The healing of cracks was evaluated after 28 days of curing and observed that
the 0.22 mm cracks were healed completely due to the formation of calcites by the bacteria application [21].
Luo and Qian (2016), considered two types of alkali-resistant bacteria-based additives type I (calcium lactate
and bacteria spores) and type II (calcium formate and bacteria spores) for the crack healing efficiency of cement
mortar. The cracks have been entirely healed after 7 days of curing and the healing of cracks was measured in
terms of area repair rate [14]. Zhang et al. (2017), incorporated immobilized Bacillus cohnii bacteria for the self-
healing of cracks in the concrete system and found that the 0.79 mm crack width was totally healed after 28 days
of curing [7]. Mondal and Ghosh (2018), incorporated Bacillus subtilis bacteria in the cement mortar matrix
with various cell concentrations of 103, 105, and 107 cells/ml, and the healing of cracks upto 1.2 mm after 28
days of curing at 107 cells/ml was observed. According to the author, at higher cell concentrations the formation
of calcites was more inside the cracks, thus resulted the healing of cracks [22]. Xu and Wang (2018), used
alkaliphilic spore-forming bacteria in the concrete matrix and observed that the crack was healed upto 0.417 mm
after 28 days of curing [23]. Nguyen et al. (2019), used Bacillus subtilis bacteria in the concrete matrix for the
investigation of crack healing. The induced calcium carbonate due to the supply of bacteria in the concrete
healed the cracks upto 0.40 mm at 44 days of curing [24]. Thus, the incorporation of various types of bacteria is
useful for the crack healing of concrete systems that provide sustainable and durable concrete structures [25].
Damages/ cracks in the structures create problems related to the integrity of systems. The technique is
requisite to monitor the beginning and progression of cracks in the structural systems. Numerous non-
destructive techniques (NDT) were widely considered to identify the presence of damage and healing of cracks
[26]. The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) can be used to identify the cracks [27]. The velocity of wave
propagation is measured which is transmitted through transducers indicating healing of damages. On the other
hand, several other NDT techniques are used by researchers for the investigation of cracks such as acoustic
emission, x-ray diffraction, eddy current, etc. The smart materials-based electro-mechanical impedance (EMI)
technique can be considered for the assessment of damages. In the EMI technique, the piezo-ceramic lead
zirconate titanate (PZT) sensors are used for the health monitoring of structures [28]. The PZT patches are an
effective tool for NDT because of lightweight, easy installation, cost-effective, and dual nature. For the
identification of cracks, the admittance signatures were determined which contains conductance and susceptance
as real and imaginary parts, respectively. For the investigation of inner cracks and their healing, the concrete
vibrator sensor (CVS) can be installed inside the concrete matrix. Thus, the EMI technique can be applied to
examine the self-healing of cracks through microbial-induced calcite precipitation (MICP) using PZT patches
[29]. The performance of the EMI technique to monitor the crack healing by bacteria was not reported. The

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frequency range is the significant parameter for this technique to investigate the structural damages, thus need to
examine the optimal frequency band currently, which is the big issue [30].
Damage was investigated by several authors in different kinds of structural materials such as steel, concrete,
timber, and aluminium. Kim et al. (2019), investigated the crack/ damage repair performance by the EMI
technique with PZT sensors in a concrete system. The artificial damages were created on the concrete specimen
and these damages have been repaired by the commercial cementitious materials based in the Republic of
Korea. Further, the optimal frequency band was determined for the crack repair in the concrete system [31].
Kaur et al. (2019), evaluated the damage and retrofitting of damages in RC structures through the EMI
technique with CVS sensors. The consequence of long-term dynamic loading on RC structure was also
evaluated. According to the author, the developed concept is significant for the assessment of damage and it’s
retrofitting [32]. Ai et al. (2018), considered an RC structure that was exposed to four-point loading for induced
damages and stresses. These induced damages and developed tension and compression stresses were determined
using the EMI technique with PZT transducers [33]. Shanker et al. (2011), determined the beginning and
movement of damages by the combination of the EMI technique and global dynamic technique with surface
bonded PZT sensors. The developed concept was verified by considering steel beams and mild steel plates [34].
Park et al. (2006), examined multiple crack detection of considered RC structure through the EMI technique.
The damage was quantified using the RMSD statistical index [35]. Lim et al. (2006), developed a novel concept
to identify the structures from the conductance and susceptance signatures in terms of equivalent structural
parameters. And these recognized parameters were considered for damage investigation using PZT transducers.
For the verification of the concept, the truss, beam, and concrete cube were considered, and observed that the
developed concept was useful for damage investigation and structural identification [36]. Thus, the EMI
technique can be considered for the investigation of structural conditions.
The self-healing of cracks through MICP in the concrete system was studied by several researchers, whereas
that is not evaluated using the EMI technique with PZT patches. The performance of the EMI technique to
investigate the self-healing of cracks was investigated. Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis microorganism-based
bacterial concrete was monitored using surface attached sensor and concrete vibration sensor (CVS) in intact
and damaged states of the host structure subsequently, the self-healing of cracks was evaluated through both the
sensors in terms of damage indicators. Frequency is the significant parameter to the structural condition, the
optimal frequency band was evaluated using four statistical indices and corresponding that the self-healing of
cracks evaluated with statistical indices. The developed concept will be helpful to determine the self-healing of
cracks in bacteria-based concrete systems for sustainable infrastructures.

2. The EMI technique

The EMI technique relies on high-frequency bands 30 kHz to 400 kHz and PZT patches are used for monitoring
the structures. This technique is more susceptible to incipient damage examination, whereas the low-frequency
excitation-based global dynamic technique is best suited for severe damage investigation. In this technique, the
PZT patches are attached to the interrogated structures and electrically excited via an impedance analyser or
LCR meter. The excitation of PZT patches by the application of one r. m. s. volt results in the deformation of
concrete in the vicinity of PZT patches and subsequently, the stress developed in the deformed concrete is
transferred to the PZT patches. Thus, the interaction between structure and PZT patch is resulted in the form of
PZT patch signatures and corresponding that the structural parameters can be evaluated. The admittance
signature is evaluated by the LCR meter, which contains conductance (real part) and susceptance (imaginary
part) signatures. The inverse of electro-mechanical admittance is referred to the electro-mechanical impedance
of the systems. Electro-mechanical admittance is more reliable for the detection of damages; therefore the
admittance signatures are more frequently used instead of electro-mechanical impedance signatures. The
researchers used conductance signatures more frequently for monitoring of infrastructures because the number
of peaks, whereas the susceptance signatures have a lesser number of peaks. Thus, the susceptance signatures
are less susceptible to damage investigations. Variations in signatures from the healthy state signatures indicate
the occurrence of damages in the structures [37–39]. The piezoelectric materials have actuating property by the
external environmental or mechanical variation that develops the electric charges, and subsequently, generating
mechanical strain exposed to the electric field. In the EMI technique, the PZT patches attached to the surface or
embedded with interrogated structure can be measured in terms of the mechanical impedance of the interrogated

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structure and the PZT patch. For the one-dimensional coupled system, the mechanical admittance, 𝑌 (inverse of
this is the structural impedance, 𝑍) formulation was developed by Liang et al. [40] that is expressed in Eq.(1) as;
𝑤𝑙
[ 𝑇
𝑌 = 2𝜔𝑗 ℎ (𝜀33 2 𝐸
‒ 𝑑31𝑌 )+ ( 𝑍𝑎
𝑍 + 𝑍𝑎 ) 𝑑 𝑌 ( )]
2 𝐸 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜅𝑙
31 𝜅𝑙 (1)

3. Performance assessment of crack healing by the EMI technique

The performance of crack healing material produced by bacterial respiratory effect can be measured using the
EMI technique, which has significant dual sensing, and actuating property, cost-effective, and embed ability.
The EMI technique was mostly applied for damage investigation of civil systems, whereas the effectiveness of
measuring crack healing performance has not been explored. In this research, two kinds of sensors were
considered for structural investigation such as surface-attached PZT sensor and concrete vibration sensor (CVS),
respectively. These sensors were connected with an LCR meter to measure the conductance and susceptance for
structural health monitoring. The extracted signatures have been used to determine the damage indicators to
evaluate the performance of the crack repair material produced by bacterial phenomenon over time.
To the successfully approve the performance of crack healing by microbial-induced calcite precipitation
using the EMI technique, the following methodical concept is projected: (1) to find the optimal frequency band
for the investigation of structural health (2) to investigate the performance of crack healing material produced by
bacterial phenomenon from the calculated optimal frequency band. Considering an optimal frequency band that
dynamically imitates the structural conditions which are significant as the damage indicators, determined
directly from the predetermined frequency band. For that all frequency band investigable with the PZT patch
was separated into sub-frequency bands at consistent intervals further, the correlation amid damage indicators
and damage severity have been determined. In the EMI technique, deviation in the healthy state signatures
points to the availability of damages present in the structures can be determined [34,41–43]. The shifting of
peaks towards the right or left and the development of new high peaks in the admittance signatures are the
primary signs of damage [44]. In this research four damage indicators were used viz., root mean square
deviation (RMSD), mean absolute percentage deviation (MAPD), Cov, and correlation coefficient (CC),
respectively. According to Giurgiutiu et al. [45], the mathematical expression of the RMSD index is represented
in Eq. (2). Furthermore, the MAPD index is given by Naidu (2004) [46], which is represented in Eq. (3). The
Cov and the CC are formulated as shown in Eqs. (4) and (5). Where, G1i is the value of post-damage
conductance at the ith measurement point and G0i is the corresponding pre-damage value. The standard deviation
at reference point signature and signature after damage is represented by 𝜎0 and 𝜎1 and the mean value of
baseline healthy state signature and signature afterward damage is represented by 𝐺0 and 𝐺1, respectively.
Where, n represents the number of observations.
∑𝑛
𝑖=1
(𝐺1𝑖 ‒ 𝐺0𝑖 )2
𝑅𝑀𝑆𝐷 (%) = 𝑋 100 (2)
∑𝑛 (𝐺0𝑖 )2
𝑖=1

𝑀𝐴𝑃𝐷 =
100 𝑛
∑ | |
𝐺1𝑖 ‒ 𝐺0𝑖
𝑛 𝑖 = 1 𝐺0𝑖 (3)

1 𝑛
𝐶𝑜𝑣 (𝐺0, 𝐺1) = ∑
𝑛 𝑖=1
(𝐺0𝑖 ‒ 𝐺0)(𝐺1𝑖 ‒ 𝐺1) (4)
𝐶𝑜𝑣 (𝐺0, 𝐺1)
𝐶𝐶 = 𝜎0𝜎1 (5)

All the statistical damage indicators compute the damage based on alteration in compared data with respect
to the intact data. The RMSD and MAPD mostly reflect the standardized changes; however Cov determines the
statistical correlation amid the data points as a linear function. Moreover, the Cov rests on the magnitude of the
considered data, the CC that normalizes Cov by 𝜎0𝜎1. The statistical indices of the RMSD, MAPD, and Cov
values are determined w.r.t. the intact state condition. It is noteworthy that the evaluation of the optimal
frequency band is significant as the damage indicators mostly rest on the related frequency band. Further, the
considered frequency band is to be optimal when the determined damage indicator is the highest sensitive to
structural damage. Therefore, a linear model is developed amid the damage indicator and the damage severity,

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where the slope indicates sensitivity. Hence, the frequency band with the maximum slope can be considered the
optimal frequency band. The following linear model has been considered, as shown in Eq. (6).
𝑦𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖(𝑥𝑖) + 𝑑𝑖 (6)
Where, i indicates the ith sub-frequency band, 𝑐𝑖 and 𝑑𝑖 are the slope and the intercept at y-axis, respectively;
and 𝑥𝑖 and 𝑦𝑖 are the damage indicators and corresponding damage severity, respectively. The conductance and
susceptance were evaluated from surface-bonded PZT sensor and CVS in all sub-frequency bands and total of
sixteen damage indicators have been determined. All the damage indicator was modeled by Eq. (6) for the
calculation of slope 𝑐𝑖. Based on the considered frequency band with maximum 𝑐𝑖 (i.e., the maximum
sensitivity), the optimal frequency band has been evaluated. Further, the evaluated optimal frequency band has
been considered for the investigation of crack healing efficiency by bacterial calcite precipitation. The
comparison has been made using the EMI technique between the determined optimal frequency band and the
damage indicators.

4. Experimental justification

4.1. Evaluation of optimal frequency band

The EMI technique with a PZT patch was used for the evaluation of structural signatures in terms of
conductance and susceptance and corresponding damage severities to evaluate the optimal frequency band, in
which the damage indicators have maximum sensitivity. The coarse aggregates retained on 4.75 mm and fine
aggregates passed through 4.75 mm IS sieves were used, respectively in accordance with the IS: 383–2016 [47].
The physical properties of coarse aggregate were determined by performing several physical tests such as
fineness modulus of 7.37, bulk density at densest state of 1659 kg/m3, specific gravity of 2.71, water absorption
of 0.5 % maximum, and minimum size of aggregate of 20 mm and 10 mm, respectively. The tests were
conducted to determine the physical properties of considered fine aggregate and these properties were observed
as fineness modulus of 3.0, bulk density at densest state of 1676 kg/m3, specific gravity of 2.68, water
absorption of 1.2%, and lies in zone II. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of grade 43 has been considered for the
experiment confirming IS: 8112–2013 [48]. Several tests were performed to determine the physical properties of
cement-like consistency of 28%, initial setting time of 115 minutes, final setting time of 223 minutes, fineness
of 2.8 %, specific gravity of 3.15, and bulk density of 1440 kg/m3. These tests were performed in accordance
with the IS: 4031–2005. For the preparation of the concrete mixture, freshwater has been used in accordance
with IS: 456–2000 [49]. In the formation of reinforced concrete beams, the Fe-415 steel bars were considered.
For the main reinforcement, the diameter of 12 mm size and 8 mm diameter for the stirrups have been used. The
four stirrups were provided in the beam specimens at 130 mm spacing center to center.
The bacterial concrete beam (BCB) specimen of size 700 mm (length) x 150 mm (width) x 150 mm (depth)
of M30 grade was prepared for the experimentation. The concrete mix design has been prepared in accordance
with IS: 10262. For the preparation of BCB, the bacterial cell concentration was suspended in concrete mixing
water. Two kinds of sensors like PZT patch and CVS were used. The CVS sensor of size 25 mm (diameter) x 20
mm (height) was prepared using the cement-sand ratio of 1:3 and cured for 7 days. The PZT patch (PIC 151) of
the size 10 mm (length) x 10 mm (width) x 0.30 mm (thickness) has been attached to the surface of the
specimen with high-strength epoxy at the center of the beam specimen after the 28 days of curing. During the
preparation of the beam specimen, the CVS sensor was embedded inside the concrete at the center of the
specimen. The prepared CVS sensor is presented in Fig. 1. The LCR (inductance, conductance, and resistance)
meter (IM3536, HIOKI) was used to measure the conductance and susceptance signatures from both the sensors.
To induce damages, the two-point loadings have been applied on BCB specimens ranging from 10 kN to 90 kN
at an interval of 10 kN, respectively. The load ratio (LR) is defined as the ratio of a particular load with respect
to the maximum load of 90 kN and these were represented as LR1, LR2, LR3, LR4, LR5, LR6, LR7, LR8, and
LR9, respectively. In the BCB beam specimen exposed under LR9, the crack width of 0.31 mm was developed
and remains after the removal of load. For the investigation of developed surface cracks, the PZT patch was
attached to the surface however, for internal crack investigation, the CVS sensor has been inserted inside in
BCB specimen. For the every damage condition (all LR), the frequency band of 50 kHz-380 kHz at an interval
of 55 kHz was applied, from which the conductance and susceptance for both the sensors have been evaluated

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considering steady-state at a constant temperature of 27 ℃ to stop variation in material. The test was performed
three times and the average assessment has been used in evaluation with a 96% assurance level. The
experimental setup to perform the test is presented in Fig. 2 and the properties of the PZT patch used are
presented in Table 1. Further, the conductance and susceptance signatures measured for surface bonded PZT
patch and embedded CVS sensor at intact and all load ratios have been presented in Figs. (3) and (4). The unit of
conductance and susceptance is Siemens (S) or mho.
In view of the damage indicator to the damage severity, the optimal frequency bands were investigated. The
whole frequency band 50 kHz–380 kHz has been separated into sub-frequency bands at a fixed interim of 55
kHz, in which the conductance and susceptance determined from both sensors were considered to achieve the
four damage indicators (RMSD, MAPD, Cov, and CC). The determined damage indicators for all severity
considering surface-bonded PZT patch and embedded CVS sensor are shown in Figs. (5) and (6). The values of
damage indicators viz., RMSD, MAPD, and CC increased with increasing damage severity in a specific
frequency band, as presented in Fig. 5 (p), (q), (r), (s), (v), and (w) considering surface-bonded PZT patch.

Table 1 Properties of PZT patch

Parameters Notations Quantity
PZT size, m x m lxw 0.01 x 0.01
PZT thickness, m H 0.0003
Density, kg/m3 𝜌 7800
Young’s modulus, x 10 N/m10 2 𝐸 6.667
𝑌
Piezoelectric strain coefficient,
d31 -2.10
x 10-10 m/V
Compliance, x 10-12 m2/N S11 15.00
𝑇
Electric permittivity, x 10-8 F/m 𝜀11 1.750
Mechanical loss factor 𝜂 0.0325
Dielectric loss factor 𝛿 0.02

Zero resistant wire

25 mm
10 mm

PZT patch

Cement mortar block

Prepared CVS sensor
Fig. 1 Schematic representation of CVS sensor preparation

Laptop Power source Healed crack (0.31 mm)

Surface bonded PZT

Data patch and CVS sensor
cable LCR meter

BCB specimen

Fig. 2 Experimental setup for crack healing investigation through EMI technique

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 0.006 Intact 0.014 Intact
LR1 LR1
0.012
0.005 LR2 LR2
LR3 0.010 LR3
0.004
Conductance, G (S)

LR4 LR4

Susceptance, B (S)
0.008
LR5 LR5
0.003
LR6 0.006 LR6
0.002 LR7
LR7
LR8 0.004
LR8
0.001 LR9
0.002 LR9
0.000 0.000
50 105 160 215 270 325 380 50 105 160 215 270 325 380
Frequency (kHz) Frequency (kHz)

Fig. 3 Conductance and susceptance signatures v/s frequency considering surface bonded PZT patch

0.007 Intact Intact

0.014
LR1 LR1
0.006 0.012 LR2
LR2
0.005 LR3 0.010 LR3
Conductance, G (S)

LR4 LR4
Susceptance, B (S)

0.004 0.008
LR5 LR5
0.003 LR6 0.006 LR6
LR7 LR7
0.002 0.004
LR8 LR8
0.001 LR9 0.002 LR9

0.000 0.000
50 105 160 215 270 325 380 50 105 160 215 270 325 380
Frequency (kHz) Frequency (kHz)
Fig. 4 Conductance and susceptance signatures v/ frequency considering embedded PZT sensor

Similarly, the same pattern was observed in the case of embedded CVS sensors, as presented in Fig. 6 (p),
(q), (r), (s), (v), and (w). Whereas, considering both the sensors, the Cov is insensitive to damage severity in
each sub-frequency band, as presented in Fig. 5 (t), and (u), and Fig. 6 (t), and (u), respectively. The developed
model presented in Eq. (6) has been used in all intervals to investigate the optimal sub-frequency band and in
which the indicators were greatest sensitive to the damage/ cracks. The frequency band with maximum slope
was considered in conductance and susceptance in both the sensor conditions of all damage indicators, as shown
in Table 2. From the all considered frequency bands, the best-suited frequency interval of 161–215 kHz was
considered the optimal frequency band to investigate the crack healing performance by the bacterial calcite
deposition.
Conductance, G (S) - MAPD
Conductance, G (S) -

0.60 0.60

0.30
0.30
271
326 50 kH
kH 325 k z -
50 380 kHz - 0.00 105 z - Hz
k
0.00 105 Hz - kHz kH
z
kH 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct z LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LRInta

(p) (q)

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 x

Conductance, G
0.60 6
Conductance, G (S) - Cov

0.30 3

271
50 32 kHz 216
kH 5 k - 50 27 kHz
105 z - Hz kH 0 k
0.00 kH
z 0 105 z - Hz -
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct kH
z
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta

(r) (s)
Susceptance, B (S) - RMSD

Susceptance, B (S) - MAPD

0.60 0.6

0.30 0.3
21
6
50 270 kHz 216
10 kHz kHz - 50 270 kHz -
0.00 5k - kH kH
Hz 0 105 z - z
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct kH
z
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta

(t) (u)
Susceptance, B (S) - Cov

x 10^-5
6
0.6
Susceptance, B

3
0.3
271
21
6 50 32 kHz
50 27 kHz kH 5 k -
k 0 105 z - Hz
10 H 0k - kH
0 z
5 k - Hz z
Hz 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LRInta
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta

(v) (w)
Fig. 5 Correlation between damage severity and analogous indicators in respect to sub-frequency bands for surface bonded PZT sensors: (p)
RMSD determined from conductance, (q) MAPD determined from conductance (r) Cov determined from conductance, (s) CC determined
from conductance, (t) RMSD determined from susceptance, (u) MAPD determined from susceptance (v), Cov determined from susceptance,
and (w) CC determined from susceptance.
Conductance, G (S) -

0.60 0.60
Conductance, G (S) -

0.30 0.30

271 271
k
50 k 32 kHz - 50
k 3 25 Hz -
H 5
105 z - kHz 0.00 105 Hz - kHz
0.00 kHz kH
z
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta

(p) (q)

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 Conductance, G (S) - x 10^-5
6

Conductance, G (S) -
1.00

3
0.50
271
271 50 3 kH
50 kH kH 25 kH z -
kH 325 kH z - 0 105 z -
kH
z
0.00 105 z - z z
kH 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
z
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta

(r) (s)
Susceptance, B (S) - RMSD

Susceptance, B (S) -
0.25 0.25

0.13 0.13
271
271 50 3 kH
50 kH kH 25 kH z -
kH 325 k z - 0.00 105 z - z
0.00 105 z - Hz kH
kH z
z 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 c t LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta

(t) (u)

x 10^-5
6
Susceptance, B (S) -

0.30
Susceptance, B (S) -

3
0.15
271
50 3 kH
271 kH 25 kH z -
50 kH 0 105 z - z
kH 325 kH z - kH
z
0.00 105 z - z 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
kH
z LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LRInta
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ct
LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR LR Inta

(v) (w)
Fig. 6 Correlation between damage severity and analogous indicators in respect to sub-frequency bands for embedded CVS sensors: (p)
RMSD determined from conductance, (q) MAPD determined from conductance (r) Cov determined from conductance, (s) CC determined
from conductance, (t) RMSD determined from susceptance, (u) MAPD determined from susceptance (v), Cov determined from susceptance,
and (w) CC determined from susceptance.

Table 2 Optimal frequency bands for damage indicators from conductance and susceptance
Optimal frequency bands
Damage
Surface bonded PZT sensor Embedded CVS sensor
indicators
Conductance Susceptance Conductance Susceptance
RMSD 161 kHz - 215 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz

MAPD 161 kHz - 215 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz

Cov 216 kHz - 270 kHz 216 kHz - 270 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz 161 kHz - 215 kHz

CC 216 kHz - 270 kHz 216 kHz - 270 kHz 216 kHz - 270 kHz 216 kHz - 270 kHz

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4149206

4.2 Performance investigation of crack healing

The changes in the conductance and susceptance were determined by considering the predetermined optimal
frequency band (161–215 kHz) to evaluate the performance of rack healing material produced by the bacterial
phenomenon. The Gram-positive strain 441 Bacillus subtilis bacteria purchased from microbial type culture
collection (MTCC) Chandigarh, India was used for this research. These are rod-shaped and develop tough,
protective endospore, which allows them to endure extremely harsh environmental situations. For the culturing
of bacteria, the media such as 1 g/l beef extract, 2 g/l yeast extract, 5 g/l peptone, 5 g/l NaCl, and distilled water
were considered. With these proportions, the nutrient broth was prepared and autoclaved in several 500 ml
capacity flasks. After that, the prepared broth was inoculated with the purchased bacteria strain in a laminar
setup. The inoculated flasks were placed inside the shaker and agitated at 125 rpm for 24 hours to grow the
bacteria cells. Further, the agitated culture was centrifuged and the bacteria cells were collected in the falcon’s
tubes with saline water. And the required bacteria cell concentration was measured by serial dilution using a
microscope. For the preparation of concrete specimens, the bacteria concentration of 105 cells/ml was used. The
automated crack healing with the calcium carbonate precipitated by the bio-mineralization process in presence
of moisture and carbon-di-oxide was monitored in the determined optimal frequency band. The crack (0.31 mm)
was induced in BCB specimen under LR9 by the two points loading after 28 days of curing; further the cracked
specimen was placed for curing in water to heal the racks till 28 days. The crack healing was monitored by the
surface-bonded PZT patch and embedded CVS sensor in the predetermined optimal frequency band after the 3,
7, 14, and 28 days of curing. The presented Fig.7 indicates the crack healing phenomenon in the bacterial
concrete beam specimen, where (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e) indicates the cracked stage at LR9 (0.31 mm crack),
and after 3, 7, 14, and 28 days of crack healing.
From the evaluated conductance and susceptance signatures, the damage indicators were determined to
assess and equate the healing performances. In this study, the optimal frequency band of 161–215 kHz (see
Table 2) was considered to investigate the variations in the damage indicators over time (days), for surface-
bonded PZT and embedded CVS sensor, respectively as presented in Figs. (8) and (9). The red arrow color
movement from dark to light was indicating that the increase in the damage severity under the loads, whereas
the green arrow color movement from light to dark was indicating the crack healing performance over different
days. Considering the damage indicators RMSD, MAPD, Cov, and CC, the healing efficiency due to calcite
precipitation were in increasing order over time (damage reducing) as presented in Fig. 8 (p), (q), (r), (s), (t), (u),
(v), and (w) for surface-bonded PZT patch and Fig. 9 (p), (q), (r), (s), (t), (u), (v), and (w) for CVS sensor,
respectively. From the responses in the optimal frequency band, all the damage indicators were evaluated. The
normalized values of all the damage indicators were presented in Fig. 10. Here, it was noted for the evaluation
of all damage indicators the reference was considered from the LR9 for a better comparison. Fig. 10 represents
the conductance and susceptance based on evaluated all damage indicators, for surface-bonded PZT patch (p, q)
and for CVS sensor (r, s) in which the lines represent at intact condition, cracked condition (at LR9), and crack
healing at 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. All the damage indicators were significant for the evaluation of crack healing
over time in the optimal frequency band; however the RMSD and MAPD were more sensitive for the crack
healing investigation. Therefore, the EMI technique with a PZT sensor can be used for performance evaluation
of crack healing using the bacterial calcite deposition by selecting the suitable damage indicator and optimal
frequency band.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 7 Crack healing in BCB specimen (a) at crack 0.31 mm, (b) after 3 days, (c) after 7 days, (d) after 14 days (e) after 28 days

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4149206

 0.3 0.3

0.25 Dmage severity 0.25

Dmage severity
Crack healing
Crack healing

Conductance, G (S) -
0.2 0.2
Conductance, G (S) -

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0

Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
(p) (q)
1.2
0.03

Conductance, G (S) - CC
1
Conductance, G (S) - Cov

0.025
0.8
0.02
0.6
0.015

Damage severity 0.4 Dmage severity

0.01
Crcak healing Crack healing
0.2
0.005
0
0
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

(r) (s)
0.2 0.2
Damage severity
0.16 Damage severity
Susceptance, B (S) - RMSD

Crack healing 0.16

Crack healing
0.12 0.12
Susceptance, B

0.08 0.08
(S) - MAPD

0.04 0.04

0 0
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

(t) (u)

0.06 1.2

0.05
Susceptance, B (S) - Cov

0.04 0.8
Susceptance, B

0.03 0.6
(S) - CC

0.02 Damage severity 0.4 Damage severity

Crack healing
Crack healing
0.01 0.2

0 0
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

(v) (w)
Fig. 8 Healing performance in terms of damage indicators in the optimal frequency band for surface bonded sensors: (p) RMSD determined
from conductance, (q) MAPD determined from conductance (r) Cov determined from conductance, (s) CC determined from conductance, (t)
RMSD determined from susceptance, (u) MAPD determined from susceptance (v), Cov determined from susceptance, and (w) CC
determined from susceptance.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4149206

 0.2 0.2
Damage severity
Conductance, G (S) - RMSD

0.16 Damage severity 0.16 Crack healing

Crack healing

Conductance, G (S) -
0.12 0.12

0.08 0.08

MAPD
0.04 0.04

0 0
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
(p) (q)

0.2 1.2
Conductance, G (S) - Cov

Conductance, G (S) - CC
0.16 1
0.8
0.12
0.6
0.08
Damage severity 0.4 Damage severity
0.04 Crack healing Crack healing
0.2

0 0
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

(r) (s)

0.15 0.1
Susceptance, B (S) - RMSD

Susceptance, B (S) - MAPD

0.12 Damage severity

0.08 Damage severity
Crack healing
Crack healing
0.09 0.06

0.06 0.04

0.03 0.02

0 0
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

(t) (u)

0.12 1.2
Susceptance, B (S) - Cov

0.1 1
Susceptance, B (S) -

0.08 0.8
0.06 0.6

0.04 0.4
Damage severity Damage severity
0.02 Crack healing 0.2 Crack healing

0 0
Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

Intact
LR1
LR2
LR3
LR4
LR5
LR6
LR7
LR8
LR9
3 days
7 days
14 days
28 days

(v) (w)
Fig. 9 Healing performance in terms of damage indicators in the optimal frequency bands for embedded CVS sensors: (p) RMSD
determined from conductance, (q) MAPD determined from conductance (r) Cov determined from conductance, (s) CC determined from
conductance, (t) RMSD determined from susceptance, (u) MAPD determined from susceptance (v), Cov determined from susceptance, and
(w) CC determined from susceptance.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4149206

 1.2 1.2

RMSD RMSD
1 1
MAPD MAPD
Cov Cov
0.8 0.8
CC CC
0.6 0.6

Normalized value -
Normalized value -

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
Intact LR9 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days Intact LR9 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
(p) (q)
1.2 1.2
RMSD RMSD
1 MAPD 1 MAPD
Cov Cov
0.8 0.8 CC
CC Normalized value -
0.6 0.6
Normalized value -

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
Intact LR9
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days Intact LR9 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days
(r) (s)
Fig. 10 Variation in the damage indicators in optimal frequency band (p) damage indicators from conductance for surface bonded PZT
patch, (q) damage indicators from susceptance for surface bonded PZT patch, (r) damage indicators from conductance for CVS sensor, (s)
damage indicators from susceptance for CVS sensor

5. Conclusions

This research determined the suitability of the smart PZT patch-based EMI technique for investigating the
performance of crack healing with the microbial-induced calcite precipitation. For the investigation of structural
condition, the surface-bonded PZT patch and CVS sensor were used; further the correlation was presented
between the damage indicators and corresponding damage severity in the considered optimal frequency band.
Four damage indicators have been determined for both sensors considering a predetermined optimal frequency
band to investigate the performance of the crack healing by the bacterial phenomenon. The high-frequency band
is more susceptible to incipient damage identification, which was more liable for variation in structural
parameters. In this research, the optimal frequency band has been evaluated to be 161–215 kHz. It was observed
that the EMI technique strongly reflected the crack healing by the bacterial bio-mineralization over time. The
damage indicators RMSD and MAPD were most appropriate for the evaluation of damage severity; however
Cov and CC were appropriate for damage severity evaluation in lesser amounts in a sub-frequency band. The
evaluated damage indicators RMSD, MAPD, Cov, and CC successfully signified the crack healing by the
bacterial incorporation in concrete structures. All the evaluated damage indicators for the surface-bonded PZT
patch and CVS sensor strongly reflected the surface crack healing and inside crack healing in the concrete
structure by calcite deposition, respectively. Therefore, the EMI technique can be considered for surface and
inside structural damage identification; subsequently the performance of crack healing by the bacterial
deposition can be evaluated. The developed concept can be implemented for the damage and crack healing
performance assessment of real-life concrete infrastructures for the sustainability concern.

Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4149206

Nomenclature 𝐺1 conductance mean value of baseline
damage state signature,
BCB bacteria concrete beam, h thickness of PZT patch,
CC correlation coefficient, I electric current,
CVS concrete vibration sensor, j ‒ 1,
Cov covariance, k spring constant,
EMI electro mechanical impedance, l half-length of PZT patch,
IS Indian standard, T quantity at constant mechanical stress,
LCR inductance, capacitance and resistance, w width of PZT,
LR load ratio, 𝑥𝑖 damage indicators,
MAPD mean absolute percentage deviation, Y mechanical admittance,
MICP microbial induced calcite precipitation, 𝑦𝑖 damage severity,
NDE non-destructive evaluation, Z mechanical impedance,
PZT piezo-ceramic lead zirconate titanate, Zs structural mechanical impedance,
RMSD root mean square deviation, Za PZT patch mechanical impedance,
SHM structural health monitoring, ρ density,
OPC ordinary Portland cement, ω angular velocity,
UPV ultrasonic pulse velocity meter, YE complex Young’s modulus of elasticity at
B susceptance, constant electric field,
𝑐𝑖 slope, ν poisson’s ratio,
d piezoelectric strain coefficient, εT complex electric permittivity at constant
𝑑𝑖 y-axis intercept, stress,
E quantity at constant electric field, 𝜎0 standard deviation at reference point
F harmonic force, signature,
G conductance, 𝜎1 standard deviation at damage point
G1i post damage conductance at ith signature,
measurement point, δ dielectric loss factor of PZT material,
G0i pre damage conductance at ith η mechanical loss factor of PZT material,
measurement point, 1, 2 subscript, direction of deformations,
𝐺0 conductance mean value of baseline 3 subscript, direction of electric field
healthy state signature, application,

Acknowledgement The author would like to gratefully thank the dept. of civil engineering and structural engineering lab of the Motilal
Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, India.

Funding There is no specific funding received by author(s) for this study.

Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.

Author contribution Krishna Kumar Maurya: Writing - original draft, review and editing. Anupam Rawat: Supervision. Rama Shanker:
Review and editing.

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