Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017

MACE University of Manchester

Structures 1 –
Part 2- Bending Stresses and Deflections in Beams

1) Extensions of Bars
In the previous set of notes we defined the concepts of stress, strain and Young’s modulus. These
can be used to determine the extensions of bars (axially loaded members). By definition
𝜎 𝐹 𝛿𝐿
𝐸= , 𝜎= and ε=
𝜀 𝐴 𝐿
Substituting the second and third equations in the first gives
𝐹
(𝐴) 𝐹𝐿
𝐸= =
𝛿𝐿
( 𝐿 ) 𝐴𝛿𝐿
Rearranging gives
𝐹𝐿
𝛿𝐿 =
𝐸𝐴
This is an expression for the extension of a bar of length 𝐿 and cross-sectional area 𝐴 (Figure 1). It is
valid providing the strain along the length of the bar is constant. If this is not the case, either
because of varying force (for example a pile being driven in the ground) or because of varying
section (for example a bar that tapers)
EA then the expression is not valid. In these
F cases strains need to be integrated along
the bar. There are examples of this sort of
problem in the tutorials. The following
L δL example is of the constant strain kind, the
most common.
Figure 1 Extension of a bar.

Example
A high-rise building has a total weight of 500MN. It is supported at ground level on 40 concrete
columns each of area 1m2 with Young’s modulus of 35GPa. If the columns are 3m long, calculate the
axial compression due to the weight of the building.
Force per column (assume equal) = -500/40= -12.5MN
The contraction of each column = (-12.5x106x3)/(35x109x1)= -1.1mm

2) Stresses in Beams
We have considered the stress-resultants (bending moments and shear forces) that occur in loaded
beams. To check whether these stress-resultants can be carried by a beam, we need to know the
distribution and magnitudes of the stresses that produce them and then check whether the beam’s
material can resist these stresses.
Normally in beams direct stresses from bending are the most significant and we will focus on these.
Shear forces also produce stresses but these are often less important so we will only consider them
briefly. In the following (and later when calculating deflections of beams) we will use the most
common means of estimating beam stresses and deflections which is known as Euler Bending
theory, named after one of its developers, Leonhard Euler, a Swiss mathematician. The theory as
used here assumes

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

1. “Plane sections remain plane”. This means a straight line through an unbent beam’s cross-
section remains straight after the beam is bent (Figure 2). This assumption is key to much of
beam theory, even when other assumptions are relaxed in more detailed work.
2. The beam’s material is linear elastic and therefore characterised by one number, 𝐸.
3. Deflections are “small” in comparison to the beam’s length.
4. The beam carries bending moments and possibly shear forces, but no axial forces.

Figure 2 "Plane sections remain plane". Straight lines in a beam’s cross-section before bending (top), remain straight
after bending (bottom). This is a key assumption of bending theory.

Direct (Bending) Stresses

The approach to determining stresses due to bending in a beam has three steps:
1. Establish from geometry what strains must be present in the bent beam.
2. Use these to determine the distribution of stresses in the beam.
3. Make a link between the stresses and bending moment distribution in the beam.
Step 1: Figure 3 shows a rectangular beam bent in to a circular arc by moments 𝑀 applied at each
end. The radius of the circular arc is 𝑅. This is called the radius of curvature of the beam.
If we consider a small length, 𝑑𝑥, of the bent beam (Figure 3), fibres in the upper part, such as AB,
will be longer than initially and fibres in the lower part, such as DC, shorter. The length of the middle
surface will be unchanged; this is known as the neutral axis of the beam. Using radian measure, the
length of a fibre a distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis (detail in Figure 3) will, from geometry, be
d𝑥
(𝑅 + 𝑦)𝜃 = (𝑅 + 𝑦)
𝑅
Therefore the strain in a fibre a distance 𝑦 from the neutral axis will be
d𝑥
change in length (𝑅 + 𝑦) 𝑅 − d𝑥
𝜀= =
original length d𝑥
𝑦
=
𝑅
This shows that the strains in the beam are proportional to 𝑦, the distance from the neutral axis
(Figure 4). It also show strains are inversely proportional to 𝑅, so a beam bent to tighter curvature
will develop higher strains.
Step 2: We know stresses in linear elastic materials are related to strains by
𝜎
𝐸=
𝜀
𝜎
or ε=
𝐸
If we substitute this in 𝜀 = 𝑦⁄𝑅 from step 1, we get

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

h 𝑥

dx

Neutral axis unstrained

therefore length dx
A B

D C

M M

A B
dy
R Stress in fibre
h =𝐸𝑦/𝑅
y

θ
Neutral axis
unstrained
b therefore C D
length 𝑑𝑥
Unstrained cross-section Detail of ABCD

Figure 3 A beam in pure bending with a detail of a small length, dx.

Beam Strain distribution Stress distribution

cross-section

Figure 4 Strain and stress distributions in an elastic beam.

𝐸𝑦
𝜎=
𝑅
This gives the distribution of direct stresses in the beam over its cross-section (Figure 4). It tells us
the stresses are zero at the neutral axis (𝑦 = 0), and vary linearly over the depth of the beam1. They
are negative (compressive) for negative 𝑦 and positive (tensile) for positive 𝑦. It also tells us that a
smaller radius of curvature 𝑅, (i.e. a more bent beam) gives higher stresses, as expected.

1
Strictly these points were assumed at the beginning of the analysis and are now appearing mathematically. An analysis of a beam with a
non-symmetrical cross-section (see any standard text) would require the position of the neutral axis to be located, rather than assumed as
at mid-depth.

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

Step 3: The stress in a fibre of the beam (detail in Figure 3) when multiplied by the area of the fibre
gives a force, d𝐹, in the beam cross-section2 of
d𝐹 = Stress × area
𝐸𝑦 𝐸𝑦
= × 𝑏d𝑦 = 𝑏d𝑦
𝑅 𝑅
This force when multiplied by the distance of the fibre from the neutral axis gives a moment, d𝑀,
about the axis of
𝐸𝑏𝑦 2
d𝑀 = Force x distance = d𝐹𝑦 = d𝑦
𝑅
If the moments due to each fibre are summed over the whole cross-section, this gives the bending
moment, 𝑀, in the beam
ℎ/2
𝐸𝑏𝑦 2
𝑀=∫ d𝑦
−ℎ/2 𝑅
ℎ/2
𝐸𝑏𝑦 3 𝐸𝑏ℎ3 𝐸𝐼
=[ ] = =
3𝑅 −ℎ/2 12𝑅 𝑅

Where 𝐼 = 𝑏ℎ3 /12, the second moment of area of the beam (see Appendix for details on second
moments of area). By combining this with the result in Step 2, we get an expression linking all the
key quantities for a beam in bending
𝑀 𝜎 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
These relationships are worth remembering. They can be rearranged in various ways such as
𝜎𝐼 𝑀𝑦
𝑀= or 𝜎 =
𝑦 𝐼
Although developed here for a rectangular section, they apply to any section so long as the there are
no axial forces present. The neutral axis will in general pass through the centroid of the section; 𝑦
and 𝐼 should be measured from this axis.

Example 1
A beam of rectangular solid section with cross-section 80mm x 30mm has a yield stress of 375MPa.
What is the largest bending moment the beam can resist if all the material must remain elastic when
it is bent about
a) its major axis (the stronger one) and
b) its minor axis (the weaker one)?
a) Although this is not a very realistic beam (solid sections in bending use material highly inefficiently
so tend to be avoided, except perhaps for timber beams), it does show how the equations linking
bending and stresses work. In this case we can calculate 𝐼 as in Section 4)
𝑏𝑑3 30 × 803
𝐼= = = 128cm4
12 12

We know the maximum stress will occur in the fibre furthest from the neutral axis and must be
limited to the yield stress of 375MPa. Since the cross-section is symmetrical, the distance to the
fibre furthest from the neutral axis is 80/2 = 40mm. So we have
𝜎𝐼 375 × 128 × 104
𝑀= = = 12kNm
𝑦 40

2 ℎ/2 𝐸𝑦𝑏
Note that if these forces are summed by integration over the entire cross-section, there is no net force ∫−ℎ/2 d𝑦 = 0
𝑅

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

All the units in the above equation were in mm for the calculation (remember MPa=N/mm 2 and
converting 𝐼 in cm4 to mm4 requires multiplying by 104), and the final answer was quoted in kNm, a
common unit for bending moments in practical structures.
b) The calculation for the beam about the minor axis is the same except that 𝐼 is now
𝑏𝑑3 80 × 303
𝐼= = = 18cm4
12 12
and 𝑦 = 30/2 = 15mm. This gives

𝜎𝐼 375 × 18 × 104
𝑀= = = 4.5kNm
𝑦 15
This is about one third of the bending moment about the major axis and demonstrates the strong
effect that beam orientation has on strength.

Example 2
The wing spar of an aeroplane is to have the dimensions shown in Figure 5 and be made from an
aluminium alloy with a yield stress of 200MPa. Assuming the loading on the wing can be modelled
as a cantilever with a uniform load along its length, calculate the maximum allowable UDL.
The bending moment at the support of a cantilever is 𝑀 = 𝑤𝐿2 /2 (see previous Part for details of
how to obtain this) and we know that the bending moment in a beam is linked to stress by
𝑀 = 𝜎𝐼/𝑦. Substituting the first equation in the second gives
𝑤𝐿2 𝜎𝐼
=
2 𝑦
2𝜎𝐼
𝑤=
𝑦𝐿2
We know all the quantities here except 𝐼, which we can calculate using the techniques in Section 4).
The second moment of area of the web (vertical) sections about the neutral axis is
2𝑏𝑑3 2 × 0.03 × 0. 63
= = 0.001m4
12 12
The second moment of area of the flange sections requires use of the parallel axis theorem (also in
Section 4)
0.7 × 0.053 0.7 0.05 2
2[ + (0.7 × 0.05) ( − ) ] = 0.0074m4
12 2 2
So the total value of 𝐼 for the section is 0.0074 + 0.001 =0.0084m4. This gives the maximum
allowable load
2𝜎𝐼 2 × 200 × 106 × 0.0084
𝑤= = = 96kN/m
𝑦𝐿2 0.7
( ) × 102
2
Notice that the flange sections of the spar contribute 75% of its strength due their large second
moment of area. Many beam sections such as I-sections are designed to maximise the second
moment of area of a section for a given amount of material to increase both strength and stiffness.

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

Aeroplane

50mm

700mm
30mm
10m

700mm

Spar cross-section

Figure 5

Elastic Section Modulus

From above, the maximum allowable bending moment in a beam that is to remain elastic is
𝜎𝑦 𝐼
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
Where 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum distance of a fibre from the neutral axis. The quantity 𝐼/𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 is a
geometric property of a beam’s cross-section known as the elastic section modulus and sometimes
given the symbol S. It is listed in tables of beam properties and can be used to rapidly select a beam
size for a given bending moment. For example a beam that must carry a bending moment of
250kNm made of a steel with a yield stress of 250MPa, requires an elastic section modulus of
250x103/250x106=1000cm3. Section tables are available listing the properties of common beam
section, such as here.

3) Deflections of Beams
Predictions of beam deflections are commonly needed to check a structure meets requirements,
such as ceiling deflections not leading to plaster cracking, or aircraft control surfaces not deflecting
so much they no longer work.
There are many ways of calculating beam deflections. Here we will use an approach that links the
curvature of a beam to the moment it carries. By integration it is then possible to obtain beam
beam gradients and beam deflections.

The Moment-Curvature Relationship

We need two pieces of theory from calculus to be able to calculate beam deflections. More details
are available in calculus textbooks for those with an interest in maths, particularly vector calculus.
1) The radius of curvature 𝑅 of a line in space (Figure 6) is, by definition, the reciprocal of the
curvature, 𝜅, of the line so
1
𝜅=
𝑅
2) Curvature itself is given by
d2 𝑦
𝜅= d𝑥 2
3/2
d𝑦 2
[1 + ( ) ]
d𝑥

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

The background to this messy equation is not important for this course. However, note that it
contains both the first derivative (the gradient – 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥) and second derivative of a line in a
plane. If the gradient of the line is small, then the gradient squared will be smaller still and the
term in square brackets will approach a value of 1. Small here might be anything less than a
gradient of 1 in 10, in which case the equation becomes
d2 𝑦
d𝑥 2 d2 𝑦 d2 𝑦
𝜅= = 1.015 = to within 2%
1 2
3/2 d𝑥 2 d𝑥 2
[1 + (10) ]

So, for small curvatures, we can write

1 d2 𝑦
𝜅= =
𝑅 d𝑥 2
That is, the curvature of a line is the second derivative of the equation of the line.

Gradient =𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥

Figure 6 A line in space.

In Section 2) we obtained a relationship between the bending moment and radius of curvature for a
beam
𝐸𝐼
𝑀=
𝑅
d2 𝑦
Using the theory from calculus above we can replace 1/𝑅 with 2 to get the important moment-
d𝑧
curvature equation
d2 𝑦
𝑀 = −𝐸𝐼 2
d𝑧
This expression has a negative sign and is written in terms of 𝑦 and 𝑧 because the axis system most
commonly used for calculating beam
deflections is different to the standard
𝑧
mathematical one. It has 𝑧 as the
𝜃 𝑦 beam axis and 𝑦 measuring deflection
𝑦 pointing downwards (Figure 7). This is
y Positive
done because the most common forms
curvature of loads on beams are gravity loads
acting downwards, which generally
produce downward deflections. It is
Figure 7 Positive deflections, rotations and axis directions as used for natural to think of these forces and
beam deflections. deflections as positive. Some texts and
computer programs use other axis systems and may measure deflections upwards as positive, in
which case the negative sign won’t be present.

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

The moment curvature relation can often be integrated and if so gives a rapid means of obtaining
expressions for the deflected shapes of beams. The following examples show how this is done for
simple cases.

Example 1
For the beam in Figure 8 find
a) An expression for the deflection along the beam w
b) An expression for the gradient along the beam
c) The mid-span deflection z
Assume 𝐸𝐼 is constant along the beam L
y

Figure 8
Taking the axes origin at the support, the bending moment a distance 𝑧 along the beam is given by
𝑤𝐿𝑧 𝑤𝑧 2
𝑀= −
2 2
Putting this in the moment-curvature relationship gives
𝑤𝐿𝑧 𝑤𝑧 2 d2 𝑦
− = −𝐸𝐼 2 or
2 2 d𝑧
d2 𝑦 𝑤 𝑧 2 𝐿𝑧
= ( − )
d𝑧 2 𝐸𝐼 2 2
Integrating this once wrt to 𝑧 gives an expression for the gradient along the beam with one unknown
constant, 𝐴
d𝑦 𝑤 𝑧 3 𝐿𝑧 2
= ( − )+𝐴
d𝑧 𝐸𝐼 6 4
Integrating a second time gives an expression for the deflection along the beam with two unknown
constants, 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝑤 𝑧 4 𝐿𝑧 3
𝑦= ( − ) + 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵
𝐸𝐼 24 12
To find the constants we need to use what we already know of the deflection of the beam. We know
from the support conditions that there is no vertical deflection at either end of the beam. This can
be expressed mathematically as
at 𝑧 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 (no deflection at left-hand support)
at 𝑧 = 𝐿, 𝑦 = 0 (no deflection at right-hand support)
These sorts of statements are known as boundary conditions. Inserting the first boundary condition
in the expression for the deflection gives
𝑤 04 𝐿03
0= ( − ) + 𝐴0 + 𝐵
𝐸𝐼 24 12
𝐵=0

Similarly putting the second boundary condition in the equation for the deflection gives
𝑤 𝐿4 𝐿4
0 = ( − ) + 𝐴𝐿 + 0
𝐸𝐼 24 12
𝑤𝐿3
𝐴=
24𝐸𝐼
With 𝐴 and 𝐵 known the equation for the gradient along the beam becomes

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MACE University of Manchester

d𝑦 𝑤 𝑧 3 𝐿𝑧 2 𝑤𝐿3
= ( − )+
d𝑧 𝐸𝐼 6 4 24𝐸𝐼
𝑤 𝑧 3 𝐿𝑧 2 𝐿3
= ( − + )
𝐸𝐼 6 4 24
And that for the deflection
𝑤 𝑧 4 𝐿𝑧 3 𝑤𝐿3 𝑧
𝑦= ( − )+
𝐸𝐼 24 12 24𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝑧
= (𝐿3 + 𝑧 3 − 2𝐿𝑧 2 )
24𝐸𝐼
The mid-span deflection, which occurs at 𝑧 = 𝐿/2, is
𝐿
𝑤( ) 3 2
𝑦= 2 [𝐿3 + (𝐿) − 2𝐿 (𝐿) ]
24𝐸𝐼 2 2
5𝑤𝐿4
=
384𝐸𝐼
 This example shows the key stages in applying the moment-curvature relationship which
are
a) Determine an expression for the bending moment distribution,
b) Insert this in the moment-curvature relationship and integrate twice,
c) Identify the beam’s boundary conditions from its support arrangements,
d) Use these to determine unknown constants of integration.
 Notice that in this case both boundary conditions were displacement boundaries (no
vertical deflection at either support). Sometimes rotational boundaries are used, as in the
next example.

Example 2
For the cantilever beam in Figure 9 find
a) An expression for the deflection along the beam 𝑤
b) An expression for the gradient along the beam
c) The tip deflection 𝑧
Assume 𝐸𝐼 is constant 𝑦 𝐿

Figure 9
Taking the axes origin at the support, the bending moment a distance 𝑧 along the beam is given by
1
𝑀 = − 𝑤(𝐿 − 𝑧)2
2
Putting this in the moment-curvature relationship gives
1 d2 𝑦
− 𝑤(𝐿 − 𝑧)2 = −𝐸𝐼 2 or
2 d𝑧
d2 𝑦 𝑤 2
2
= (𝐿 − 2𝐿𝑧 + 𝑧 2 )
d𝑧 2𝐸𝐼
Integrating with respect to 𝑧 gives an expression for the gradient along the beam containing an
unknown constant, 𝐴
d𝑦 𝑤 𝑧3
= (𝐿2 𝑧 − 𝐿𝑧 2 + ) + 𝐴
dz 2𝐸𝐼 3
Integrating again gives an expression for the deflection of the beam with a second unknown
constant, 𝐵

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
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𝑤 1 2 2 1 3 𝑧4
𝑦= ( 𝐿 𝑧 − 𝐿𝑧 + ) + 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵
2𝐸𝐼 2 3 12
Unlike in the last example, here we only know the deflection of the beam at one point. However, we
also know there is no rotation of the beam (i.e. the beam’s gradient is zero) at the support, because
it is fixed. This can be expressed mathematically as a boundary condition
d𝑦
= 0 at 𝑧 = 0
dz
If we put this boundary condition in the first integration we get
𝑤 03
0= (𝐿2 × 0 − 𝐿 × 02 + ) + 𝐴
2𝐸𝐼 3
𝐴=0
We know that at the support there is also no deflection of the beam. We can write this as
𝑦 = 0 at 𝑧 = 0
Putting this in the second integration we get
1𝑤
0= (0 − 0 + 0) + 0 × 0 + 𝐵
2 𝐸𝐼
𝐵=0

Since 𝐴 = 𝐵 = 0, the expression for the gradient of the cantilever is

d𝑦 𝑤 𝑧3
= (𝐿2 𝑧 − 𝐿𝑧 2 + )
dz 2𝐸𝐼 3
the expression for the deflection of the cantilever is
𝑤 1 2 2 1 3 𝑧4
𝑦= ( 𝐿 𝑧 − 𝐿𝑧 + )
2𝐸𝐼 2 3 12
And the deflection at the tip (where 𝑧 = 𝐿) is
𝑤𝐿4
𝑦=
8𝐸𝐼
 In this example one boundary condition was a rotational boundary condition because we
had information about the beam’s gradient (equal to zero at the support). This meant that
unlike the previous example the equation for the beam’s gradient was used to determine a
constant of integration.
 It would have been possible to measure 𝑧 from the tip of the cantilever instead of from the
support. The algebra would have been a little different but the results the same – try it!

Macaulay Brackets
In the preceding examples the bending moment distributions in the beams could be expressed with
one equation. This is not always possible using normal notation (for example in Part 2 some bending
moment distributions needed several equations, each valid for different locations on a beam).
When calculating deflections using the moment-curvature approach, discontinuous bending
moment distributions can lead to very tedious algebra if not handled using a mathematical notation
known as Macaulay Brackets – these are angle brackets written like this: 〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉 The have the
following properties:
0 if 𝑧 < 𝑎
〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉 = {
〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉 if 𝑧 ≥ 𝑎
That is, if 𝑧 − 𝑎 is greater than zero the Macaulay brackets are treated as normal brackets but if
𝑧 − 𝑎 is less than zero, they are ignored. To see how this works with a bending moment distribution

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 Structures 1 – Part 2 Lecture Notes 29 August 2017
MACE University of Manchester

consider Figure 10. Using the techniques from earlier parts of the notes, the bending moment
distribution can be written as
𝑊𝑧 𝐿
𝑀= for 𝑧 <
2 2
𝑊𝑧 𝐿 𝐿
𝑀= − 𝑊 (𝑧 − ) for 𝑧 >
2 2 2

It would be difficult to put this two-term expression into the moment-curvature expression.
However, the two terms can be combined using Macaulay brackets to give a single expression for
the bending moment anywhere in the beam:
𝑊𝑧 𝐿
𝑀= − 〈𝑧 − 〉 𝑊
2 2
The term in Macaulay brackets is only “switched on” when 𝑧 > 𝐿/2 so this expression works for any
point on the beam. Macaulay brackets can be integrated and differentiated like any “function of a
function”, so
d〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉𝑛
= 𝑛〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉𝑛−1 . 1 = 𝑛〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉𝑛−1
d𝑧
And therefore
〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉𝑛+1
∫〈𝑧 − 𝑎〉𝑛 = +𝐶
𝑛+1

Example 3
For the beam in Figure 10 find
a) An expression for the deflection along the 𝐿/2
beam 𝑊
b) An expression for the gradient along the beam 𝑧
c) The mid-span deflection
𝑦 𝐿
Assume 𝐸𝐼 is constant
Figure 10

We already have an expression for the bending moment distribution using Macaulay brackets from
the previous section. Putting this in the moment-curvature relationship gives
d2 𝑦 1 𝐿 𝑊𝑧
2
= [𝑊 〈𝑧 − 〉 − ]
d𝑧 𝐸𝐼 2 2
Integrating once gives an expression for the gradient with one unknown, 𝐴
d𝑦 1 𝑊 𝐿 2 𝑊𝑧 2
= [ 〈𝑧 − 〉 − ]+𝐴
d𝑧 𝐸𝐼 2 2 4
Integrating again gives an expression for the deflection with two unknowns, 𝐴 and 𝐵
1 𝑊 𝐿 𝑊𝑧 3
𝑦= [ 〈𝑧 − 〉3 − ] + 𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵
𝐸𝐼 6 2 12
The boundary conditions are
at 𝑧 = 0, 𝑦 = 0
at 𝑧 = 𝐿, 𝑦 = 0
Taking the first of these and substituting in the deflection equation gives
1 𝑊 𝐿
0 = [ 〈0 − 〉3 − 0] + 0 + 𝐵
𝐸𝐼 6 2
𝐿
Since 0 − 2 < 0, the Macaulay bracket is “off” (equals 0), so 𝐵 = 0. Substituting the second
boundary condition gives

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MACE University of Manchester

1 𝑊 𝐿 𝑊𝐿3
0= [ 〈𝐿 − 〉3 − ] + 𝐴𝐿 + 0
𝐸𝐼 6 2 12
𝐿
Since 𝐿 − > 0 the Macaulay bracket is now “on” so
2
1 𝑊 𝐿 3 𝑊𝐿3
0= [ (𝐿 − ) − ] + 𝐴𝐿
𝐸𝐼 6 2 12
𝑊 𝐿 3 𝑊𝐿2
𝐴 = −[ ( ) − ]
6𝐿 2 12
𝑊𝐿2
𝐴=
16𝐸𝐼
So the complete expression for the gradient is
d𝑦 1 𝑊 𝐿 𝑊𝑧 2 𝑊𝐿2
= [ 〈𝑧 − 〉2 − + ]
d𝑧 𝐸𝐼 2 2 4 16
And for the deflected shape
1 𝑊 𝐿 𝑊𝑧 3 𝑊𝐿2
𝑦= [ 〈𝑧 − 〉3 − + 𝑧]
𝐸𝐼 6 2 12 16
At mid-span 𝑧 = 𝐿/2 so the deflection is
𝐿 3
1 𝑊 ( ) 2
𝑦 = [0 − 2 + 𝑊𝐿 𝐿]
𝐸𝐼 12 16 2

𝑊𝐿3
=
48𝐸𝐼
 In this example the crucial step was applying the boundary conditions correctly. Care must
be taken to check whether Macaulay bracket terms are “on” or “off” at this stage.
 Notice that at 𝑧 = 𝐿/2 (mid-span) the gradient is zero, as required by symmetry, and also
that the expression swaps sign at the point.
 Macaulay brackets should not be expanded or their important property of turning on and off
is lost, and calculations will go wrong.

4) Appendix - Second Moments of Area

Definition
Second moment of area is a geometric property of a 2-d shape, in a similar way that an area is a
geometric property. Second moments of area
occur in a variety of contexts; in this course they
𝑑𝐴
are used widely in beam bending analysis.
𝑦 x Second moment of area is a very similar concept
to that of moment of inertia, which is used when
analysing rotating bodies.
A second moment of area of a shape is always
defined about an axis and is normally given the
Figure 11 Second moment of area of an arbitrary shape symbol 𝐼. The definition of 𝐼 is
of area 𝑨 about the 𝒙-axis.
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴

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MACE University of Manchester

where the integration is carried out over the entire area of the shape. This states that 𝐼 is the sum of
each small area, 𝑑𝐴, of a shape multiplied its distance, 𝑦, from an axis squared (Figure 11). If a
different axis is chosen, the second moment of area will be different, therefore it is important to
always specify an axis when using second moments of area. There is a video tutorial of these ideas
here

Example 1
The second moment of area of a rectangle about an axis through its centre and parallel to its sides
can be calculated using the above definition as follows (Figure 12):

𝐼 = ∫ 𝑦 2 d𝐴

𝑑
2
= ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑏d𝑦 taking strips of area 𝑏d𝑦 equal to dA
𝑑
−
2

𝑏𝑑 3
=
12

d𝐴 = 𝑏d𝑦
d𝑦

y
d

Figure 12 Second moment of area calculation for a rectangle about the x-axis. Note that the term 𝐝𝑨 in the defnition is
here taken as 𝒃𝒅𝒚.

Parallel Axis Theorem

If the second moment of area of a shape about an axis through its centroid is known, it is possible to
use a relationship known as the parallel axis theorem to calculate the second moment of area about
another, parallel axis. This is very useful
Centroid when calculating the second moments of
dA
area of more complex shapes such as the
y x cross-sections of beams.
In Figure 13 the second moment of area
l of a shape about the axis which passes
x’
through its centroid is
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑦 2 d𝐴
Figure 13 The second moment of area, 𝐼’, of the
shape through a parallel axis a
distance 𝑙 from the centroid is
𝐼′ = ∫(𝑦 + 𝑙)2 d𝐴

= ∫ 𝑦 2 d𝐴 + 𝑙 2 ∫ d𝐴 + 2𝑙 ∫ 𝑦d𝐴

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The first term in this integral is 𝐼, the second term is the area of the shape multiplied by 𝑙 2 and the
final term is, from the definition of the centre of gravity, 0, So we have
𝐼′ = 𝐼 + 𝑙 2 𝐴
This is the parallel axis theorem. It states that, the second moment of area of a shape about an axis
a distance 𝑙 from the centroidal axis is the sum of the second moment of area about the centroidal
axis and the area multiplied by 𝑙 2 .

Example 2
Find the second moment of area of the rectangle in Figure 12 about an axis through the lower edge
of the rectangle parallel to the 𝑥-axis.

We know second moment of area about the centroidal 𝑥-axis from Example 1, and also the area of
the shape. Therefore we can use the parallel axis theorem to give
𝑏𝑑3 𝑑 2
𝐼= + 𝑏𝑑 ( )
12 2
𝑏𝑑3
=
3

Example 3
Calculate the second moment of area of the cross-section of the I-beam shown in Figure 14 about
the centroidal 𝑥-axis.
𝑇

𝑡
𝑥
𝐷

Figure 14

Second moments of area add and subtract so the required 𝐼 can be calculated by using earlier results
as
𝐵𝐷 3 (𝐵 − 𝑡)(𝐷 − 2𝑇)3
𝐼= −
12 12

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