ETHICS
rather than subjective cultural standards
Ethics
- derived from the Greek word “ethos” which means
“way of living”
- custom or character
- branch of philosophy that deals and examines at
how people behave, particularly how they act in
social situations.
- guidelines
- science of morals
- studies the rightness or wrongness of a human
action
Greek Tradition- “Good Life” happiness/ being happy
Judeo- Christian- righteousness before God; love of
God and neighbor “Doing what is right”
- “theory” of right action and greater good
Importance of ethics
- through ethics, people can determine the difference
between right from wrong, good and bad
- people can eliminate actions that do not conform to
what is right
- people will be very careful to the actions and
decisions to make
Types of Ethics
Normative Ethics
- prescriptive in nature
- develop guidelines / theories how we ought o
behave
-seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right
or wrong or good and bad conduct
- the study of what makes actions right or wrong,
what makes situations or events good or bad and
what makes people virtuous or vicious
- Do good at all times!
Meta-ethics
- descriptive
- aims to understand the nature and dynamics of
ethical principles and the way we learn and acquire
moral beliefs
- the study of how we engage in ethics
- What is good?
Applied Ethics
- actual application of ethical or moral theories for the
purpose of deciding which ethical or moral actions
are appropriate in a given situation
Casuists- adherents of applied ethics
Different Fields:
- Business Ethics
- Biomedical and Environmental Ethics
- Social Ethics
- the study of how we should act in specific areas of
our lives; how we should deal with issues
Morality
- set of standards that enable people to live
cooperatively in groups
- practice of ethics
- “practice” rightness or wrongness of human action
Types of Morality
Descriptive Morality
- relative to culture and individual
- subjective cultural standards
- how things are
- deals with describing/ explaining the way things are
- based on religion
- subjective (based on individual perception/ beliefs)
Normative Morality
- concerns objective questioning of right and wrong
- how things ought to be
- what the standards ought to be
- objective (based on facts)
6 Features of Morality
1. People experience a sense of moral obligation and
accountability
2. Moral values and moral absolutes exists
3. “Moral law” therefor exists
4. Moral law is known to humans
5. Morality is objective
6. Moral judgment must be supported by reasons.
Moral Agent
- being capable of acting with reference to right and
wrong
- can be held responsible for behavior or moral
decisions
- an intelligent being who has the power of choosing
and scope to act according to his choice
- must have self-consciousness, memory, moral
principles
- able to reason out
- allows you to create plans to achieve specific
objectives
- allows him to devise plans for achieving his
objectives, weigh alternatives and so on
- in order to be a moral agent, one must live in a
world of scarcity rather than paradise
Moral Action
- actions will spring from choice and is not
necessitated either by mental propulsion or external
circumstances
Moral VS. Non- Moral Standards
- some values have moral implications, while others
do not “You cannot impose on them that your value
is the right value”
- different cultures have different morals
- a matter of taste in one culture may be a matter of
moral significance in another “You don’t have to
force other people what you believe into because we
have different customs”
How can we understand this confusion?
- people have to understand the difference between
moral standards and non-moral ones.
Moral Standards
- force others to act accordingly
- you can’t force others, no if’s no buts
- example: killing, theft, stealing
-norms that individuals or groups have about the
kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong
- normally promote the good, the welfare and well-
being of human etc.
- Norms + Values = Moral Standards
Norms
- general rules about actions or behavior
Values
- enduring beliefs about what is good and desirable
or not
Characteristics of Moral Standards
1. Deal with matters we think can seriously injure or
benefit humans, animals, and the environment.
2. Not established or changed by the decisions of
authoritative individuals or bodies.
3. Overriding, that is, they take precedence over
other standards and considerations, especially self-
interest.
4. Based on impartial consideration. It is fair and just.
5. It is associated with special emotions and
vocabulary.
Non-Moral Standards
- refer to standards by which we judge what is good
or bad and right or wrong in a non-moral way
- we have no right to impose on others
- example: abortion, euthanasia, standards of
etiquette, law, standards of aesthetic, rules in games,
fashion standards
Rules
- considered as a guidelines to people
- provides sense of physical, moral, emotional safety
Why do we need rules?
- a world would be consists of chaos among societies
and unfairness, human rights would be affected and
our freedom would depend on the authorities of
governments.
Dilemma
- are situations where persons who are called “Moral
Agents” in ethics are forced to choose between two
or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves
the situation in morally acceptable manner
Moral Dilemma
- making an option to one moral value over the other
- a situation where moral values are equally
significant
- a scenario where a person has a strong moral
reason in action, but not equally strong moral reason
in acting in another way
- a conflict in which you have to choose between two
or more actions and have moral reasons for
choosing each actions.
- dilemmas involve human actions which have moral
implications
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
Individual or Personal Dilemma
- are situations of an individual, another person or a
group that encounters and settles on their own
- conflicts arrives when a person is asked to choose
between two important values for him or her
Organizational Dilemma
- ethical cases experienced and addressed by social
organizations.
- situation that causes an organization to respond
negatively or positively to an ethical issue that affects
staff, shareholders, and society
Structural Dilemma
- are concerned with matters involving a system of
institutions as well as operational theoretical
concepts
- it is a conflict of viewpoints among different fields,
groups and organizations that might be influenced by
decision making.
- selecting a proper system of responsibilities and
relationships, which is continuing universal challenge
Categorical Imperative
Hypothetical Imperative
- conditional command
- prudence rather than morality
- if-then statements
- command you should follow if you want something
- example: If you don’t want money, you can always
choose not to work.
Categorical Imperative
- according to Kant, it is a principle of morality
- commands you must follow, regardless of your
desires
- categorical imperatives are our moral obligations,
and Kant believed that they’re derived from pure
reasons
Imperative- command
4 Concepts of Kantian Ethics
1. Idea of the Good Will
2. Duty and the Moral Worth of an act
3. The Universalizability Principle/ Principle of
Universality
4. The Formula of Humanity/ Formula of the End
Good Will
- wider conception than the will of obligation
- act that has an intrinsic value
- you’re not doing it because of reward
How to manifest good will?
- when the action/ act is done for the sake of duty
- not asking anything in return
Autonomy of the Will
- not influenced by external factors
The Universalizability Principle/ Principle of
Universality
- “Act only according to that maxim which you can at
the same time will that it should become a universal
law without contradiction.”
Maxim- rule or principle of action
Universal Law- something that must always b done
in similar situations
- before we act, we should ask ourselves, what’s the
maxim of our action?
- what’s the general rule that stands behind the
particular action I’m considering?
- Kant’s view that moral rules apply to everyone
equally sounds nice and fair. But it can sometimes
lead to some pretty counter-intuitive results.
- It’s not fair to make exceptions for yourself
- universality of our actions
- example: stealing of the properties of the rich and
distribute them to the poor, helping a friend in times
of need
The Formula of Humanity/ Formula of the End
- “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your
own person or in that of another, always as an end,
and never as a mere means.”
Mere Means- is to use it only for your own benefit,
with no thought to the interests or benefit of the thing
you’re using.
- Kant argued that proper, rational application of the
categorical imperative will lead us to moral truth that
is fixed and applicable to all moral agents.
- example” cheating on someone, treat others as
means to own selfish end
The Role of Freedom in Morality
Freedom
- essential to a genuinely good human life
- right to control one’s actions based on reason, not
desire
- do what we want to do in our lives
- right or power to act without any hindrances
- to decide things for ourselves
Morality
- values, conducts at all levels of morality or principle
- there is a standard that you should follow whether it
is good or evil
- teach us to choose from right and wrong behavior
Kant’s Morality and Freedom
- To act freely is to act autonomously
- To act autonomously is to act according to the law.
When you have freedom, you also have
responsibility.
Freedom is always associated with Morality.
Freedom: The foundation of Moral Act; Freedom
and Free Will
Foundation in Ethics
- basis to build more ethical behavior
- freedom
- ethics would not have a life to stand on
Freedom
- power or right to act free and think without
hindrance or restraints
- not absolute/ not limitless
- we must be responsible in exercising our freedom
- freedom is human’s greatest quality and it is a
reflection of our creator
- every action you choose further determines our
character
- having freedom means having responsibility
- freedom is the power rooted in reason and will, to
act or not to act, to do this or to do that and so to
perform deliberate actions on one’s own
responsibility
“Only Human Beings can be Ethical”
- Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that only
humans can be truly ethical. Most philosophers hold
that unlike animals, human possess some traits that
make it possible for them to be moral.
Traits that make it possible for them to be moral
A. Only human beings are rational, autonomous and
self-conscious
B. Only human beings can act morally or immorally
C. Only human beings are part of moral community
Freedom
- the right or power to act without hindrance
Two Types of Freedom
Internal Freedom
- comes from within
- the truth will set you free
External Freedom
- actions can affect the society
- cannot exist without internal freedom
- people are never satisfied (aim higher/ seek for
higher)
Free Will
- the power or capacity of humans to make decisions
independently
- able to make decisions
- kusang-loob
Human Acts VS. Acts of Man
Human Acts
- voluntary
- actions done consciously and freely by the agent or
by man
- act that is under the control or direction of will and
performed with full knowledge which is proper to
humans
- example: walking, listening, dancing
3 Qualities of Human Acts
1. Knowledge of the Act
- doing an act with knowledge make the act
deliberate
2. Freedom
- you have the free will without the command of
others
3. Voluntariness
- this require the other taken students the knowledge
and freedom
Acts of Man
- involuntary Action
- these are the acts of perception or sensation,
actions that proceed without man’s deliberate free
will.
- acts that do not make use of free will and intellect,
some are done naturally or instinctively
- example: blood circulation, blinking of the eyes,
beating of the heart
Essential Qualities
1. done without knowledge
2. without consent
3. Involuntary action
Modifiers of Human Act
- may affect the essential quality of human act
Ignorance
Fear
Innocence
Violence and Force
Concupiscence/ Passion
Habit
Ignorance of the law- excuses no one
Virtue- good habit (helping others)
Vice/ Violence- bad habit (drinking alcohol, stealing,
cheating)
Requirement of True Freedom
True Freedom
- According to Christian worldview, true freedom is
not a matter of doing what you want without restraint,
but cultivating the right wants and living in obedience
to God’s will.
- happens when you create a relationship with God
- our actions must be the truth
- not about absence of restraint
- begins the moment you have nothing to hide
- requires responsibility, there’s no such thing as
irresponsible freedom
Freedom
- free to do things without someone controlling us
Since true freedom is centered on God. Our
actions (human actions) must be in line with the
truth. Our actions must not be persuaded by evil.
The requirement of freedom is to center our lives
in the name of God. If God exists in our lives, we are
free. Because of that our actions must be the truth
and true freedom comes with responsibilities.
True Freedom is dependent upon truth
- “You will know the truth, and the truth will set you
free” - John 8:32
What is Culture?
Culture
- Latin word “Cultura” or “Cultus” which means care
or cultivation
- describes a collective way of live, or way of doing
things
- culture as cultivation implies that every human
being is a potential member of his own group
Edward B. Tylor
“Culture is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom and other
capabilities and habits acquired as a member of
society.”
Types of Culture
Material- physical objects that society produce
Non- Material- includes language, values, arts
Real- can be observed in social life
Ideal- presented as a pattern for the members of
society
Enculturation
- process of learning a culture in all it’s uniqueness
and particularity
Inculturation
- introduction to Christianity
Acculturation
- cultural modification of an individual
- group or people by adapting to or borrowing traits
from another culture
Culture: Influence of Culture in Moral
Development
Culture has been with us since the dawn of
human existence. Significant as it is, a culture
considerably shapes its members on how they live
and relate within themselves and with other cultures.
(Bretzkr, 2004)
Culture functions to mold and establish a social
identity that brings people as well to the knowledge
of common objectives which members would try to
achieve, Culture, indeed, provides norms, customs,
laws, and moral demands that are to be followed. So
to speak, in general, in a culture there is consistency
and systematic patterns of behavior. (Palispis, 2007)
How culture influences the moral development of
the people?
1. Culture is always social and communal by which
the relationship of the people towards one another
and their experience as a people are the culture's
meadow.
2. The culture defines the normative principles and
behaviors of the society.
3. Culture develops restrictions and sets boundaries
and limitations as they live and relate with one
another.
4. Culture helps in generating the character and
identity of its people, it also includes their moral
character.
5. The culture identifies the authorities or the
governing individuals or group.
Culture is very significant in the development of
the human person and in moral development
particularly. It is also the conditioning principle of the
moral development of its members.
Cultural Relativism
The ability to understand a culture on its own terms
and not to make judgement using the standards of
one's own.
The concept of cultural relativism also means
that any opinion on ethics is subject to the
perspective of each person within their particular
culture.
Cultural relativism is closely related to ethical
relativism, which views truth as variable and not
absolute.
- no objective standard which can apply to all culture
Cultural relativism is considered to be more
constructive and positive conception as compared to
ethnocentrism.
Cultural relativism tries to promote the
understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar
to other cultures.
- when you are able to relate to other culture
- you’re adjusting to other people’s culture
Ethnocentrism
- it comes from the Greek "ethno" which means
people and "centric" which means center.
- it is the practice of comparing other cultural
practices with those of one's own and automatically
finding those other cultural practices to be inferior
- focus on your own culture and not recognizing other
culture
- being insensitive to other culture
judging other culture what we don’t used to
Importance of Cultural Relativism
1. It helps to understand other cultures in their own
context.
2. It is used as a tool for unbiased critique.
3. It helps us to re-examine and correct our
assumptions and bias on cultures and people of the
world.
4. It builds respect and cooperation.
5. It creates a society without judgement.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cultural
Relativism
9 Advantages of Cultural Relativism 
1. It is a system which promotes cooperation.
- The potential for a greater society is fostered by
accepting the various differences we have.
2. It creates a society where equality is possible
- Each person is free to define success according to
their own standards, resulting in equality.
3. People can pursue a genuine interest.
- You have complete freedom to follow your own
interests.
4. Respect is encouraged in a system of cultural
relativism.
- A natural level of respect exists since the system
supports each person's definition.
5. It preserves human cultures.
- Human traditions don't have to be discarded in
order to satisfy a certain set of standards.
6. Cultural relativism creates a society without
judgment.
- You are the only one who can judge yourself
7. Moral relativism can be excluded from cultural
relativism.
- The theory of cultural relativism allows for the
treatment of each culture as an individual.
8. We can create personal moral codes based on
societal standards with ease.
- Cultural relativism enables people to refer to the
norms of their own society or culture.
9. It stops cultural conditioning
- People are permitted to have individualistic
perspectives.
8 Advantages of Cultural Relativism
1. It creates a system that is fueled by personal
bias.
- Due to the way humans functions, every culture has
some inherent biases.
2. It would create chaos
- Since there is neither "good" nor "wrong," people
adhere to their own moral standards.
3. It is an idea that is based on the perfection of
humanity
- People are not perfect.
4. It could promote a lack of diversity
- When the focus of society is on  individualistic
benefit that may be at  the expense of
others,diversity cannot be created.
5. It draws people away from one another
- Instead of embracing one another, people move
away from one another
6. It could limit moral progress
- It could limit being inclusive
7. It could limit humanity’s progress
- Progress cannot be assessed because both are
"correct.
8. Cultural relativism can turn perceptions into
truths.
- Biases turn become actual facts under cultural
relativism.
Filipino Customs and Traditions
Tradition
- is a way of behaving thinking,or doing something
that has been followed by people in a particular
community society, family.
- can be an idea beliefs that is passed down from
one generation to another.
- pagmamano
- bayanihan
- pamamanhikan
- fiesta
- panliligaw
- po at opo
- pamahiin
Custom
- is a practice common to many or a particular place
or group of people
- It is commonly accepted way of behaving or doing
something in a particular society, place or time.
Close Family Ties
- They takes care for each other and is taught to be
loyal to family and elders by simply obeying their
authorities.
Bayanihan
- It is the spirit of communal unity or effort to achieve
a particular object. People give their all to the
common good without expecting recognition or
personal gain.
Courtship
- Filipinos are very romantic when it comes to heart
affairs. Serenading is one of the most popular forms
of courtship to show that a man is very serious with
his intentions to a woman.
Religion
- Philippines is one of two predominantly Roman
Catholic nation in Asia Pacific. Filipino believe that
having a strong devotion may lead to be a better life
and their guidance to face everyday life.
Superstition
- These beliefs have come from the different saying
of our ancestor that aims to prevent danger from
happening or to make a person refrain from doing
something in particular.
Marriage and Wedding Customs
- Marriage is a sacred union of man and woman after
a period of courtship and engagement ,It is a
covenant between two people who loves each
other ,whose joining becomes an expression of the
desire of each other to love and serve God
Death
- For many Filipino, death of a relatives is an
opportunity to strengthen the ties in the family. To
pay respect and honor the relationship to the
deceased, long lost relatives, friends, and even
relatives working an abroad are reunited.
Society
- Philippines is a combined society, both singular and
plural in form. It is singular as one nation but plural in
that it is fragmented geographically and culturally
Christmas
- considered as one of the biggest holidays in the
archipelago
- we earned the distinction of celebrating the worlds
longest Christmas Season with Christmas Carols
heard as early as September.
Fiestas
- held to celebrate a patron saint
- it is part and parcel of Filipino Culture through good
times and bad times it must go on.
Living with Parents
- Filipino highly value the presence of family more
than anything.Many Filipinos continue living with
their parents until they get married.
Characteristics of Filipino Culture
Filipino Family Values
Values
-are the set of principles and beliefs of an individual
that motivates them to act one way or another.  
They serve as a guide for human behavior.
The Importance of Values in Family
- Values give families an outlook on life, a way to
view the world and their situation as well as an
identity. Values can also add to relationships and
influence judgement, behaviors, and parenting
styles. Family values serve as the core of what family
members do the opinions they have.
Filipino Family Values
- Majority of Philippine population is bonded by
common values and traits that are first taught at
home being applied in our day to day lives.
1. Paggalang (Respect)
- Filipinos are accustomed to using the words “po”,
“opo”, and “ho” when they are conversing with older
people or, sometimes, with those who are in a high
role or a prestigious member of a society. Using
these words is customary in the Philippines, and it
shows a sign of respect if you do so.
2. Pakikisama (Helping Others)
- has the connection of getting along with people in
general.
- There is general yearning to be accepted and well-
liked among Filipinos. This applies to one and his or
her friends, colleagues, boss, and even relatives.
This desire is what steers one to perform
pakikisama.
3. Utang na Loob (Debt of Gratitude)
- there is usually a system of obligation.
- When this value is applied, it imparts a sense of
duty and responsibility on the younger siblings to
serve and repay the favors done to them by their
elders.
4. Pagpapahalaga sa Pamilya
- putting importance on your family. This implies that
a person will place a high regards on his/her family
and prioritize that before anything else.
5. Hiya (Shame)
- This controls the social behaviors and interactions
of a Filipino. It is a value that drives Filipino to be
obedient and respectful to their parents, older
siblings, and other authorities.
- This is also a key ingredient in the loyalty of one’s
family.
6. Damayan System
- Extending sympathy for people who lost their loved
ones. In case of death of a certain member of the
community, the whole community sympathizes with
the bereaved family. Neighbors, friends, and
relatives of the deceased usually give certain amount
of money as their way of showing sympathy.
7. Compassionate
- A Filipino trait of being sympathetic to others even
the person is a  stranger. An example of this is giving
alms to the beggars. This is observed when we hear
Filipinos ‘saying, “kawawa or nakakaawa naman.”
8. Fun-Loving Trait
- A trait that found in Filipinos, a trait that makes
them unique that even in times of calamities and
other challenges  in life, they always have something
to be happy about, a reason to celebrate.
“Good morals and values start at home and a
uniform won't change that.” - Jamie Sawyer
Social Values of the Filipinos
Weaknesses of Filipino Character
Extreme Personalism
- Filipinos view the world in terms of personal
relationships
- There is no separation between an objective task
and emotional involvement.
- The Filipinos always try to give an interpretation of
the actions or they take things personally
Extreme Family Centeredness
-The Filipinos have very high family protection
whether in good or poor condition and circumstance
(consentidor) (overprotected).
Lack of Discipline
-The Filipinos have a rather relaxed attitude, but bad
time management (famous Filipino time). They are
impatient and unable to postpone incentives or
rewards. They want to take shortcuts or the 'palusot'
scheme and careless.
Passivity and Lack of Initiative
- Acceptance of what happens, without active
response or resistance.
- "Bahala na System"-no matter what, come what
may, at least we tried (paconsuelo) attitude.
Colonial Mentality
- They appreciate too much other nationality and
foreign products than native ones.
- They even lack love and appreciation for what they
have.
Kanya-kanya Syndrome
-Filipinos have self-serving attitude that generates
feeling of envy and competitiveness towards others.
-They have personal ambition but insensitive to
common will (people and own country).
-There is also a crab mentality attitude (Hilahan and
Inggitan System) instead of being happy to what are
the accomplishments of others they try to pull them
down.
Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection
-Filipinos are superficial and dreamy. They lack self-
evaluation and reflection of the situation.
Ningas Cogon
-A Filipino attitude of being enthusiastic only during
the start of new undertaking but ends dismally in
accomplishing nothing.
Gaya-Gaya Attitude
-A Filipino attitude of imitating or copying other
culture specifically in mode of dressing, language,
fashion, trend or even haircut.