Life of a well

Life of a well

Notes

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© Schlumberger 1999 1
 Life of a well The information requirements in a wells life depend on the stage. The first
stage of the well is short, a few months. Once the well is drilled the
question is “where is the hydrocarbon?” The logs are run for this purpose.
Life of a well-1 Once the well is cased and cemented, the question is “how good is the
cement”. Then the zone(s) are perforated.
Once cased it is difficult to make measurements, especially of the
important resistivity.

Notes

Drilled well Cased Well Perforated Well

Need to find:
Saturation casing integrity
Porosity cement quality
Zones

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 Life of a well This is the formula giving the amount of oil in place, vital for the
exploitation of the reservoir.

Objective of a well Logs give

porosity
The Objective of most wells is to find
saturation
hydrocarbons.
height (from the depth)
The volume of hydrocarbons in place is
This means they are vital to the operator.
given by:
Area comes from surface seismic and/or well testing

H=Constant x φ(1−Sw)hΑ

where
Notes
H = initial oil in place
φ = effective porosity
Sw= initial water saturation
h = productive interval
A = drainage area

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 Life of a well The constant in the equation is used to put the result into the required
units, for example in oilfield units it is acre-ft.

Hydrocarbon in Place Logging measurements form a major part of the input to this equation,
hence their importance. Errors in reading or interpreting the logs is
reflected in the results of the hydrocarbon in place.
This is simple to visualise

A - area of the reservoir

h - the thickness of the reservoir
together the product gives the total volume of
rock

φ - percentage of pore space in that volume of

rock. i.e. the volume that contains fluids

Notes
Sw = percentage of the pore space containing
water so
(1-Sw) = percentage of pore space containing
hydrocarbons

Hence the equations for the hydrocarbons in

place

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 Life of a well The standard logging tools cover a wider range than LWD tools. the
latter are limited (at present) to the basic measurements. The advantage
of LWD is that it is real time (while drilling), this allows decisions to be
Open Hole Measurements made rapidly. This is especially important in the case of horizontal wells.
Highly deviated wells need to be logged using drillpipe because the tools
would not go down the hole by themselves. A special technique is used in
this case.
Open Hole Measurements are made by three
methods;

1) The traditional wireline logging

here the tools are lowered into the well on
the end of an electrical line. Measurement
is usually made pulling out of the hole.
2) Logging While Drilling
the tools are built into drill pipe. Logging
Notes
is made while drilling the hole and data is
stored in downhole memory as well as
being transmitted up hole.
3) Logging on drill pipe
here the standard wireline tools are
attached to drill pipe. A cable is still used
for data transmission. Logging is made
both down and up.

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 Life of a well All the porosity tool use linear scales. The scales are set to fit the most
common values met in the formations. The bulk density and neutron
porosity are usually run together and have “compatible scales”. This
Porosity Log Scales means that the log track covers the same amount of porosity. There are
variations on these scales to suit local conditions. For example the
neutron porosity is sometimes run on a scale of 0 - 60 p.u.
In all scales a “backup” curve is used to handle times when the main
curve goes out of the track. This curve only appears at these times.
45.0 Neutron Porosity (p.u.) -15.0
30 15 0

The porosity scale is linear in Porosity Units

(p.u.)
Bulk Density (g/cm 3)
1.95 2.95
2.20 2.45 2.70

Notes

The density scale is linear in grams/cm 3

Sonic Slowness ( µsec/ft )

140 40
105 90 75

The sonic slowness is linear and displayed in

microseconds/ft
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 Life of a well All resistivity logs have the same scale whether they are deep, medium or
very shallow reading. The standard scale of four logarithmic decades is
shown. The scale could also cover only two decades, for example from
Resistivity Logs 0.2-20 ohmm.
The use of this type of scale facilitates the reading of the log curves.
At times the resistivity and porosity logs are displayed on the same log.
In this case they each are restricted to half the width, i.e one track each.

0.2 Resistivity (ohm-m) 2000

1 10 100 1000

All resistivity logs are displayed over 2 tracks.

The scale is always logarithmic to cover the wide
range of possible values. Notes

Most scales start at 0.2 ohm-m and go to 2000

ohm-m

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Other Log Scales
Gamma Ray (G API)
0 150
Gamma is on a linear scale. The value
depends on the well.
Spontaneous Potential (mV)
->10mV< +
Life of a well These logs have much more variable scales. The caliper scale is chosen
to fit the bit size and is often presented with a constant companion curve
shwoing the nominal value of the bit size. Differences indicate the
condition of the hole more clearly.
The scale of the GR depends on the natural radioactivity of the formation
being studied. It is good policy to have the majority of the log inside the
track without the need for back-ups.
Tracks 2/3 The same philosophy applies to the SP curve, although this is ofetn more
difficult to predict. It is adjusted during the repeat section to fit inside the
track. Its scale is usually a number of millivolts per division. An absolute
scale is impossible for this sort of measurement.
Tracks 2/3

Notes
SP is on a linear scale with a given number
of millivolts per division, negative to the left.

6 Caliper (inches) 16 Tracks 2/3

Caliper is on a linear scale depending on the

bit size.
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 Life of a well In addition to these basic formation parameters a number of other data
can be found. These include,
- lithology, not only the major component but also the minor constituents
Use of Open Hole logs as well. These is important as they may affect the wells production.
- shale content and type. This gives the total pay zones as well as the
production properties.
- fracture indications, which affect the wells production
- permeability
The basic parameters needed are: - fluid type, especially in gas zones.

Thickness - measured by the tool depths

Porosity - measured by porosity tools

Notes

Saturation - computed from a combination

of porosity and resistivity

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 Life of a well In the second “half” of a wells life the questions are different. Here the
emphasis is on production , fluids and pressures. Different techniques are
employed. Well testing and reservoir monitoring tools are used to answer
Life of a well-2 most of the questions. Some specialist devices such as corrosion
monitoring tools may be required. The phase of the wells life lasts for a
much longer time, often years; hence there will be a number of surveys
during this time.

Notes

Well Produced Workover activity Recompleted

Need to know:
Production Perforation efficiency Flow rates
fluid mix new zones Zone Production
Pressures Flow rates Pressures

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 Life of a well Perforation is the most popular method of reservoir completion. The
objective is to create a path for flow from the formation to the well
through the casing and cement. The requirement is thus for a hole to be
Perforation made in the casing, cement and into the formation for a short distance.
Standard perforations have an entrance hole of about 0.4” and a
penetration of around 20”.
Gun systems use three components: The perforation “gun” contains these three components. The detonator to
start the reaction, the prime cord to propagate it and the shaped charge to
make the holes.
- detonator - primary high explosive ignited by
heat or shock

- primacord - secondary high explosive ignited by

the detonator, burns at 8400 m/sec

Notes
- shaped charges - create the perforations,
detonated by the primacord.

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 Life of a well Shaped Charges were developed shortly after World War II from the
military bazooka weapon.

Shaped charge Three basic elements of a shaped charge

1. CASE (Steel or Aluminium).

Case 2. CYLINDER OF HIGH EXPLOSIVE & A PRIMER.

Primacord
Primer
3. CONICAL METALLIC LINER.
Charge
It was found that the conical shape produced a depression / hole in a metal
target. The addition of the liner increased the efficiency of the system.
Explosive Modern liners are made of powdered metal and leave a powder residue at
Charge
the end of the perforation. A Typical charge has only about 20 grams of
Liner explosive material.
The pressure causes the material in the path of the jet of metal to move
out of the way creating the perforation.
If the liner opening is widened the entrance hole size increases but the
penetration decreases. These type of charges are used for applications
such as gravel pack.
Slug Jet
p=100GPa
500 m/s Notes

Tip
7000 m/s

The explosion forces the liner to flow inwards and out.

It forms into a characteristic shape, the jet.
This is moving rapidly and has extremely high pressures
at the tip.
The dimensions of the perforation, length of the tunnel,
and diameter of the entrance hole are linked and depend
on the geometry of the shaped charge.
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 Life of a well The advantage of a casing gun completion is that all perforation material
is carried inside the carrier hence it is protected from the well fluids. The
resulting debris is also brought out of the well in the same carrier. The
Types of Perforation carrier can be either re-usable or not depending on the type of operation
being performed. The more complex gun types are all “ throw-away”
type carriers. The disadvantage of overbalanced perforation is that the
Three Types of perforated completion mud in the well bore will enter the well as it is at a higher pressure.
Through tubing perforation eliminates the invasion problem and gives the
a) Wireline - Carried on an electric line formation the chance to flow immediately. The disadvantage is that
smaller guns have to be used, which means either smaller charges in a
1) Casing Gun Completion small carrier, or larger charges exposed to well fluids and debris left in
the well. The choice depends on the type of well being perforated.
Well Pressure > Formation Pressure
Overbalanced perforating
Large diameter carrier gun

2) Through Tubing Perforation Notes

Well Pressure < Formation Pressure.
Completion and final surface production
equipment, or a temporary completion and
testing facilities are in place
Underbalanced perforating, with pressure
control equipment
Through tubing gun (small guns)
Gauges can be run with the string
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 Life of a well Tubing conveyed perforation ( TCP ) connects a carrier gun to the end of
the drill pipe or tubing. The gun can be fired by a number different types
of detonators such as drop bar, pressure firing heads or inductive
Tubing Conveyed Perforating coupling. The choice depends on the conditions and type of well.
The advantages of this method are mainly the long interval (s) possible
and the possibility of a simultaneous well test using downhole gauges.
b)Carried on Drill Pipe or Tubing
3) Tubing Conveyed Perforating
Perforation gun is carried on either the drill pipe
or on tubing.

Well Pressure < or > Formation Pressure

Large interval of perforation in one run - in - hole

Notes

High explosive content, perforation spacing

Gauges can be run at the same time

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 Life of a well The number of shots per foot depends on the application and the reservoir
parameters. The objective is to obtain the best flow efficiency most
economically. Computer program exists which allow the reservoir
Perforation Characteristics engineer to select the best combination of shots per foot and phasing.
The most common number of shots per foot is four or six.

Guns are classified by the

shots
Shaped charges number of shots per foot,
per
foot
spf.
The current maximum is
21 spf.

Notes

90 Þphasing Perforation
Guns are also described
Directions by their Phasing- the
directions of the
perforations. This ranges
from 0Þ to 30Þ/60Þ
The example shows 90Þ.

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 Life of a well Cementing of the casing in place is one of the most vital operations in the
drilling phase. It is necessary to have a perfect seal between zones to
avoid unwanted fluid production or reservoir contamination. The cement
Cement Evaluation quality has to be evaluated before the completion and any repairs made at
that time.
Cementation of One of the major difficulties in cementing is the presence of gas zones.
wells is of vital These will cause problems if precautions are not taken during the cement
job.
importance for the
wells performance
as it seals one zone
from another,
To properly
evaluate any Unwanted fluid
flow
measurement in
cased hole the
quality of the Bad Cement
Notes
cement has to be
evaluated

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 Life of a well The cement band log-variable density tool uses a standard sonic tool to
make the measurement. This is the traditional tool and serves well to
identify the quality of the cement job. It has an added advantage in seeing
Cement Bond Logging Tools the bind from cement to formation which the other tools cannot.
There are three types of tool in current use The pulse-echo tools use either an array of ultrasonic transducers or a
single rotating transducer. Both methods produce a “map” of cement
quality around the borehole. Combining both types of tool provides the
best possible picture of the cement quality.
1) Cement Bond Log (CBL)- Variable Density
Log (VDL)
a) CBL measures the amplitude of
signal reflected from the casing
wall. The higher the amplitude
the lower the amount of
cement.
b)VDL image of the recorded
wavetrain. The only log to see
Notes
beyond the first casing into the
formation.
2) Pulse Echo type tool
measures the acoustic
impedance of the casing-
cement interface using
ultrasonics.
The latter tool is either segmented using
individual transducers or rotating covering the
entire casing 17
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 Life of a well Fluid flow in the casing tubing depends on the fluids flowing from the
reservoir. An oil with a high gas-oil ratio will produce a lot of gas
somewhere on its journey to the surface, a low GOR oil will produce less
Fluid Flow gas. If there is water production as well, three phase flow will exist in the
tubing and two phase (diphasic) flow in the casing before the gas has
come out of solution.
These flow regimes cause problems for measurements.

Notes

Fluid flow in the borehole is complex. The fluid

may start as oil but then bubbles of gas come out
of solution.
There may also be mixed flow of water and oil.

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 Life of a well Flow in the casing and/ or tubing is broken into different regimes from
Bubble flow, gas bubbles in oil, to mist flow, oil droplets in gas. The
actual flow regime encountered in the well depends on the flow velocities
Flow Regimes and gas-oil ratio.
More than type of flow will be present in the well as the pressure change
and more gas come out of solution.
FLOW REGIMES
10 2
LIQUID VELOCITY

10
REGION I

REGION II REGION III

ION
SIT
AN
TR
1
BUBBLE FLOW

Notes

MIST FLOW
SLUG FLOW
PLUG FLOW
10 -1 1 10 10 2 10 3
GAS VELOCITY

The actual flow regime depends on a number of

factors, such as gas-oil-ratio.

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 Life of a well The measurement of fluid production requires a number of sensors due to
the complexity of the problem. For example the spinner which measures
flow rate will change if the casing diameter changes hence the need for a
Production Tools caliper tool.
A combination of flow rate and fluid density will give the flow rates of
each fluid present. The temperature is most often used in the analysis of
problems.

Current tools consist of a number of sensors. The There a number of additional sensors which have specific uses. The
nuclear fluid density tool is used in horizontal or highly deviated wells
major ones are where the conventional tool does not work.

Flowmeter flow measurement

Gradiomanometer fluid density/ hold up,
fluid mix
Pressure reservoir, borehole
Notes
pressures, fluid density
Temperature production ,temperature,
flow measurement, cement
evaluation, channel
identification
Caliper borehole size, Flowmeter
correction

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 Life of a well The interpretation of production logs always involves the collection of as
much information as possible about the well itself, especially the
completion and the fluids expected. The logs have then to be examined
Production Log Interpretation closely to identify any anomalies and also calibration zones for the
Step 1 spinners. (the spinners use a downhole calibration technique). As the log is
always run in a number of passes with the well flowing and shut-in , all
must be examined.
It is normal for a number of answers to be possible for a given set of log
data. However knowledge of the well and fluids eliminates all but the
correct one.
The first thing that is done is to look at the logs.
Questions asked:

• do the spinners change at the perforation

depths
• is the fluid density "sensible"
Notes
• does the shut in pass show anything e.g.
crossflow
• does the temperature have any anomalies
• are there any stable zones for calibration
• what's the problem

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 Life of a well The example shows a well sketch of a casing perforated in one place and
the spinner (flowmeter) logged in the well. The log shows an increase
across the perforated zone but also another increase further up the well.
Example 1 This could be a casing leak at that point. If this was the case the repair
Well would involve an expensive workover.
Sketch

What happens here?

Notes

Spinner RPS
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 Life of a well The true answer is much simpler. A re-examination of the well data shows
a change in casing weight at this depth. The increased weight decreased
the internal diameter, causing a spinner increase. This would also have
example-1 solution been seen on a caliper log, if one had been available.
This example highlights the need for complete information.

Casing/ hole size

change

Notes

Spinner RPS
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 Life of a well A simple phase (monophasic) flow interpretation is straight forward. The
flowmeter response can be calibrated downhole to show as a percentage of
the total flow.
Flowmeter Interpretation Calibration is made in the zones between the perforation where the flow
monophasic flow has stabilised. Zero flow is usually assumed below the lowest perforation.
The percentages can be translated into quantities knowing the well
production.
7.0 rps

A
21.4% of 1 .5 r p s
total
flow

B
42.9% of
total
flow
3 .0 rp s

Notes

C
35.7% of
total
2.5 rps flow

0 10 20
cps 24
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 Life of a well Saturation,as well as having a “radial” component in the form of invasion
has a time component. As the reservoir is produced the water moves in to
vacate the space left by the producing oil. This process continues until the
Saturation and Time oil saturation equals the residual value.

S w- original

∆S w
water

water
oil

Matrix

Over time the saturation undergoes another Notes

change with the oil being displaced by the
invading water
The water could be of a different salinity to that
originally in place

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 Life of a well
Many reservoirs are bounded on a portion or all of their peripheries by
aquifers. The aquifers may also be so large compared with the reservoirs
they adjoin as to appear infinite for all practical purposes, and range down
Saturation Monitoring to those so small as to be negligible in the effect on reservoir
performance. When pressure decreases due to oil production, the aquifer
reacts to offset or retard pressure decline providing a source of water
influx or encroachment.
Porosity %
50 0 The objective is to Water may be injected to supply external energy to improve the recovery
original water monitor the depletion of of hydrocarbons. The injected water may advance evenly or may channel
in place through the streaks of better permeability leaving hydrocarbons behind
P
e
the producing zone, i.e.
the water front. To achieve optimum hydrocarbon recovery , the
r the difference between monitoring of water saturation at regular intervals is essential;. This
f
o
Remaining
the original and the achieved by measuring the water saturation in different portions of the
r
a
hydrocarbon current oil saturation. field and then drawing contour maps of ISO-saturation curves. This helps
t to detect and measure the rise of the water/oil contact, locate water fingers
i
It is also to detect or bypassed hydrocarbons, estimate the residual oil saturation and
o
evaluate the efficiency of water-flooding projects. Proper monitoring
n
s
problem zones such as allows to take the necessary steps to maximise the final recovery.
displaced hydrocarbon water fingering or
coning. Notes

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 Life of a well Reservoir evaluation and saturation monitoring through casing are
generally performed in two ways. One measures the decay of thermal
neutron populations ( TDT-P, pulsed neutron capture) and the other
Monitoring Tools determines the relative amounts of carbon and oxygen in the formation of
inelastic gamma ray spectroscopy, as used in the GST or RST ( induced
gamma ray spectroscopy ). Because chlorine has a large neutron capture
cross section, the PNC technique provides good results in areas with
highly saline formation waters.

Two measurement methods exist:

Pulsed neutron capture logging
Carbon Oxygen logging

Both use an electronic source and pairs of

detectors measuring gamma rays
Notes

PNC measures the capture cross section of the

formation. This is related to the amount of
chlorine and hence the water
C/O measures the relative amounts of carbon and
oxygen. This is related to the amounts of
hydrocarbon and water.

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 Life of a well The equation linking the log reading and the formation is linear. The
unknowns are the capture cross sections for the water, hydrocarbon and
matrix plus the porosity. The latter can be measured with the tool but it is
PNC Method and Analysis preferable to use open hole value.

The log reading is a linear mixture of the matrix

and the fluid:

Σ log = Σ f φ + (1 − φ )Σ ma
The fluid term can be expanded to:

Σ f = Σ w S w + (1 − S w )Σ h
Notes

Hence if Σw, Σma, Σh and the porosity, φ are known

the saturation Sw can be obtained.

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 Life of a well The equation can be solved graphically. At f=0 the tool output is equal to
the matrix capture cross section Sma. If this is known it serves as a pivot
Pulsed Neutron Capture point. At f =100% the output depends on Sw. If this is 1 Sl = Sw. if it
equals 0 then Sl = Sh.The values for Sh and Sw can be found in advance
Interpretation from charts, hence the plot can be sealed in Sw.
The method provides a simple method of analysing the results.

Σ w

Σ log

%
= 100
Sw

Σ ma
Σ H

Sw = 0%

Notes

POROSITY

Σ L
= Σ ma (1− φ ) + Σ f (φ )

Σ (φ ) = Σ φ (1− S )+ Σ φ S
f h W W W

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 Life of a well The slide presents an example of time-lapse monitoring. The open hole
computed log is displayed with three computed TDT logs that were run
over several years. The rise in the oil/water contact between logs runs is
Time Lapse Example obvious. Water fingering has also developed in all upper high-
permeability zone.
This type of survey are normally performed in several wells of the same
reservoir. This allows to map the water saturation and monitor the water
front advances

Notes

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 Life of a well The first stage of the measurement computes the individual elements
from the spectra. This is very statistical. The next step take large windows
over the expected carbon and oxygen peaks to give a statistically good
Carbon Oxygen Analysis measurement. The combination of these two gives an accurate carbon-
oxygen ratio which can then be transformed into saturation

Notes

The tool measures carbon (in the

hydrocarbons) and oxygen (in the water)
Combining these gives the saturation

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 Life of a well This plot is for the RST-B tool, which has the ability to compute both the
formation and borehole percentages. The shape of the plot depends on the
lithology.
C/O Saturation The smaller tools have a plot which has less spread the near and far
detectors “see” almost the same thing, hence it can only distinguish the
formation percentage. The borehole fluid must be known in this case.

S w= 0 , Yo = 1 0 0

S w= 0 , Yo= 0 Sw = 1 0 0 , Yo = 1 0 0
O
C
F

ra
o
ar

ti

S w= 1 0 0 , Yo = 0
Ne ar C/ O Rat io

Notes

The plot is of the Far C/O ratio against the

Near
The combination gives both the formation
water percentage Sw and the borehole
percentage Yo

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 Life of a well Vertical wells are most common in exploration situations. The well is
drilled to its target without the complications of deviation.
Vertical Wells

Wells can be split into three categories

1) Vertical
• drilled to a specific target
• measured depth = true depth

Notes

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 Life of a well Deviated wells are very common in a lot of situations. The well track can
be almost anything; starting vertical and then deviating, starting vertical,
deviating and then vertical again, starting deviated and then going vertical.
Deviated well The change in direction is called a dog-leg. Severe doglegs can cause
problems for logging as it makes it difficult for the tool to go down and
sometimes to come out. The deviation angle is measured with respect to
the vertical. The true depth has to be computed, knowing this angle and
how it has changed.

possible well tracks

Notes

Target formation

2) Deviated
• usually from a platform or
• from land to near offshore
• measured depth has to be
converted to true vertical depth 34
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 Life of a well The ultimate deviated well is a horizontal well. Here the well is drilled in
three sections, the vertical section, the curved section and finally the
ramp. The curved section is typically a couple of hundred metres but can
Horizontal well be less for specific cases. The ramp is as long as required, several
kilometres is common. Guiding the well is done from surface using
sensors mounted near the drill bit. These give information on direction
and deviation as well as logging data such as gamma ray which helps in
guiding the well paths.

Vertical section

Notes

Curvature

Ramp
3) Horizontal
• drilled to maximise production or
minimise problems such as coning
• well is precisely guided along a
predetermined track
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 Life of a well Measurements are made in the borehole using tools based on a set of
physical principles. The standards for the measurements are fixed at
nominal values, for example an 8” borehole. The borehole environment
Measurements in Open Hole is different from the standard hence there are deviations from the
“perfect” measurement. These deviations are known and can ( in most
cases) be corrected. It is important to recognise the differences and have
a good knowledge of the environment.

The measurements made in the borehole are

affected by the environment.

The major effects are:

Borehole size and shape

Notes

Borehole Fluids

Borehole Temperature

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 Life of a well The addition of casing and cement plus tubing adds complications to the
measurement of formation properties. Each of the elements present
affects the measurement, sometimes they are unknown and have to be
Measurements in Cased Hole inferred. All this makes cased hole analysis more difficult than open hole.

The cased hole environment is more complex than

open hole because of
casing and tubing • steel affects measurements
cement • to be measured but
unknown in most cases
unknown fluids • to be measured, affects
tools
limited tools • slim hole restrictions plus
casing etc limits tools which
can be run
Notes
lot of unknowns • have to take into account
reservoir behaviour, fluid
dynamics as well as rock
mechanics and formation
properties

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 Life of a well The tool contains a sensor package and the electronics for processing the
data and communication with the surface. The formation to be measured
id “separated” from the tool by the borehole and its constituents, mud and
Measuring in the borehole mudcake. Thus the borehole is a filter through which the formation is
seen. Borehole corrections are the method used to eliminate this
environmental effect.
The formation to be
measured is masked
by the borehole.
The borehole
contains fluids and is
Sensors
of an irregular shape.
+
Electronics
The sensor has to be
Formation
to be
Measured
able to measure the
formation property
Notes
accurately and send
the information to
Borehole
surface.

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 Life of a well
Borehole -Size and Shape
Perfect shape no problems
except if very large.
Ovalised hole; will give
problems for some tools.
Best to run two calipers.
Irregular borehole, gives
problems for most tools.
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The first problem for measurement is the borehole shape. This depends
on the formation being drilled, regional stresses and the drilling practice
used.
The best case is the perfectly circular hole. This will only cause problems
if it is very large. Ovalised boreholes are often caused by local tectonic
stress imbalance. A lot of tools will lie along the long axis and the caliper
measuring a large hole size. This may cause too much correction to be
applied hence two caliper measurements at 90Þ to each other is preferred
as it gives an indication of the borehole shape.
Irregular or rugous borehole causes problems for most tools but
especially when the sensor is carried on a pad applied to the borehole
wall. In this case correction may be impossible.
Notes
 Life of a well The position, of the tool in the hole depends on the type of measurement.
All tools need either a specific position or at least their position to be
known for the relevant correction to be applied. Centralising a tool
Tool Positioning - 1 involves putting a set of centralisers at specific points on the tool. These
devices have symmetrical spring arms which adjust to changes in the
borehole size keeping the tool in the centre of the borehole.
Some tools are run
centralised in the
borehole in order to
measure properly.
These include laterolog
Centralised
and sonic devices.
Tool
Special centralisers are
put on the tool.
Formation
to be
Measured
Notes

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 Life of a well The opposite of the centralisation / eccentralisation pushes the tool
against the borehole wall. This is accomplished with either a spring
eccentraliser or, in the case of most pad tools, with a powered back up
Tool Positionning - 2 arm. The objective here is to keep the sensor in as close a contact as
possible with the wall minimising interference by the mud.

Some tools are run

eccentred, pushed,
against the borehole
wall.
In some cases this is
Eccentralised
Tool
done with an
eccentraliser.
Formation In other cases a caliper
to be Notes
Measured arm does this job.

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 Life of a well
Tool Positionning - 3
Some tools are run
with “stand-offs” to
position them at a
fixed distance from
the wall.
Stand offs are physical devices placed on the tool to keep it a fixed
distance from the wall. Their use is to keep the tool away from the wall
but still in a known position. In some cases (the induction family) this is
done to optimise the tools functioning.
In a long combination tool strings, some tools may have stand-offs while
others are eccentralised. This conflicting requirement is possible using
“knuckle-joints” which act as a crossover between the two systems.

Tool with
The induction family
Stand-offs are usually run in this
manner.
Formation Stand-Offs
to be
Measured Notes

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 Life of a well The fluid in the borehole can have as enormous effect on the tool and
hence its type, properties and additives must be known. The different
fluids are used to drill different rock types. Oil based mud is often
Borehole - Fluids employed to drill shales which would swell on contact with water. Air
and foam drilling are used in cases where there is a weak formation
which will crack if mud is used.
The borehole fluid can be
- water based mud
fresh or
salt saturated
Sensors
+ - oil based mud
Electronics
Formation
to be
varying quantities
Measured
of water
- air Notes

Borehole
Fluid
- foam

In addition there are a

number of additives to
increase weight, viscosity
and so on.

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 Life of a well The variations in mud type are large. Salinity is measured (usually by the
logging engineer) on samples of mud, mud filtrate and mudcake. The
additives are obtained from the mud engineer and should be known
Borehole fluids 2 accurately even in small quantities, will render the Pe curve useless
although some modern tools may be able to make sufficient correction.
Oil based mud will not allow current to pass so
electrical logs will not work.

Foam and air muds will not transmit sonics

signals. Neutron tools are also affected.

Mud salinity affects electrical and induction tools

in different manners.

Additives such as barite affect density, gamma Notes

ray and photoelectric effect measurements.

The mud type, salinity and additives must be

known so that the appropriate corrections can be
made.

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 Life of a well Temperature measurement is made with maximum reading thermometers
attached to the logging head during each run. These are normally
employed for redundancy. There are some tools which measure
Borehole - Temperature temperature on a continuous basis .These are extremely useful when
looking at profiles. Most logging tools are rated at 350ÞF. They usually
have “high temperature” versions where the electronics are put in a
Dewar flask.

Increasing temperature affects the measurements

in some tools. The most affected is the thermal
neutron devices.

High temperature also affect the performance of

the electronics in the tools.

Temperature affects the mud resistivity (it Notes

decreases with increasing temperature).

Temperature is measured during each logging

run.

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 Life of a well Tools are constructed to measure a certain volume of formation. This
volume depends on the physics of the measurement being made and the
type of sensor.
Volume of Investigation The first type of measurement is omni-directional, i.e.. all directions at
once. The tool reads a circular volume which includes some of the
borehole and some formation. The depth of investigation, how much of
the formation is actually measured, depends on the specific tool. Most
Formation
to be read a few inches in the invaded zone.
Measured

Virgin
Zone Virgin
Zone

Volume investigated
by the tool

Invaded Zone Notes

The tool shown here measures all around the

borehole. It is omni-directional.
An example of this type of tool is the Gamma
Ray.
Some of the “signal” is in the borehole. Most
comes from the invaded zone.

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 Life of a well The pattern here is similar to the last slide, being, once again omni
directional. However these tools (deep resistivity) are different in that
they are “focused” to and as much as possible beyond the invaded zone.
Volume of Investigation 2 They are still affected by both borehole and the invaded zone, hence need
corrections.
These tools see a few feet into the formation.

Formation
to be
Measured

Virgin Virgin
Zone Zone

Volume investigated
by the tool

Invaded Zone
Notes

This type of investigation is also omni-directional

but it reads mainly in the virgin zone.
This pattern is that of the deep resistivity tools.

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 Life of a well This pattern is in a single direction. hence the tool sees a volume of the
formation just in front of its sensor. This type of tool is eccentered as any
other borehole position would make it read too much of the borehole.
Volume of Investigation 3 These tools see a few inches into the formation, again measuring the
invaded zone.
If the formation is very heterogeneous it may be difficult to reconcile the
readings from the three different volumes. This situation is often seen in
Formation highly deviated or horizontal wells.
to be
Measured

Virgin
Zone Virgin
Zone

Volume investigated
by the tool

Notes
Invaded Zone

This type of measurement has the sensor facing

in one direction only.
Examples of this are the neutron porosity and
bulk density measurements.

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 Life of a well
Vertical Wells
In vertical wells, with homogeneous layers all
types of tool are reading in the same formation.
The tools are built to read correctly in an infinite homogeneous
formation. This situation applies reasonably well with vertical wells. In
the horizontal case the focusing of the deep resistivity tools may make
them read beyond the layer seen by the shallower tools. This causes
confusion when trying to use combinations of both types of
measurement.
Despite the problems involved, valuable information can be obtained
from the data on the geometry of the bedding.

In horizontal (or highly deviated) wells the deep

reading resistivity tools may read a different
layer to the shallow reading tools.

In addition the omni-directional tools (e.g. GR) Notes

may read different layers from the single
direction devices.

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 Life of a well The depth is different depending on whether the wells are vertical or
horizontal. In addition there are differences if the drilling is on land or
offshore. However the reservoir is at a constant depth irrespective of the
Depth Overview surface topography. Hence a reference is used to give a precise
repeatable depth. The reference is mean sea level.

Notes

The depths and position of all wells has to be well

known. This is important in mapping and
evaluation.
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 Life of a well There are a number of depths associated with a well, however the logging
depth is always used as the reference as it is repeatable. (Logs can be run
in the future which can be correlated with those originally run).
Reason for Depth Control Differences between drillers depth and logging depth is usually quite
small, a few feet. Anything greater than this need checking. The most
common error is one of around 30 feet, the length of a joint of pipe.
which has been forgotten in the count.

The depth of a well is first measured by the

driller.
A reference such as the drill floor is used for the
measurement.
All depths are referred to the field reference,
usually mean sea level, m.s.l.
Logging depths are used for all subsequent
Notes
operations on the well, perforations, monitoring,
test depths, pressures and so on.
They are measured during the logging process.
Major differences with the drillers depth have to
be investigated

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 Life of a well As noted the logging depth is the reference hence it is necessary to have
it as correct as possible. As the cable used for the measurement of the
depth, it has to be in good condition; regular checks are made. The
Depth Control surface acquisition system is also controlled as is the measuring system
itself.

Logging Depth Control is of vital importance.

The System used has a number of safeguards
and crosschecks against error.
The controls include cable stretch corrections.
The accuracy is
±2.5 foot in 5000 feet
Notes
The consistency between logging runs is
<2 feet in 10000 feet.

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 Life of a well Depth measurement is made in the following way :

Depth Measurement 1) The tool is put at reference zero, for example the drill floor.

2) The distance from this to the unit is measured, its called L1

3) The tool is run in the hole. At logging depth the logging tension is
measured and the stretch correction made.

4) The distance from the unit to the tool zero point is checked, L2. L2
should equal L1 if nothing has changed with the set up.

5) The log is made; the surface measuring system computes depth.

6) Zero is checked again on surface.

Notes

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 Life of a well The stretch correction is part of the depth control measurement. It can be
either computed using the chart, entering tension and depth to get the
stretch or using the formula
Stretch Correction
² L = L * G * [Tup - Tdown]

Where L is the depth , and T is the logging tension, up and down

Notes

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 Life of a well

Depth Measurement Summary

Depth measurement starts with setting the tool

zero.

The depth is measured using two independent

wheels.

The depth at the bottom of the well is corrected

for cable stretch.
Notes

Magnetic marks on the cable are used to monitor

the system.

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 Life of a well The tool zero in this example (and usually in practise) is set at the bottom
of the tool. The various sensors in the tool string are at different and
known distances above this. Thus when the tool is at the bottom of the
Tool depths well, in the example at 10219 feet. This sensor will never see the bottom
15 feet of this well.
Once logging has started the log is recorded with reference to the tool
zero. This means that the other sensors readings have to be held in
memory until the zero passes the depth before being output

Notes

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 Life of a well The log shows the three measurements made. Measurement starts and all
three show straight line static values. After two feet of travel the zero
crosses the tension measurements first reading, this curve moves, after 8
Log Depths .5 feet sensor moves and after 15 feet sensor. All the curves are on depth.
As a corollary of this total depth can be found using first reading of the
sensors and the distance of the sensor from the bottom of the tool (zero
point)

Notes

The distance from the sensor to the measure zero

is known hence all the logs are “on depth”.

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 Life of a well The quality of logging jobs can be evaluated by the usefulness of the data
acquired in the interpreting them to answer the problem (s) or obtain
parameters. The process begins before the job in a pre-job briefing
Log Quality Control identifying the objectives and recognising any potential difficulties.
During the job data monitoring gives the real time control, A final check
at the end of the operation should ensure that all the data is good enough
has been collected.
Log Quality Control - LQC is an important part The next section details some of the possible errors in logging
of every logging job. measurements and how to minimise them.

Log data can be affected by the borehole

environment or by tool problems.
If this is not recognised in time the data may be
useless for further interpretation.
LQC starts before the operation by identifying the
possible problems in the well.
Notes
It continues during the job, monitoring the log
curves.
It ends after the job with an evaluation of the data
acquired.

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 Life of a well A quality standard can be set for every tool/measurement made. The
listing for these is given in a Log Quality Control Reference Manual.
This sets out the responses of the tool and any quality control curves.
Standards General

The tool quality standards vary from tool to tool

and depend not only on the tool but also the
environment in which it is run.

For example the induction and laterolog families

prefer the opposite types of mud in the borehole.

Each tool has a set of standards which are based

on the physical principles of the measurement. Notes

The performance of the tool can be checked by:

Response in known conditions
Specific Quality control curves

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 Life of a well A quality control curve shows some aspect of the tools functioning to the
engineer. These curves can be seen as curves on a standard log display or
by their numerical value on a monitor. They are most useful while
Tool Quality Control Curves logging to see how the tool is behaving if incorrect to allow the fault to
be fixed if possible or at least the data acquired with a back up tool. They
can also be used after the job to explain spurious readings and variations.

Some tools (the most modern varieties) have

outputs which monitor the proper functionning of
the electronics and sensors.

These are in the form of curves which the logging

engineer can monitor during the job.

Each has known limits indicating good Notes

measurements. Failure or, in some cases, bad

borehole conditions, cause the reading to be
outside the acceptable zone.
The limits are laid out on the relevant page of the
LQC Manual.

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 Life of a well The three categories of well have different objectives and hence different
logging problems. Exploration wells, in unknown conditions, pose the
greatest questions while development wells are usually the simplest to
Drilling Objective log and evaluate.
Appraisal wells often allow excellent data acquisition as the early drilling
problems are solved and the evaluation questions known, hence can be
answered with a well planned survey.

A well is drilled to a pre-determined objective:

An exploration well targets a suspected reservoir.

An appraisal well evaluates a discovery.

Notes
A development well is used for production.

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 Life of a well The exploration well is often in very unknown territory. Th surface
seismic will give structure, outcrops will give some idea of the geology.
Pre-Drilling Knowledge Depths, fluids porosity, saturation etc. are all unknowns. The logging
suite has to cover all eventualities, a switch in mud type or higher than
Exploration expected resistivities may require a change of resistivity tool.
In addition the hole condition may be bad leading to poor data
Structural information obtained from surface acquisition.

seismic data.
Rough geological information can be provided by
nearby wells or outcrops.
Approximate depths estimated from surface
seismic data.

Notes

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 Life of a well In the appraisal well the initial information has been obtained from the
exploration well. The evaluation problem(s) is now known and a survey
Pre-Drilling Knowledge can be tailored to maximise the information. The data from this type of
well is often the best and most complete in the field.
Appraisal

Notes

Detailed structure from logs taken in previous

wells.

Time-to-depth conversion for surface seismic

from logs taken in previous wells.
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 Life of a well

Appraisal Wells - Continued

Geological data from cuttings, cores and logs

from previous wells.

Notes

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 Life of a well Development well logging is concerned with completion, where to
perforate. The rest of the information about the reservoir should be
Pre-Drilling Knowledge known but there can be surprises, for example unexpected faults.

Development

Notes

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 Life of a well
Tool History
1927 - First electrical log recorded.
1930s - SP, Short Normal, Long Normal and Long Lateral
combined, Core Sample Taker.
1940s - Gamma Ray and Neutron, 3-arm Dipmeter using SP, then
electrical measurements, Induction tool.
Tools and acquisition systems have continued to be developed since the
first log was recorded in 1927 by the Schlumberger brothers Marcel and
Conrad. Some development has improved existing measurements, the
simple electrical log has become the Azimuthal Resistivity Imaging Tool.
Other are new measurements added to the battery of existing techniques
such as nuclear magnetic imaging.
Recent advances have used the explosion in computing power to increase
the density of data recorded and hence create images of the borehole and
formation properties. At the same time these tools have become more and
more reliable. Surface systems have become more sophisticated while
becoming easier for the user (both the engineer and customer).

1950s - Microlog tool, Laterolog tool, Sonic tool, Formation

Tester.

1960s - Formation Density tool.

1970s - Dual Spacing Neutrons, Advanced Dipmeters, Notes

Computerised Surface Systems, Repeat Tester tools,
Electromagnetic Propagation tool.

1980s - Resistivity Imaging tool, Advanced Sonic tools

1990s - Advanced testing tools, Induction imaging tools,

Azimuthal Laterolog tools, Ultrasonic imaging tools,
Epithermal porosity tools, Magnetic resonance tools

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 Life of a well The early interpretation used a combination of resistivity and the SP to
pick zones. The SP was labelled as a “porosity” curve.

Early Interpretation

Early resistivity logs were used to find

possible producing zones.

high resistivity = hydrocarbon

SP was used to define permeable beds,

compute Rw and determine shaliness.

Resistivity was also used to determine Notes

"porosity".

Archie developed the relationship between

resistivity, porosity and saturation.

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 Life of a well This is a fast quicklook technique to recognise hydrocarbon zones. In a
water zone the porosity and resistivity will track each other, as the
porosity decreases there is less water hence the resistivity increases and
Interpretation Procedure vice versa. In shale the resistivity usually reads low and the porosity
reads high.
In hydrocarbon the resistivity increases while the porosity is the same or
Gamma Ray Resistivity Porosity increases.

Hydrocarbon

Water

Shale

Notes

Water

The simplest evaluation technique consists of

recognising the hydrocarbon zone using the
porosity and resistivity curves

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 Life of a well This interpretation procedure follows some simple guidelines to arrive at
a final answer. The input is the environmentally corrected and quality
checked log data. This is an important step which cannot be avoided if a
Interpretation Flowchart proper answer is required. Additional information such as core data may
also be used. This information is zoned, broken into sections of interest
(the reservoir) and other (such as shale and bad hole).

Lithology selection takes the flowchart into two paths. In carbonates the
problem is porosity and porosity type before computing saturation. In
clastics it is the shale, shale type and possible other minerals that have to
be evaluated first.

Notes

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 Life of a well The objective of zoning is to eliminate (or put aside for later study) zones
which are not of prime interest, i.e. non reservoir or poor data quality.
The best tools to use are the simple ones, the SP and GR which react to
Zoning simple phenomena. The caliper is good as it often shows shale as bad
hole and clean zones as having mud cake, in addition to showing bad
hole where the log response is poor.
Zoning is the first step in any interpretation The neutron-density-Pef are good but the first two also react to the fluid
type and the Pef may be affected by barite.
procedure. During zoning, the logs are split into
The resistivity is the last tool to use as it is affected mainly by fluids.
intervals of:
1) Porous and non-porous rock.
2) Permeable and non-permeable rock.
3) Shaly and clean rock.
Additionally;
Good hole conditions and bad hole
conditions.
Notes
Good logs and bad logs.

Zoning Tools:
SP.
GR.
Caliper.
Neutron Density-Pef.
Resistivity.
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