CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

LOCAL STUDIES

This study was anchored in the case study of Dr. Zenaida Reyes of the Philippine Normal

University. According to her, the Philippines is the only Asian country with a high score on the

Gender Gap Index (GGI). A high score on the GGI relates to the equality of access to resources,

regardless of what, or how large, these resources are. Therefore, in the Philippines, men and

women have similar access to resources. Underpinning this equality of access are the

development of policies which focus on promoting gender equality, these have included the

Philippine Development Plan for Women (1989-1992), the Philippine Plan for Gender-

Responsive Development (1995-2025). In addition, the introduction of the Philippine

Commission on Women, and its National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (1975),

has served as an advisory board for policies relating to women. This includes the ‘Magna Carta of

Women’ (Republic Act No. 9710).

The Magna Carta of Women is the first comprehensive law that focuses on pathways to

gender equality and addresses women’s empowerment. The Commission on Higher Education

(CHED) has ensured that all state and local universities and colleges adhere to the strict

implementation of this. Based on this agreement, we see policies including the introduction of

masters level programmes in Gender Studies, scholarship grants for females on male dominated

course (and vice versa), and financial assistance for female students experiencing personal issues.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Philippine Normal University (PNU) was one of the

first to offer Women’s Studies as a second subject for those students taken an undergraduate
degree in Primary or Secondary Education [2]. It remained at the forefront of gender and

development for many years, with the creation of a centre to focus on gender and development,

initially named the Centre for Peace, Gender, and Human Rights Education, it is now titled the

University Centre for Gender and Development (UCGD).

The introduction of the UCGD has also led to an increase in community engagement on

gender equality and women’s empowerment in the city. It runs gender sensitivity training

programmes and seminars for University staff, teachers, community leaders and citizens of the

local community (barangay). The UCGD, and students of the Women Studies programme also

develop action research projects with the aim to empower women in the local community. These

projects involve a focus on health and wellbeing, skills, child rearing, and nutrition.

UCGD, in cooperation with the PNU Administrative Staff and the doctors, dentists, and

dental staff of the PNU Health Clinic, held an extension service at Hospicio de San Jose titled,

“Gender Equality and Proper Hygiene.” About 29 children in the orphanage were the

beneficiaries of the said activity. The orphans were deprived of having to live with their own

families because of various circumstances (e.g. abandonment, death, gender violence). It is

hoped that the learning session with the young orphans will enable them to respect the rights of

individuals, whatever is the sex and gender preference, and especially their own bodies which are

important in building their future following the values of justice and equality. The activities took

place across the course of one day. The scholars started with a storytelling of a gender-sensitive

children’s literature, “Ang Sabi ni Nanay, Ang Sabi ni Tatay” ( translated: what mother told me,

what father told me). It is a story about breaking traditional gendered notions of jobs or

occupations. Afterwards, the PNU Health Clinic group led another session which showed child-

friendly videos of how to brush one’s teeth properly. This was followed by a series of dance
exercises where all the children have participated and enjoyed the activity. The session ended

with a lunch, which was also an opportunity for the PNU group to bond with the children.

Feedback from the event suggested a high level of enjoyment. They anticipate that by

building awareness of gender issues, public health, and social skills from an early age, the

children will develop sensitivities to the rights of boys and girls, men and women within the city,

and wider.

FOREIGN STUDIES

Over the last few decades, research, activity, and funding had been devoted to improving the

recruitment, retention, and advancement of women in the fields of science, engineering, and

medicine. In recent years the diversity of those participating in these fields, particularly the

participation of women, has improved and there are significantly more women entering careers

and studying science, engineering, and medicine than ever before. However, as women

increasingly enter these fields they face biases and barriers and it is not surprising that sexual

harassment is one of these barriers (Henry, 2017).

Over thirty years the incidence of sexual harassment in different industries has held

steady, yet now more women are in the workforce and in academia, and in the fields of science,

engineering, and medicine (as students and faculty) and so more women are experiencing sexual

harassment as they work and learn. Over the last several years, revelations of the sexual

harassment experienced by women in the workplace and in academic settings have raised urgent

questions about the specific impact of this discriminatory behavior on women and the extent to

which it is limiting their careers (Henry, 2017).

 Sexual Harassment of Women explores the influence of sexual harassment in academia

on the career advancement of women in the scientific, technical, and medical workforce. This

report reviews the research on the extent to which women in the fields of science, engineering,

and medicine are victimized by sexual harassment and examines the existing information on the

extent to which sexual harassment in academia negatively impacts the recruitment, retention, and

advancement of women pursuing scientific, engineering, technical, and medical careers. It also

identifies and analyzes the policies, strategies and practices that have been the most successful in

preventing and addressing sexual harassment in these settings (Henry, 2017).

Researchers have reported bias in all levels of education. McCune's (1974) study of

educational practices, indicated that educators reinforced sex stereotyping and bias. Lockhart

(1979) says, "This researcher finds that textbooks, manuals, tests, like the 1966 Manual for the

Strong Vocational Interest Blank, all reinforce sex stereotyping. The 1977 manual corrects the

stereotyping. Even though recent Changes have occurred in educational materials, it is likely that

older, sex-biased material is still being used by educators [p. 22]."

Language is another area in which sex-role subtleties were found. Many researchers have

suggested that English is a masculine language which portrays sexual attitudes. Schneider and

Hacker (1973) found that col1ege students interpreted the generic term "man" used in many

textbooks as meaning "male" rather than "male and female".

Lockhart (1979) found in her research that counselors accepted equally clients with

deviant and conforming career goals, but they did not approve of the deviant goals as highly as

they approved of the conforming goals. Lewis and Kaltreider (1976) observed that counselors did

not overtly discourage non-traditional enrollment, and neither did they encourage it.
 Other aspects of the educational system reinforce sex role stereotypes and negatively

affect female students' aspirations and achievements. The imbalance of female-male classroom

teachers and the lack of female administrators tells children that females should be

As Lockhart (1979) says, "Clearly, it can be seen that educational personnel and the

materials they use play a significant role in reinforcing sex-typed perceptions [p. 24]." Smith

(1976) believes that the educational system as a product of society unconsciously perpetuates sex

stereotyping and recognition of such is difficult because it often takes subtle forms. She believes

that despite the effects of earlier socialization, educational personnel can and do make a

difference in the attitudes and behaviors or their students. "Their attitudes and actual teaching

behaviors can negate either the most stereotyped or emphasize the most sex-fair curriculum and

educational materials [p. 33]."

Lockhart (1979).reports, "Career education specialists have noted that although schools

are a part of a society which has condoned sex stereotyping, they have the obligation to help

students broaden their options of career choice, and they should assist students to prepare for a

combination of work and family roles which are consistent with reality Lp. 26]." Goodlad and

Klein (1974) made the following observation about the change process in education: "...changing

the behavior of adults is a task of formidable dimensions, especially when present patterns have

been carefully taught through a long, structured system of schooling and are endorsed and

protected by the System [p. 102]." Hansen and Tennyson (1975) suggested that the first step in

initiating change is to identify the knowledge base and value premise underlying participants in

any program. They noted that idealistically the goal of a program is to facilitate the development

of fully functioning and effective human beings, and this goal can be accomplished best through

the examination of assumptions about human nature. Mann (1976) observed that school reform
and the impetus: to help people depart substantially and radically from their previous patterns

must be accomplished through staff 9 development of existing personnel since the present

economy will force schools to retain their present staff.

As Lockhart (1979) says, "While it is difficult to synthesize the results and conclusions of

all the studies investigating sex-role socialization and sex-typing, it is clear that the education

system from pre-school through higher education reinforces the sex-typing process begun by

parents, the media, and environmental factors associated with peer group pressures to conform.

Administrators, counselors, and teachers consciously or unconsciously shape the aspirations,

achievements and behaviors of students in a variety of ways [p. 27]."

One of the most effective methods that have been used in training personnel in Gender

Equity, in California, has been the Awareness Workshop instituted by the Vocational Education

Equity Project (VEEP). Farland and Murdoch (1981), summarized that "...this project was

significant not only for the numbers of persons trained but also for its role as a 'pioneer' project,"

The most difficult aspect has been to get people to attend, even with monetary incentives. The

reason may lie in the human fear of the unknown, it is more comfortable to continue being the

way we are than to change, particularly where attitudes and values are involved.

However, as Sylvia Shaw (Dixon andj Shaw, 1980) said, "Awareness is the heart of sex

fairness. An aware, committed person can counter sexism in a natural and routine manner.

Knowledge of what sexism is will lead to better choices in life [p. 13]."

As Dunkle (1980) says, "Equal opportunity will be achieved through a continuing process

of educating the law makers who pass the laws, monitoring the government policy makers who

frame the regulations, and watching and working with the educators on the front 1ine...Through
this multifaceted approach, unification of forces committed to eliminating, sex discrimination and

bias in education throughout the country will be achieved [p. 45]."

Through this supportive evidence, it is clear that sex bias, stereotyping and discrimination

does exist and is present at all levels of education from infancy through higher education. Sex

bias is supported and fostered, consciously or unconsciously, in every aspect of our educational

process. Parents, educators, curriculum materials, our language, all contribute to the ideas we

have about male and female roles. Educators do make a difference in students’ behaviors and

attitudes; they can negate stereotyping or influence sex-fair practices, and they can help to make

students aware of gender equity issues.