GEC004 NOTES

Mathematics in the Modern World

PATTERNS AND SEQUENCES

We often need to spot a pattern in order to predict what will happen next.

In maths, the correct name for a pattern of numbers is called a SEQUENCE.

The first number in a SEQUENCE is sometimes called the FIRST TERM; the second is the
SECOND TERM and so on.

For any pattern it is important to try to spot what is happening before you can predict the
next number.

The first 2 or 3 numbers is rarely enough to show the full pattern - 4 or 5 numbers are best.

For any pattern it is important to try to spot what is happening before you can predict the
next number.

1, 2, …… What’s the next number?

For any pattern it is important to try to spot what is happening before you can predict the
next number.

1, 2, 4,… Who thought that the next number was 3?

What comes next?

For any pattern it is important to try to spot what is happening before you can predict the
next number.

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, …

What comes next?

Look at what is happening from 1 TERM to the next.  See if that is what is happening for
every TERM.

5, 8, 12, 17, 23, …, …

+3
Look at what is happening from 1 TERM to the next.  See if that is what is happening for
every TERM.

5, 8, 12, 17, 23, …, …

+3 +3

Look at what is happening from 1 TERM to the next.  See if that is what is happening for
every TERM.

5, 8, 12, 17, 23, …, …

+3 +4  

Look at what is happening from 1 TERM to the next.  See if that is what is happening for
every TERM.

5, 8, 12, 17, 23, …, …

+3 +4  + 5

 ✓  

Look at what is happening from 1 TERM to the next.  See if that is what is happening for
every TERM.

5, 8, 12, 17, 23, …, …

+3 +4  + 5  + 6

 ✓  

Look at what is happening from 1 TERM to the next.  See if that is what is happening for
every TERM.

5, 8, 12, 17, 23, 30, …

+3 +4  + 5  + 6  + 7  

Now try these patterns:

3, 7, 11, 15, 19, …, … +4

128, 64, 32, 16, 8, …, …4

1000,      100, 10, 1, …, … divided by 10

5, 15, 45, 135, …, 405 … multiply 3

Lesson 1: Arithmetic & Geometric Sequences

Arithmetic Sequence

 In an Arithmetic Sequence the difference between one term and the next term is a
constant.

 We just add some value each time on to infinity.

 For example:

o 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, …

o This sequence has a difference of 3 between each number.

o It’s rule is an = 3n – 2.

In general, we can write an arithmetic sequence like this:

a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, …

a is the first term.

d is the difference between the terms (called the “common difference”)

The rule is:

An = a + d(n-1) general formula

(We use “n-1” because d is not used on the 1st term.)

 For each sequence, if it is arithmetic, find the common difference.

1. -3, -6, -9, -12, …

2. 1.1, 2.2, 3.3, 4.4, …

3. 41, 32, 23, 14, 5, …

4. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, …
 1. d = -3

2. d = 1.1

3. d = -9

4. Not an arithmetic sequence. 

 Write the explicit rule for the sequence

19, 13, 7, 1, -5, …

 Start with the formula:  An = a + d(n-1)

a is the first term = 19

d is the common difference:  -6

 The rule is:

An = 19 - 6(n-1)

 Find the 12th term of this sequence.

 Substitute 12 in for “n.”

 A12 = 19 - 6(12-1)

 A12 = 19 - 6(11)

 A12 = 19 – 66

 A12 = -47

1. What is the fiftieth term of the arithmetic sequence 3, 7, 11, 15, ... ?

An = a + d(n-1) An = a + d(n-1)

a=3 A50 = 3 + 4(50-1)

n = 50 A50 = 3 + 4(49)

d=4 A50 = 3 + 196

A50 = ? A50 = 199

2. What is the thirty-second term of the arithmetic sequence -12, -7, -2, 3, ... ?

xn = a + d(n-1) xn = a + d(n-1)

a = -12 X32 = -12  + 5(32-1)

n = 32 X32 = -12  + 5(31)

d= 5 X32 = -12  + 5(31)

X32 = ? X32 = -12  + 155

X32 = 143

3. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 4 and the tenth term is 67. What is the
common difference?

xn = a + d(n-1) xn = a + d(n-1) 7=d

a=4 67 = 4  + d(10-1)

n = 10 67 = 4 + d (9)

Xn = 67 67 = 4 + 9d

d=? 67 – 4 = 9d

63 = 9d

  9   9

Recitation:

4. What is the 40th term of the arithmetic sequence 3, 7, 11, 15, .. . ?

5. What is the 19th term of the arithmetic sequence 21, 18, 15, 12, ... ?

6. The sixth term of an arithmetic sequence is 17 and the tenth term is 41. What is the first
term?
Geometric Sequence

In a Geometric Sequence each term is found by multiplying the previous term by a

constant.

For example:

2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, …

The sequence has a factor of 2 between each number.

It’s rule is xn = 2n

In general we can write a geometric sequence like this:

a, ar, ar2, ar3, …

a is the first term 

r is the factor between the terms (called the “common ratio”).

The rule is xn = ar(n-1)

We use “n-1” because ar0 is the 1st term.

For each sequence, if it is geometric, find the common ratio.

1. 2, 8, 32, 128, …

2. 1, 10, 100, 1000, …

3. 1, -1, 1, -1, …
 4. 20, 16, 12, 8, 4, …

5.

1. r = 4

2. r = 10

3. r = -1

4. Not a geometric sequence. 

Write the explicit rule for the sequence

3, 6, 12, 24, 48, … 

Start with the formula:  xn = ar(n-1)

a is the first term = 3

r is the common ratio:  2

The rule is:

xn = (3)(2)(n-1)

 (Order of operations states that we would take care of exponents before you
multiply.)

 Find the 12th term of this sequence.

 Substitute 12 in for “n.”

 x12 = (3)(2)(12-1)

 x12 = (3)(2)(11)

 x12 = (3)(2048)

 x12 = 6,144
More Examples:

What is the eleventh term of the geometric sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, ... ?

Solution:

xn = ar(n-1)

a=3 xn = ar(n-1) x11 = 3072

r=2 x11 = (3)(2)(11-1)

n = 11 x11 = (3)(2)(10)

x11 = ? x11 = (3)(1024)

What is the ninth term of the geometric sequence 81, 27, 9, 3, ... ?

Solution:

xn = ar(n-1)

a = 81 xn = ar(n-1) x9 = 81/6561 or 1/81

r = 1/3 x9 = (81)(1/3)(9-1)

n=9 x9 = (81)(1/3)(8)

x9 = ? x9 = (81)(1/6,561)

The first term of a geometric sequence is 5 and the sixth term is 160.
What is the common ratio? 

Solution:

xn = ar(n-1)

a=5 xn = ar(n-1) 32 = r5

r=? 160 = (5)(r)(6-1) 2=r

n=6 160 = (5)(r)(5)

x6 = 160 160 = 5r5

  5        5
Recitation:

1. What is the 20th term of the geometric sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, ... ?

2. Find the 8th term of a geometric sequence for which a = -3 and  r = -2.

3. Find the next two terms of the arithmetic sequence 1/81, 1/27, 1/9,..

PARTS
Set and Set Operations
Introduction

 A set is a collection of objects.

 The objects in a set are called elements of the set.

 A well – defined set is a set in which we know for sure if an element belongs to that
set.

 Example:

o  The set of all movies in which John Cazale appears is well – defined. (Name
the movies, and what do they have in common? There are only 5.)

o The set of all movie serials made by Republic Pictures is well – defined.

o The set of best TV shows of all time is not well – defined. (It is a matter of
opinion.)

Notation

 When talking about a set we usually denote the set with a capital letter.
 Roster notation is the method of describing a set by listing each element of the set.
o Example: Let C = The set of all movies in which John Cazale appears. The
Roster notation would be C={The Godfather, The Conversation, The
Godfather II, Dog Day Afternoon, The Deer Hunter }. (All 5 of these movies
were nominated for Best Picture by the Motion Picture Academy.)
o Example: Let set A = The set of odd numbers greater than zero, and less than
10. The roster notation of A={1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

More on Notation

Sometimes we can’t list all the elements of a set. For instance, Z = The set of integer
numbers. We can’t write out all the integers, there infinitely many integers. So we adopt a
convention using dots …

The dots mean continue on in this pattern forever and ever.

Z = { …-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

W = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} = This is the set of whole numbers.

Set – Builder Notation

 When it is not convenient to list all the elements of a set, we use a notation the
employs the rules in which an element is a member of the set. This is called set –
builder notation. 

 V = {people | citizens registered to vote in the Philippines}

 A = {x | x > 5} = This is the set A that has all real numbers greater than 5. 

 The symbol | is read as such that.

Special Sets of Numbers

 N = The set of natural numbers. 

    = {1, 2, 3, …}.

 W = The set of whole numbers.

         = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

 Z = The set of integers.

= {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

 Q = The set of rational numbers.

        = {x| x=p/q, where p and q are elements of Z and q ≠ 0 }

 H = The set of irrational numbers.

 R = The set of real numbers.

 C = The set of complex numbers.

Universal Set and Subsets

 The Universal Set denoted by U is the set of all possible elements used in a problem.

 When every element of one set is also an element of another set, we say the first set
is a subset. 

 Example A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {2, 3}

We say that B is a subset of A. The notation we use is B A.

 Let S = {1,2,3}, list all the subsets of S.

  The subsets of S are      , {1}, {2}, {3}, {1,2}, {1,3}, {2,3}, {1,2,3}.

The Empty Set

 The empty set is a special set. It contains no elements. It is usually denoted as { } or

        .

 The empty set is always considered a subset of any set.

 Do not be confused by this question:

 Is this set {0} empty? 

 It is not empty! It contains the element zero.

Intersection of sets

 When an element of a set belongs to two or more sets we say the sets will intersect.
 The intersection of a set A and a set B is denoted by A ∩ B.
 A ∩ B = {x| x is in A and x is in B}
 Note the usage of and. This is similar to conjunction. A ^ B.
 Example A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
 Then A ∩ B = {1, 3, 5}. Note that 1, 3, 5 are in both A and B.

Mutually Exclusive Sets

 We say two sets A and B are mutually exclusive if A ∩ B = .

 Think of this as two events that cannot happen at the same time.

Union of sets

 The union of two sets A, B is denoted by A U B.

 A U B = {x| x is in A or x is in B}

 Note the usage of or. This is similar to disjunction A v B. 

 Using the set A and the set B from the previous slide, then the union of A, B is    A U B
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9}.

 The elements of the union are in A or in B or in both. If elements are in both sets, we
do not repeat them.
Complement of a Set

 The complement of set A is denoted by A’ or by AC.

 A’ = {x| x is not in set A}.
 The complement set operation is analogous to the negation operation in logic.
 Example Say U = {1,2,3,4,5}, A = {1,2}, then A’ = {3,4,5}.

Cardinal Number

 The Cardinal Number of a set is the number of elements in the set and is denoted by
n(A). 

 Let A = {2,4,6,8,10}, then n(A)=5.

 The Cardinal Number formula for the union of two sets is n(A U B) = n(A) + n(B) –
n(A∩B).

 The Cardinal number formula for the complement of a set is n(A) + n(A ’) = n(U).

Strategies and Principles

1.1. Problem Solving

 Understand Polya’s problem-solving method

 State and apply fundamental problem-solving strategies

 Apply basic mathematical principles to problem solving

 Use the Three-Way Principle to learn mathematical ideas

George Polya’s Problem-Solving Method

Step 1: Understand the problem.

Step 2: Devise a plan.

Step 3: Carry out your plan.

Step 4: Check your answer.

Problem-Solving Strategies

Problem solving is more of an art than a science. We will now suggest some useful
strategies; however, just as we cannot list a set of rules describing how to write a novel, we
cannot specify a series of steps that will enable you to solve every problem. Artists,
composers, and writers make creative decisions as to how to use their tools, and so you
also must be creative in using your mathematical tools.

Mathematics is not as rigid as you may believe from your past experiences. It is
important to use the strategies in this section to keep your focus on understanding
concepts rather then memorizing formulas. If you do this, you may be surprised to find that
a given problem can be solved in several different ways.

DRAW A PICTURES

Problems usually contain several conditions that must be satisfied. You will find it useful to
draw pictures to understand these conditions before trying to solve the problem.

 Example: Each person in a group of four will shake hands with all the others. How
many handshakes?

CHOOSE GOOD NAMES FOR UNKNOWNS

It is a good practice to name the objects in a problem so you can remember their
meaning easily.

 Example: One group of dance students is taking swing lessons and another is taking
Latin dance.
BE SYSTEMATIC

If you approach a situation in an organized, systematic way, frequently you will gain insight
into the problem.

 Example: Make a table showing available iPhone features.

LOOK FOR PATTERNS

If you can recognize a pattern in a situation you are studying, you can often use it to answer
questions about that situation.

TRY A SIMPLER VERSION OF THE PROBLEM

You can begin to understand a complex problem by solving some scaled-down versions of
the problem. Once you recognize a pattern in the way you are solving the simpler
problems, then you can carry over this insight to attack the full-blown problem.

GUESSING IS OK

One of the difficulties in solving word problems is that you can be afraid to say something
that may be wrong and consequently sit staring at a problem, writing nothing until you
have the full-blown solution. Making guesses, even incorrect guesses, is not a bad way to
begin. It may give you some understanding of the problem. Once you make a guess,
evaluate it to see how close you are to meeting all the conditions of the problem.

CONVERT A NEW PROBLEM TO AN OLDER ONE

An effective technique in solving a new problem is to try to connect it with a problem you
have solved earlier. It is often possible to rewrite a condition so that the problem becomes
exactly like one you have seen before.
Some Mathematical Principles

THE ALWAYS PRINCIPLE

When we say a statement is true in mathematics, we are saying that the statement is true
100% of the time. One of the great strengths of mathematics is that we do not deal with
statements that are “sometimes true” or “usually true.”

THE COUNTEREXAMPLE PRINCIPLE

An example that shows that a mathematical statement fails to be true is called a

counterexample. Keep in mind that if you want to use a mathematical property and
someone can find a counterexample, then the property you are trying to use is not
allowable. A hundred examples in which a statement is true do not prove it to be always
true, yet a single example in which a statement fails makes it a false statement. Be careful to
understand that when we say a statement is false, we are not saying that it is always false.
We are only saying that the statement is not always true. That is, we can find at least one
instance in which it is false.

THE ORDER PRINCIPLE

When you read mathematical notation, pay careful attention to the order in which the
operations must be performed. The order in which we do things in mathematics is as
important as it is in everyday life. When getting dressed in the morning, it makes a
difference whether you first put on your socks and then your shoes, or first put on your
shoes and then your socks. Although the difference may not seem as dramatic, reversing
the order of mathematical operations can also give unacceptable results. Note that we are
not saying that it is always wrong to reverse the order of mathematical operations; we are
saying that if you reverse the order of operations, you may accidentally change the meaning
of your calculations.

THE SPLITTING-HAIRS PRINCIPLE

You should “split hairs” when reading mathematical terminology. If two terms are similar
but sound slightly different, they usually do not mean exactly the same thing. In everyday
English, we may use the words equal and equivalent interchangeably; however, in
mathematics they do not mean the same thing. The same is true for notation. When you
encounter different-looking notation or terminology, work hard to get a clear idea of
exactly what the difference is. Representing your ideas precisely is part of good problem
solving.
THE ANALOGIES PRINCIPLE

Much of the formal terminology that we use in mathematics sounds like words that we use
in everyday life. This is not a coincidence. Whenever you can associate ideas from real life
with mathematical concepts, you will better understand the meaning behind the
mathematics you are learning.

THE THREE-WAY PRINCIPLE

We conclude this section with a method for approaching mathematical concepts that we
illustrate in Figure 1.6.

Whether you are learning a new concept or trying to gain insight into a problem, it is
helpful to use the ideas we have discussed in this chapter to approach mathematical
situations in three ways.

• Verbally—Make analogies. State the problem in your own words. Compare it with
situations you have seen in other areas of mathematics.

• Graphically—Draw a graph. Draw a diagram.

• By example—Make numerical or other kinds of examples to illustrate the situation.

Not every one of these three approaches fits every situation. However, if you get in the
habit of using a verbal-graphical-example approach to doing mathematics, you will find
that mathematics is more meaningful and less dependent on rote memorization. If you
practice approaching mathematics using the strategies and principles that we have
discussed, you will find eventually that you are more comfortable and more successful in
your mathematical studies.

DEDUCTIVE VS. INDUCTIVE REASONING

PROBLEM SOLVING

Logic – The science of correct reasoning.

Reasoning – The drawing of inferences or conclusions from known or assumed facts.

When solving a problem, one must understand the question, gather all pertinent facts,
analyze the problem i.e. compare with previous problems (note similarities and
differences), perhaps use pictures or formulas to solve the problem.
DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive Reasoning – A type of logic in which one goes from a general statement to a
specific instance. 

The classic example

All men are mortal. (major premise)

Socrates is a man. (minor premise)

Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion) 

The above is an example of a syllogism.

Syllogism: An argument composed of two statements or premises (the major and minor
premises), followed by a conclusion.

For any given set of premises, if the conclusion is guaranteed, the arguments is said to be
valid.

If the conclusion is not guaranteed (at least one instance in which the conclusion does not
follow), the argument is said to be invalid.

BE CARFEUL, DO NOT CONFUSE TRUTH WITH VALIDITY!  

Examples:

1. All students eat pizza.

Claire is a student at ASU.

Therefore, Claire eats pizza.

2.  All athletes work out in the gym.

     Barry Bonds is an athlete.

     Therefore, Barry Bonds works out in the gym.    

3. All math teachers are over 7 feet tall.

    Mr. D. is a math teacher.

    Therefore, Mr. D is over 7 feet tall.

The argument is valid, but is certainly not true.

The above examples are of the form

    If p, then q. (major premise)

    x is p.     (minor premise)   

    Therefore, x is q. (conclusion)

VENN DIAGRAMS

Venn Diagram: A diagram consisting of various overlapping figures contained in a rectangle

called the universe.     U

This is an example of all A are B. (If A, then B.)

This is an example of No A are B.

This is an example of some A are B. (At least one A is B.)

The yellow oval is A, the blue oval is B.

EXAMPLE

Construct a Venn Diagram to determine the validity of the given argument.

#14 All smiling cats talk.

       The Cheshire Cat smiles.

    Therefore, the Cheshire Cat talks.

VALID OR INVALID???

EXAMPLE

VALID ARGUMENT; X IS CHESHIRE CAT

EXAMPLES

#6 No one who can afford health    insurance is unemployed.

         All politicians can afford health        

         insurance.

Therefore, no politician is unemployed.

VALID OR INVALID?????

EXAMPLES

X=politician. The argument is valid.

EXAMPLE

#16  Some professors wear glasses.

            Mr. Einstein wears glasses.

      Therefore, Mr. Einstein is a professor.

     Let the yellow oval be professors, and the blue oval be glass wearers. Then x (Mr.
Einstein) is in the blue oval, but not in the overlapping region. The argument is invalid.

INDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive Reasoning, involves going from a series of specific cases to a general statement.
The conclusion in an inductive argument is never guaranteed.

Example: What is the next number in the sequence 6, 13, 20, 27,…

There is more than one correct answer.

Here’s the sequence again 6, 13, 20, 27,…

Look at the difference of each term.

13 – 6 = 7, 20 – 13 = 7, 27 – 20 = 7

Thus the next term is 34, because 34 – 27 = 7.

However what if the sequence represents the dates. Then the next number could be 3 (31
days in a month).
The next number could be 4 (30 day month)

Or it could be 5 (29 day month – Feb. Leap year)

Or even 6 (28 day month – Feb.)

BACKGROUND TO STATISTICS

Session Objectives

 To discuss the development and meaning of statistics 

 To justify the importance of reliable and timely statistics in planning

 To introduce some key statistical concepts

Background to Statistics

 Meaning of statistics
 Development of statistics
 Major sources of statistics
 Uses of statistics
 Key statistical concepts
 Data types
 Data analysis

Meaning of Statistics

1. The word statistics is used in either two senses.

Commonly used to refer to data.

Principles and methods which have been developed for handling numerical data.

2. Statistics is defined as a branch of mathematics or science that deals with the collection,
analysis and interpretation of numerical information.

3. Statistics changes numbers into information.

4. Statistics is the art and science of deciding: 

  what are the appropriate data to collect, 

 deciding how to collect data efficiently 

 using data to give information, 

 using data to answer questions, 

 using data to make decisions. 

5. Statistics” are data obtained by collecting, processing, compiling, analyzing, publishing

and disseminating results, gathered from respondents through statistical collections or
from administrative data

6. Statistics is making decisions when there is uncertainty.

We have to make decisions all the time,

in everyday life,

as part of our jobs.

7. Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the

 collection, 

 analysis,

 interpretation or explanation, and

 presentation of data.

8. Statistics are used for making informed decisions

 and misused for other reasons

9. Statistics is the science of learning from data.

A Quote

“When you can measure what you are speaking about and express it in numbers, you know
something about it; but when you cannot measure it, when you cannot express it in
numbers, your knowledge is of the meager and unsatisfactory kind’,

- Lord Kelvin (British physicist) 

Development of Statistics

The word statistics is believed to have been derived from the word “states”.  The
administration of states required the collection and analysis of data of population and
wealth for the purpose of war and finance.  

Development of Statistics contd...

 Some concepts of statistics were developed by students of games of chance, such

games lean on probability.  

 The fertile grounds for application and development of statistical methods included;
insurance, biology and other natural sciences.  

 To date, there is hardly any discipline which does not find statistics useful. 
Economics, sociology, business, agriculture, health and education; all lean heavily
upon statistics. 

Sources of data

1. Primary sources.

Censuses

Surveys

Experiments

The great advantage of such data is that the exact information wanted is obtained.

2. Secondary Sources.  

Often data is picked from reports and publications of researchers, institutions and
organizations.  Such data is referred to as secondary. 

Uses of statistics

Statistics is a discipline which was developed to extract relevant facts from a large body of
information and to help people make decisions when uncertainty exists concerning the
information.  

Statistics form the basis for planning.  Statistics provide information and data (facts and
figures) as an input for planning, monitoring and evaluation of programmes. 
Population (1948 - 2008)- million

Poverty levels Po (%)

 % of the population below the poverty line

 Poverty Line
 US$1 per day per adult equivalent

 Overview on
Data
Management
Overview on Data Management

Data management cycle

Conception

Design survey

Design questionnaire

Enumerators collect data in the field

Manual checking, editing etc.

Data entered onto computer

Computer data management

Data analysis

Reporting of results

PLANNING THE SURVEY

 Identify the relevant Indicators

 Check to ensure the existence of an appropriate Sampling Frame

 Choose the Sample Design [Methodology]

  Determine the Sample size and the associated cost of the survey

 Train data collectors

 Determine how to collect, process, and analyse the data

 Determine the work-plan closely linking it to the budget. 

 Consider the financial, material, and human resource available

 All these must be well perceived and well-arranged at this stage. A failure can derail
the survey.

Data collection

Data could be collected by:

conducting a census

conducting a sample survey

use of administrative records

conducting experiments

observation

and review of secondary sources

STEPS IN DATA COLLECTION

 STEP 1

 Formulate the problem

 Develop objectives of data collection

 Plan, human resource, logistics, scheduling, budgeting

 Discuss with stakeholders

 STEP 2
 Determine sources of information
  Define approach to data collection
 Identify concepts, definitions and classifications to be used
 STEP 3
 Determine techniques of data collection
 Determine best approach to data collection
 STEP 4
 Prepare data collection forms
 Design data collection forms
 STEP 5:
 Pretest data collection instruments
 Collect some information to refine the questionnaire/ data collection
form.
 Determine feasibility of obtaining data
 STEP 6:
 Finalise data collection forms 
 Discuss final questionnaire/form with stakeholders and reproduce
questionnaires/forms
 STEP 7:
 Collect data
 Put in place a team of data collectors/ fieldworkers
 Train data collectors

DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Data collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects
of study; and about the setting in which they occur.

Data collection techniques generate both qualitative and quantitative data.

Qualitative techniques of data collection involve the identification and exploration of a

number of related variables for in-depth understanding of the phenomena. 

Qualitative data is often recorded in a narrative form. 

Quantitative techniques of data collection are used to generate quantifiable data.  

Both qualitative and quantitative techniques are often used in a single study, since the two
compliment each other. 

QUALITATIVE METHODS
  The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in
three broad categories:  

 In-depth interview 

 Observation methods 

 Document review 

 These methods are characterized by the following attributes:

 They tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols
 They rely more heavily on interactive interviews;

 They use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings 

 Generally, their findings are not generalizable to any specific population

SOME QUALITATIVE METHODS

In-Depth interview

Participant observation

Direct observation

Document/literature review

QUANTITATIVE METHODS

 Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include: 

 Experiments/clinical trials. 

 Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of

patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day). 

 Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

 Administering surveys with closed-ended questions

COMPILATION AND ANALYSIS

STEPS

Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (Data Preparation)

 Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)

Testing Hypotheses and Models (Inferential Statistics)

SOME STATISTICAL CONCEPTS

 Population

 Sample

 Parameter

 Statistic

 Variable

 Estimation

Data Types

 Qualitative

 Nominal

 Ordinal

 Binary

 Quantitative

 Continuous

 Discrete

DATA PREPARATION

 Checking the data for completeness accuracy

 Preparing data entry screen
 Entering the data into the computer
 Transforming the data

DATA PRESENTATION AND DESCRIPTION

Used to describe the basic features of the data in a study

DATA PRESENTATION

 Graphical

 Histograms

 Bar charts

 Pie charts

 Error bars

 More…. 

 Tabular
 Frequency tables
 Percentages

TYPES OF STATICTICS

A- Descriptive statistics

B – Relational Statistics

 Univariate, bi-variate, and multi-variate analysis

C- Inferential statistics 

 Branch of statistics devoted to making generalizations.

DATA DESCRIPTION

 They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures.
 Simply describing what is; what the data shows
 Measures of Central Tendency
 Mean, median, mode
 Measures of Dispersion
 Variation

HOW TO DESCRIBE DATA WELL

 Look at the oddities in the data and be prepared to adapt the summaries you
calculate
  Look at the data using tables and graphs
 Understand how to summarise the categorical variables
 Understand how to summarise the numerical variables
 Identify any structure in your data and use it to summarise your data

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

 Investigate questions, models and hypotheses.

 Confidence Intervals
 Hypothesis testing

CHARTS AND GRAPHS

TWO BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

 Statistics is a branch of mathematics that involves the collection, analysis, and

interpretation of data. The two main branches of statistics assist your decisions in
different ways:

o Descriptive Statistics – are used when you want to summarize a set or

distribution of numbers in order to communicate their essential
characteristics. (e.g., measure of central tendency).

o Inferential Statistics – are used to analyze data after you have conducted an
experiment to determine whether your independent variable had a
significant effect.

MEASUREMENT

Measurement is defined as the assignment of symbols to events according to a set of rules.

Scales of Measurement – are the particular set of rules in assigning a symbol to the event in
question.

 Nominal Scale – is a simple classification system (e.g., categorizing types of ice-

cream).
 Ordinal Scale – is used when events in question can be rank ordered. With the
ordinal scale, the intervals separating the ranks do not have to be comparable.
 Interval Scale – is used when the events in question can be rank ordered and equal
interval s separate adjacent events.
  Ratio Scale – takes the interval scale one step further by permitting the rank order
of scores with the assumption of equal intervals between the ranks, but it also
assumes the presence of a true zero point.

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS

 Frequency Distributions – show how often each score occurs in your research. 

o Some easy steps to follow that will help you construct a frequency
distribution are:

 In one column make a list of the categories for which you have
frequencies. If you categories are ordinal, interval, or ratio arrange
them in order from highest to lowest. 

 Create a second column to the right of the first column. Label this
column “tally.” Create a third column to the right of the second. Label
this column “frequencies.”

 Convert the tallies to the frequencies and record them in the

frequency column.

 Calculate the percentage of occurrence for each category by dividing

the frequency for each category by the total number of scores and
then multiply by 100. This figure appears in the final column.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS

 Frequency Distributions – show how often each score occurs in your research.

 Grouped Frequency Distributions – if you can order your categories numerically

from lowest to highest, then you may want to group your frequencies into intervals.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS

GRAPHING YOUR RESULTS

 There are several types of graphs from which the researcher can choose. Your
choice of graphs will be determined by which one depicts your results most
effectively and by the scale of measurement you used.

TYPES OF GRAPHS

Pie Chart – depicts the percentage represented by each alternative as a slice of a circular
pie; the larger the slice, the greater the percentage.
 Bar Graph – presents data in terms of frequencies per category. You will construct a
bar graph when you are using nominal (or qualitative) categories that cannot be
numerically ordered from lowest to highest.

 Histogram – represents quantitative data in terms of frequencies.

 Frequency Polygon – like the histogram, displays the frequency of each number or
score. The only differences between these two graphs are the use of bars in the
histogram and the use of connected dots in the frequency polygon. 
  Line Graph – in line graphs, there are two axes or dimensions that must be
discussed. 

 The vertical (Y axis) is known as the ordinate; the horizontal (X axis) is known as
the abscissa. 

 One of your variables is plotted on the ordinate and the other is plotted on the
abscissa. 

 A good guideline is to plot the variable that has the greatest number of levels on the
abscissa, and thus reducing the number of lines that will appear on your graph.

 Line Graph

o How tall should the Y axis be? How long should the X axis be?

 A good rule of thumb is for the U axis to be approximately two thirds

as tall as the X axis is long. 

 Other configurations will give a distorted picture of the data.

DISTRIBUTIONS AND THEIR SHAPES

  Statisticians use several specific terms to describe the different shapes these
distributions can assume.

o Unimodal Distributions have one prominent category or high point.

o Bimodal Distributions have two prominent categories or high points.

o Multimodal Distributions have several prominent categories or high points. 

 Statisticians use several specific terms to describe the different shapes these
distributions can assume.

o Rectangular Distributions occur when there is no prominent category or high

point, when frequencies are the same in all the same.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

 Measures of central tendency tell us about the typical score in a distribution. There
are three measures of central tendency:

 Mode – is the number or event that occurs most frequently in a distribution. 

 Median – is the number or score that divides the distribution into equal
halves (i.e., the median is the 50th percentile). To be able to calculate the
median, you must first rank order the scores.
  Mean – the mean is defined as the arithmetic average. To find the mean, you
add up all the scores in the distribution and then divide by the number of
scores that are added.

 Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency:

 If you want to know which score occurred most often, then the mode is the
choice.
 The median is a better choice to serve as the representative score because it
takes into account all the data in the distribution. However, it treats all scores
alike; differences in magnitude are not taken into account.
 When the mean is calculated, the value of each number is taken into account.
 When the scores in your distribution tend to cluster in one of the tails
(i.e., a cluster of high or low scores) the distribution is skewed (i.e., a
nonsymmetrical distribution). In these instances, the median may be
more appropriate.
 When the scores in your distribution tend to cluster in one of the tails (i.e., a cluster
of high scores or a cluster of low scores) the distribution is skewed.
 Positively Skewed Distributions – occur when there is cluster of lower scores,
the smaller, more spread-out tail will be on the right (i.e., fewer high scores).
Figure A
 Negatively Skewed Distributions – occur when there is a cluster of higher
scores, the smaller more spread out tail will be on the left (i.e., fewer small
scores). Figure B

MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE + RANGE

Words that help us make sense of data.

What is the MEAN?
How do we find it?

The mean is the numerical average of the data set. (average)

The mean is found by adding all the values in the set, then dividing the sum by the number
of values.

What is the MEDIAN?

How do we find it?

The MEDIAN is the number that is in the middle of a set of data

1.  Arrange the numbers in the set in order from least to greatest.

2.  Then find the number that is in the middle.

Median

Sounds like

MEDIUM 

Think middle when you hear median.

How do we find
the MEDIAN
when two numbers are in the middle?

1.  Add the two numbers.

2.  Then divide by 2.

What is the MODE?

How do we find it?
The MODE is the piece of data that occurs most frequently in the data set. 

A set of data can have:

 One mode

 More than one mode

 No mode

MODE

A Hint for remembering the MODE…

The first two letters give you a hint…  MOde

Most Often
MODE
MOST OFTEN
What is the RANGE?
How do we find it?

The RANGE is the difference between the lowest and highest values.  

largest number
- smallest number
-------------------------
RANGE
Mean - This one is the requires more work than the others.

Median - Right in the MIDDLE.  

Mode - This one is the easiest to find— Just LOOK.  

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

A measure of central tendency, commonly referred to as an average, is a single value that

represents a data set.

This chapter discusses 3 different measures of central tendency: the mean, mode and the
median.

3.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE MEAN

Arithmetic Mean

- oftenly called mean, is the most frequently used measure of central tendency.
- It is the only common measure in which all values plays equal role meaning to determine
its values you would need to consider all the values of any given data set.

The symbol, called “x bar”, is used to represent the mean of a sample and the symbol, called
“mu”, is used to denote the mean of a population.

A. Properties of Mean

1. A set of data has only one mean.

2. Mean can be applied for interval and ratio data.

3. All values in the data set are included in computing the mean.

4. The mean is very useful in comparing two or more data sets.

5. Mean is affected by the extreme small or large values on a data set.

6. The mean cannot be computed for the data in a frequency distribution with an open
ended class.

7. Mean is most appropriate in symmetrical data.

where:

    = sample mean

x = the value of any particular measurement

x = sum of all x's

n = total number of values in the sample

Population Mean:

Formula 3-2

where:

= population mean

X = the value of any particular measurement

sum of all x's

N = total number of values in the population

EXAMPLE:

The daily rates of a sample of eight employees at GMS Inc. are ₱550, ₱420, ₱560, ₱500,
₱700, ₱670, ₱860, ₱480. Find the mean daily rate of employee.

SOLUTION:

The sample mean daily rates is ₱592.50.

C. Sample Mean for Grouped Data 

Sample Mean:

Formula 3-3

where:

= sample mean

   f = frequency

   x = the value of any particular measurement

= sum of all the products of f and x's

   n = total number of values in the sample

Population Mean:
Formula 3-4

where:

   = population

f = frequency

x = the value of any particular measurement.

= sum of all the products of f and x's

N = total number of values in the population

EXAMPLE:

Determine the mean of the frequency distribution on the ages of 50 people taking travel
tours on SJS Travel Agency.

Class Limits Frequency

18-26 3

27-35 5

36-44 9

45-53 14

54-62 11

63-71 6

72-80 2

SOLUTION:

Step 1: Determine the midpoints on each class limit.

 Class Limits f x

18 - 26 3 22

27 - 35 5 31

36 - 44 9 40

45 - 53 14 49

54 - 62 11 58

63 - 71 6 67

72 - 80 2 76

Step 2: Multiply each class frequency with the corresponding midpoint to obtain the
product fx.

Class Limits f x fx

18 - 26 3 22 66

27 - 35 5 31 155

36 - 44 9 40     360

45 - 53 14 49 686

54 - 62 11 58 638

63 - 71 6 67 402

72 - 80 2 76 152

Step 3: Get the sum of the product fx.

f x fx
 Class
Limits

18 - 26 3 22 66

27 - 35 5 31 155

36 - 44 9 40 360

45 - 53 14 49 686

54 - 62 11 58 638

63 - 71 6 67 402

72 - 80 2 76 152

Σ f = 50 Σ fx = 2,459

Step 4: Apply Formula 3-3 to obtain the value of the sample mean.

Thus, the mean of the frequency distribution of people taking travel is 49.18.

EXERCISE

1. Consider the sample 13, 19, 18, 20, 16, 9, 10, 7, and 8. Find the mean.

2. In a certain shopping mall, restaurants charge ₱140, ₱195, ₱125, ₱150, ₱200, ₱165, ₱175,
₱190, ₱230, and ₱180 for regular dinner. Find the average cost.

3. Fifteen randomly selected business administration students were asked to state the
number of hours they slept last Sunday. The resulting data are 4, 5, 7, 6, 7, 8, 10, 5, 4, 11, 12,
11, 10, 8, and 7. Find the mean.

4. Complete the table to find the mean for the grouped frequency distrubution.
 Class Limits f x fx

1-5 1

6-10 2

11-15 8

16-20 5

21-25 4

26-30 3

N = ______________

= ___________

mean = ____________

A. Weighted Mean

- particularly useful when various classes or groups contribute differently to the total.

Formula 3-5

where:

  weighted mean

    wi = corresponding weight

    xi = the value of any particular measurement

EXAMPLE:

At the Mathematics Department of San Sebastian College there are 18 instructors, 12

assistant professors, 7 associate professors, and 3 professors.

Their monthly salaries are ₱30,500, ₱33,700, ₱38,600, and ₱45,000. What is the weighted
mean salary?

SOLUTION:

The weighted mean salary is ₱33,965.

3.4 MEDIAN

Median - the midpoint of the data array.

Data Array - when the data set is ordered whether ascending or descending.

A. Properties of Median:

1. The median is unique, there is only one median for a set of data.

2. The median is found by arranging the set of data from lowest to highest and getting the
value of the middle observation.

3. Median is not affected by the extreme small or large values.

4. Median can be computed for an-open ended frequency distribution.

5. Median can be applied for ordinal, interval and ratio data.

6. Median is most appropriate in a skewed data.

B. Median for Ungrouped Data

To determine the value of median for ungrouped data we need to consider two rules:

1. If n is odd, the median is the middle ranked.

2. If n is even, then the median is the average of the two middle ranked values.

Median (Rank Value) =

Formula 3-9

Note that n is the population/sample size.

EXAMPLE 1:

Find the median of the ages of 9 middle-management employees of a certain company. the
ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58, and 55.

SOLUTION:

Step 1: Arrange the data in order.

45, 46, 48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59

Step 2: Select the middle rank value using Formula 3-9.

Step 3: Identify the median in the data set.

45, 46, 48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59

53 (5th)

Hence, the median age is 53 years.

EXAMPLE 2:

The daily rates of a sample of eight employees at GMS Ins. are ₱550, ₱420, ₱560, ₱500,
₱700, ₱670, ₱860, ₱480. Find the median daily rate of employee.

SOLUTION:
Step 1: Arrange the data in order.

₱420, ₱480, ₱500, ₱550, ₱560, ₱670,  ₱700,  ₱860.

Step 2: Select the middle rank value using Formula 3-9.

Step 3: Identify the median in the data set.

₱420, ₱480, ₱500, ₱550, ₱560, ₱670,  ₱700,  ₱860

Since the middle point falls between ₱550 and ₱560, we can determine the median of the
data set by getting the average of the two values.

Therefore, the median daily rate is ₱555.

N = _____________

LB = ____________

f = ______________

cf = ______________

i = _______________

Median = __________

3.5 MODE

Mode - the value in the data set that appeared most frequently.

Unimodal - a data set that has only one value that occur greates frequency.

Bimodal - if the data has two values with the same greatest frequency, both considered the
mode.

Multimodal - if the data set have more than two modes.

No Mode - some cases when a data set values have the same number frequency.

Properties of Mode

1. The mode is found by locating the most frequent occuring value.

2. The mode is the easiest average to compute.

3. There can be more than one mode or even no mode in any given data set.

4. Mode is not affected by the extreme small or large values.

5. Mode can be applied for nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data.

EXAMPLE 1:

The following data represent the total unit sales for Smartphones from a sample of 10
Communication Centers for the month of August: 15, 17, 10, 12, 13, 10, 14, 10, 8, and 9.
Find the mode.

SOLUTION:

The ordered array for these data is 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17.

Because 10 appear 3 times, more times than the other value, therefore the mode is 10.

EXAMPLE 2:

Find the mode of the ages of 9 middle-management employees of a certain company. The
ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58 and 55.

SOLUTION:

The ordered array for these data is 45, 46, 48, 51, 53, 54, 55, 58, 59.

There is no mode since the data set has the same frequency.

3.6 MIDRANGE

Midrange - the average of the lowest and highest value in a data set.
Formula 3-12

where:

xlowest = lowest value in a data set

xhighest = highest value in a data set

Properties of Midrange

1. The midrange is easy to compute.

2. The midrange gives the midpoint.

3. The midrange is unique.

4. Midrange is affected by the extreme small or large values.

5. Midrange can be applied for interval and ratio data.

EXAMPLE:

Find the midrange of the ages of 9 middle-management employees of a certain company.

The ages are 53, 45, 59, 48, 54, 46, 51, 58 and 55.

SOLUTION:

xlowest = 45 and xhighest = 59

The midrange is 52.

EXERCISE
1. Consider the sample 18, 27, 30, 46, 50, 44, 52, 53, 61, 48, 35, and 51. Find the measures
of central tendencies.

2. Consider the sample 77, 80, 87, 84, 76, 70, 76, 75, 80, 63, 76, 39, 76, 77, 90, and 80. Find
the measures of central tendencies.

3. Upon examining the monthly billing records of an online book company, the auditor
takes a sample of 16 of its paid accounts. The amounts collected by the company were: 

₱ 780, ₱240, ₱1,000, ₱2,100, ₱850, ₱450, ₱620, ₱2,310, ₱992, ₱1,500, ₱870, ₱1,200, ₱630,
₱1,050, ₱750, and ₱380. Determine the midrange.

4. The price of the different brand of electric fan at 8 stores are found to be ₱1,200, ₱1,100,
₱900, ₱1,200, ₱1,250, ₱1,300, and ₱1,450. Find the mode.

EXAMPLE 2:

The summary statistics for the monthly contribution of employees on cooperative are as
follows: Mean = ₱1,250 and Median = ₱1,100.

This month, employees voted to increase the contribution by 5%, in order to support their
new project. What will be the mean and median for the new increased of contributions?

SOLUTION:

Mean (x) = ₱1,250

Median (x) = ₱1,100

h = 105% = 1.05

Mean (y) = h Mean (x)

= 1.05(₱1,250)=₱1,312.50

Median (y) = h Median (x)

= 1.05(₱1,100) = ₱1,155

The new mean is ₱1,312.50 and the new median is ₱1,155.

Median (y) = h Median (x)

= 1.05(₱1,100) = ₱1,155
The new mean is ₱1,312.50 and the new median is ₱1,155.

EXERCISE

1. The summary statistics for the annual memberships of different professional

organizations with a mean of ₱2,310 and a median of ₱2,100.

This year, the officers of different prodessional organizations made a resolution to increase
the contribution by 12%, in order to support their new activities. What will be the new
summary statistics for the new increased in membership fees?

2. Measurements of the sizes of farms in the Province of Zambales yield a mean of 3.48
hectares and a median of 4.67 hectares. If the staff of Department of Agriculture in the
province of Bulacan made a wrong entries with a deficit of 1.23 hectares in all land owners.
What are the new values of the mean and median?