Assessment of Groundwater Potential: A Case Study of Lower Gidabo

Catchment, Ethiopia

By

Genet Mathewos Messene

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

of Master of Science in Hydraulic Engineering

Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering, Institute of

Technology, Arba Minch University
Arba Minch

May, 2015
 Approval page

This thesis entitled “Assessment of Groundwater Potential: Case Study of Lower Gidabo
catchment, Ethiopia” has been approved by Advisors and Department head for partial fulfillment
of the requirement of the degree of Master of Science in Hydraulic Engineering.

Signature Date

Genet Mathewos Messene _________________ _________________

Submitted by

Guche Gulie (PhD) _________________ _________________

Major Advisor

Sufiyan Abdulmenan (Msc) _________________ _________________

Co. Advisor

Elias Gebeyehu (Msc) _________________ _________________

Department head

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 Declaration

I declare that this thesis is my original work and has not been submitted to any other institutions
for the award of any academic degree. All sources of materials used for the thesis have been duly
acknowledged.

Name: Genet Mathewos Messene

Signature______________

Place: Arba Minch University

Date of submission: May, 2015

ii
 Acknowledgment

Above all I am honored when I thank and Praise my Lord the King of Heaven and Earth, Jesus
Christ who is the ultimate means of my success.

I am deeply grateful to my supervisor Dr. Guche Gulie for his thoughtful guidance, constructive
criticism, and constant encouragements he has provided me throughout my research. Moreover, I
sincerely appreciate his cooperation in sharing his knowledge and in giving reference materials
for the best outcome of the research which helped me during the whole study. Also I would like
to thank my co- advisor Mr. Sufiyan Abdulmenan (MSc.), his dedication and willingness to
share his knowledge and time from the beginning till the end of the work.

I gratefully thank all organizations and individuals who supported me directly or indirectly
during my study. I would like to thank Ministry of Water Resource and Irrigation for sponsoring
my Masters study. I earnestly acknowledge Sidama Zone Water, Mines and Energy Department,
for allowing me to pursue my postgraduate studies. My especial thanks go to Gulelat and
Fiseha, South Water Works Construction Enterprise, for all their help, guidance and
reference materials those support my research work and my best friend‟s Mamuye Tebebal for
inspiring and providing advice on various topics right from the beginning till the end of the
work.

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my beloved family. My father Mathewos

Messene, I would like to thank him for all the support and inspiration he gave me. My mother
Aberash Masebo, I would like to thank her for being my mother and for being there whenever I
needed her, she is everything to me and the reason for everything I am. I would like to thank my
sisters Eden Mathewos and Eyerusalem Mathewos and my brother Telemos Fanta for all their
help, guidance and support to my research work. Last but not least, I would like to thank
my colleagues and friends who helped me in my research.

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 Dedication

I dedicate this thesis manuscript to my families, for their love and wholehearted cooperation in
the success of my life.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgment ........................................................................................................................... iii

List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... vii

List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii

Acronyms ....................................................................................................................................... ix

Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... xi

1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Objectives of the study ..................................................................................................... 3

1.4 Significance of the study .................................................................................................. 3

1.5 Scope of the study ............................................................................................................ 4

2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 5

2.1 Groundwater ..................................................................................................................... 5

2.2 Groundwater flow direction ............................................................................................. 5

2.3 Availability of Groundwater ............................................................................................ 8

2.4 Groundwater Mapping ..................................................................................................... 9

2.5 Groundwater recharges and discharge areas .................................................................. 13

2.6 Review of aquifer characteristics and types ................................................................... 16

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 2.6.1 Coefficient of permeability/Hydraulic conductivity ............................................... 17

2.6.2 Transmissivity (T) ................................................................................................... 19

2.6.3 Storativity or Storage coefficient (S) ...................................................................... 19

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS .......................................................................................... 20

3.1 Description of the study area .......................................................................................... 20

3.1.1 Drainage .................................................................................................................. 21

3.1.2 Climate .................................................................................................................... 22

3.1.3 Land use-Land cover............................................................................................... 23

3.1.4 Soils......................................................................................................................... 24

3.1.5 Slope of the area...................................................................................................... 27

3.1.6 Geology ................................................................................................................... 28

3.1.6.1 Regional Geology................................................................................................ 28

3.1.6.2 Local Geology ..................................................................................................... 31

3.2 Methods .......................................................................................................................... 32

3.2.1 Data sources ............................................................................................................ 32

3.2.2 Data analysis and interpretation .............................................................................. 33

3.2.2.1 Mapping of ground water flow direction ............................................................ 33

3.2.2.2 Aquifer characterization ...................................................................................... 34

3.4.2.3 Groundwater recharges and discharge area identification ................................. 37

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4. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS............................................................................................ 38

4.1 Groundwater flow direction ........................................................................................... 38

4.2 Aquifer characterization ................................................................................................. 39

4.2.1 Aquifer characterization by using surface geology ................................................ 40

4.2.2 Aquifer characterization by using borehole lithological log................................... 44

4.2.3 Aquifer characterization by using pumping test data ............................................. 47

4.3 Groundwater recharge and discharge zone identification .............................................. 52

5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. 56

5.1 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 56

5.2 Recommendations. ......................................................................................................... 58

6. REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 59

7. APPENDIXES ....................................................................................................................... 66

Appendix 1: Pumping test data and locations of boreholes analyzed to construct contours .... 66

Appendix 2: Pumping test data analyzed for some boreholes around the study area. .............. 69

Appendix 3: Borehole lithological data from well completion report ...................................... 69

Appendix 4: Classification of transmissivity ............................................................................ 77

Appendix 5: Ranges of hydraulic conductivity in different rocks/ soils ................................... 77

Appendix 6: Pumping test duration, Water level and drawdown data ..................................... 78

Appendix 7: Pumping test duration, Water level and drawdown data continue ....................... 80

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 List of Figures

Figure 3. 1 Location map of Lower Gidabo catchment ................................................................ 20

Figure 3. 2Drainage map of Lower Gidabo River catchment ....................................................... 22

Figure 3. 3 Land use Land cover map of Lower Gidabo catchment........................................... 23

Figure 3. 4 Soil map of lower Gidabo catchment ......................................................................... 24

Figure 3. 5 Slop map of Lower Gidabo catchment ....................................................................... 28

Figure 3. 6 Geological map of Lower Gidabo catchment ............................................................. 32

Figure 4. 1 Groundwater contour map of Lower Gidabo River catchment in three dimensions .. 38

Figure 4. 2 Hydrogeological map of the Lower Gidabo catchment ............................................. 41

Figure 4. 3 Water wells location map in Lower Gidabo catchment .......................................... 45

Figure 4. 4 Vertical distribution of aquifer formation from well log data .................................... 46

Figure 4. 5 Time verses drawdown graph of the wells with Cooper and Jacob I solution method
....................................................................................................................................................... 48

Figure 4. 6 Groundwater level contour lines, converging and diverging flow zones ................... 53

Figure 4. 7 Groundwater recharge and discharge zones ............................................................... 55

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 List of Tables

Table 3. 1 Soil classification and area coverage ........................................................................... 25

Table 3. 2 Geologic formation and its area coverage .................................................................. 31

Table 4. 1 Spatial distribution of transmissivity ........................................................................... 49

Table 4. 2 Estimated values of hydraulic conductivity and storativity ......................................... 51

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 Acronyms

DEM Digital Elevation Model

Elv. Elevation

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

Ft Feet

GIS Geographic Information system

GPS Geographic Position system

ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

K Hydraulic Conductivity

Km 2 square kilometer

L/s liter per second

M Meter

m.a.m.s.l Meter above sea level

MER Main Ethiopian Rift

MoWIE Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy

S Storativity

SWL Static Water Level

SWWCE South Water Works Construction Enterprise

SNNPR Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Region

T Transmissivity

UTM Universal Transverse Mercator

WHO World Health Organization

WRCS Water Resources Consulting Service

WWDSE Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise

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 Abstract

Groundwater is occurring in different geologic formations, hydrogeological settings and

topographic features. Those factors mostly control the distribution and development of
groundwater. The groundwater resource assessment of an area requires a carful approach of
ground investigation. Exploring hydro lithological units of the catchment is necessary by using
flow mechanism, hydrology, aquifer characteristics and land use land cover of the catchment.
Topographically Lower Gidabo catchment is undulating and ranges from hills of mountains
ranging from 1170 of low flat lands near Lake Abaya to 3200 m a.m.s.l. In this study,
groundwater potential of the catchment was assessed from the view point of groundwater flow
direction, aquifer characterization and recharge-discharge zone identification. This study targets
to contribute detailed aspect of the hydrogeological feature of the catchment. Appropriate
software‟s like Surfer 8 for generating contour maps, Arc GIS for geo referencing and mapping
of the catchment and Aquifer test to identify the aquifer parameters of the catchment were used.
The groundwater flow direction of the catchment was identified by using ground water level
maps. The aquifer characteristics of the catchment were evaluated using surface geologic map,
pump test data and well logs data of the boreholes. According to the groundwater flow lines and
the contour maps supposed in the catchment, the groundwater flows from eastern parts of the
highlands of the catchment towards the plain areas of the western parts of the catchment. The
groundwater flow direction is commonly controlled by rainfall and topographic features. The
hydraulic characteristics are variable throughout the catchment. The transsmissivity and
storativity have ranged from 1*10-3 to 1.05*10-1 m2/min and 4.11*10-3 to 8.29*10-5, respectively.
Likewise, hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer ranged from 3.5*10-4 to 2.91*10-3m/day. The
major aquifer units of the area are weathered and fractured basalts. These types of aquifer
formation are recognized to be good groundwater formations. According to the result perceived,
the major recharge of groundwater occurs in the Easter and Northeastern highlands of the
catchment, which is said to be recharging zone. However, the area situated in the western and
northwestern parts of the catchment is discharge zones.

Key word: Groundwater potential, Aquifer Test, Lower Gidabo catchment, aquifer
characterization; recharge and discharge zone

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Groundwater is the largest source of fresh water in the world. In many parts of the world,
especially where surface water supplies are not available, domestic, agricultural, and industrial
water needs can be met by using the water beneath the ground (Kumar, 1997). It is one of the
key natural resources of the world. Many major cities and small towns in the world depend on
groundwater for water supplies, mainly because of its abundance, stable quality besides it is
inexpensive to exploit particularly in scarce surface water supply area (Morris et al., 2003).

One of the fundamental conditions for the growth and development of a nation like Ethiopia is
certainly the progressive fulfillment of its most urgent water needs (Tameru, 2006). Ethiopia is
known with good water potential. However, quit a small portion of this resource is presently
developed in the rural areas, the limitation being prohibitively high initial development cost.
Previously developed groundwater sources are used primarily for drinking water supply, it offers
access to safe water for approximately 40-80 percent of the water supply provided to the urban
population, and it is the largest fresh water source in the country. Despite the high Initial cost,
groundwater is increasingly becoming an important source of drinking water supply in Ethiopia
(Getachew, 1998).

The approach for groundwater investigation has been advanced from time to time due to the
growth of remote sensing and GIS techniques. Not only the time required for delineating
groundwater potential areas is shortened, but also the quality of tracing potential areas has been
improved when done with proper image processing and modeling approaches supported by field
checking of parameters that will affect the availability of potential groundwater bearing zones in
terms of quality and quantity of the expected water for development (WRCS, 2013).

Ethiopia is certainly in the progressive fulfillment of its most urgent water needs, the first
attempt is to identify the main aquifers in various parts of the country, which is located in
different composition and properties of rock environments and variable climate, in order to give
proper solution for water supply problems (Tameru, 2006).

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Accordingly, the area under the study comprises parts of the Lower Gidabo River catchment;
North-East of Lake Abaya and the catchment lies in Sidama and Gedeo Zones within southern
Main Ethiopian Rift Valley, covering an area of about 1047.5 km2. Large parts of the residents
are living under the rural areas. Water is basic for socio-economic development of the people
whose income is primarily dependent on agriculture. However, with frequent drought, poor
water supply and sanitation services several socio-economic activities are reduced. Similarly
most of the residents living in the study area are rural people whose livelihood is mainly
dependent on agriculture with poor water supply and sanitation services. A large part of the
catchment area is suitable for agricultural activities and settlement. Nevertheless; it is affected by
flooding, erosion, and sedimentation problems, which is surrounded by undulating topographic
features. Therefore, investigating the ground water potential of the study area is a main approach
for improving the use of groundwater resource. The slope from the east to western parts of the
catchment, the swampy area near the Lake Abaya indicates good potential of ground water.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Ethiopia is being a third world country, is not excluded from the nations that are suffering from
the negative socio-economic outcomes of potable water shortage. The coverage of potable water
is very low. The percentage of the population who has access to clear and safe water is very
minimal. In Ethiopia, the nation‟s access to safe water supply is 12 percent and 70 percent in the
rural and urban population, respectively. The use of unsafe water cause high prevalence of
diarrhea diseases among children resulting high infant and children mortality and most pregnant
women‟s are at risk (TGE, 1995). The population has no adequate clean water supply; this is
partly due to lack of efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of available water resources of
the country for significant socio economic development on sustainable basis (MoWIE, 2007).

Similarly, the study area has a potential risk of adequate potable water supply. In addition the
area is affected by a recurrent drought and the community has no safe drinking water access at
acceptable distance. In the study area, there is water scarcity and some parts of the community
mainly in the rural settlement use untreated surface water for domestic and drinking purpose. It is
the potential risk to human health associated with consumption of polluted water. The gap of
understanding groundwater potential is one of the vital factors in planning water supply from

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groundwater resources. Therefore, assessment of groundwater potential in the catchment is
important to provide vital information for sustainable groundwater development and
management.

1.3 Objectives of the study

The general objective of this study is to understand groundwater potential of Lower Gidabo
catchment.

The specific objectives of this study are:

1. To understand the ground water flow direction in the Lower Gidabo catchment.
2. To identify the characteristics and types of aquifer in the catchment.
3. To identify groundwater recharge and discharge zones in the catchment.

1.4 Significance of the study

Groundwater potential assessment is very crucial to promote implementation of appropriate

technologies for water deficient areas in order to mitigate water scarcity problems. The results of
this study will significantly fill the gap in understanding groundwater perspectives by identifying
the potential of groundwater in the catchment. Remote sensing technique in conjunction with
geophysical information system was employed in understanding the groundwater resources
potential; hence this study provided a methodological approach for evaluation of the water
resources in the catchment. It will also contribute by providing information and recommendation
for those who want for further study regarding groundwater resource in the area.

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1.5 Scope of the study

This study is targeted to assess the groundwater potential of Lower Gidabo catchment. The study
area include seven Woredas which are found in Sidama and Gedeo zones viz. Loca-abaya, Aleta
wendo, Aleta Cuko, Wenago, Dilla, Dara, and Bule woredas. It addressed only the groundwater
flow direction, recharge discharge areas identification and aquifer characterization of the lower
part of the catchment.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Groundwater

The presence and availability of groundwater varies greatly with changes in topography,
subsurface geology and the prevailing climate in a region. In some areas, groundwater exists in
deep aquifers, while in others the water is stored near the surface. The location of the aquifer also
affects its recharge rate and its susceptibility to pollution and overuse (Kumar, 1997).

A complexity of hydrological, hydro-geological and climatological factors controls the ground

water occurrence and movement. The precise assessment of recharge and discharge of
groundwater is rather difficult, which has no techniques and currently available information for
their direct measurement. Hence, the methods employed for groundwater resource estimation are
all indirect. Groundwater is being a dynamic and replenishable resource, which is generally
estimated based on components of annual recharge; it could be subjected to development by
means of sustainable groundwater structures (Kumar, 1997).

In Ethiopia, there are a number of lithological units of varying age and composition including
metamorphic, sedimentary and igneous rocks. In many parts of the country, groundwater is an
important source of potable water. This is especially true for rural areas as well as for towns.
However, the occurrence of groundwater is not uniform because it depends on various
environmental and geological factors (Vernier, 1993, Alemayehu and Vernier,
1997).Groundwater occurs in the interstices of geologic formations, which could be either
created during the geological process (original) or due to secondary formations (Tenalem and
Tameru,2001).

2.2 Groundwater flow direction

Groundwater in the saturated zone is always in motion, and this flow takes place in a three-
dimensional space. When one or two flow directions appear dominant, quantitative analyses may
be performed using one or two-dimensional flow equations for the purposes of simplification.
When it is important to accurately analyze the entire flow field, which is often the case in
contaminant fate and transport studies, a three-dimensional groundwater modeling may be the

5
only feasible quantitative tool since three-dimensional analytical equations of groundwater flow
are rather complex and often cannot be solved in a closed form (Kresic, 2009).

Understanding the groundwater flow system will aid in the effective development and is
important because of the increasing use of ground water resource (Aucott and Speiran, 1985).
The ground water system as a whole is actually a three dimensional flow field; therefore, it is
important to understand how the vertical components of groundwater movement affect the
interaction of ground water and surface water. A vertical section of a flow field indicates how
potential energy is distributed beneath the water table in the ground-water system and how the
energy distribution can be used to determine vertical components of flow near a surface-water
body. The term hydraulic head, which is the sum of elevation and water pressure divided by the
weight density of water, is used to describe potential energy in ground-water flow systems
(USGS, 2006).

Groundwater movement is very slow compared with that of surface water. However,
groundwater, like surface water, flows „downhill‟ in the direction determined by the slope of the
hydraulic head. Groundwater flow is, therefore, from high hydraulic head to low hydraulic head
(Buddemeier and Schloss, 2000). Hence, the determination of groundwater flow direction and
pattern is necessary to ensure that land use activities in the recharge area will not pose a
threat to the quality of the water (Freeze and Cherry, 2002.). Surface water flow is usually
measured in feet per second (feet/s) and groundwater flow in feet per year (Moore, 2011).

In a local groundwater flow system, water that recharges at high water-table flow to adjacent
lowland. Local flow systems are the most dynamic and the shallowest flow systems, therefore,
have the greatest interchange with surface water. Local flow systems can be underlain by
intermediate and regional flow systems. Water in deeper flow systems has longer flow path and
longer contact time with subsurface materials. Therefore, the water generally contains more
dissolved chemicals. Nevertheless, these deeper flow systems also eventually dischargeto surface
water, and they have a great effect on the chemical characteristics of the receiving surface water
(USGS, 2006).

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The potentiometric surface of a confined aquifer is not influenced by the surface topography and
surface-water features because, there is no hydraulic connection between a river and a confined
aquifer beneath it. Potentiometric-surface contours can even be above the land surface. This
indicates that if a well were to be drilled at that location, it would flow. For areas with uniform
groundwater flow, the portions having wide water table contour spacing and consequently flat
gradients are characterized by higher hydraulic conductivity or permeability (Tenalem and
Tameru, 2001).

Usually, groundwater flows very slowly; one hundred meters per year is a typical average
horizontal velocity and one meter per year is a typical vertical velocity. When these velocities are
multiplied by the cross-sectional areas through which the flows occur, the quantities of water
involved in groundwater flow are often substantial. Consequently, the essential feature of an
aquifer system is the balance between the inflows, outflows and quantity of water stored. Due to
the slow movement of groundwater, care is necessary when positioning any man-made outflows,
such as pumped boreholes, to ensure that they collect water efficiently from the aquifer system.
The water balance of the aquifer system is the key to the identification of the aquifer resources
and the consequences of changes in exploitation. The water balance is based on the principle of
the continuity of flow (Kovalevsky et al., 2004).

Water table-contour maps are graphic representations of the gradient of the hydraulic head.
Groundwater flow or potential whatever the might be, regarding to the selection of initial
conditions, contouring of the hydraulic head data; which is the first important step For proper
interpretation of a water table contour map, one has to consider not only the topography, natural
drainage pattern subsurface geology; and local recharge and discharge patterns . More
specifically, one should know the spatial distribution of permeable and less permeable layers
below the water table. For instance, a clay lens impedes the downward flow of excess irrigation
water or if the area is not irrigated the downward flow of excess rainfall (Hutti and Nijagunappa,
2010).

Contour maps of the water table (unconfined aquifers) or the piezometric surface (confined
aquifers) are made in the majority of hydro-geologic investigations; it is a very powerful tool in
aquifer studies. Although commonly water table contour maps are used for determination of

7
groundwater flow directions. In addition, the spacing and orientation or shapes of the contours
are directly reflects the existence of flow boundaries (Kresic, 2009). By means of field
measurements of the water table or piezometric surface, representative contour maps can be
drawn for the various types of aquifers within the hydrogeological basins (Tenalem and Tameru,
2001).

The slope in the study area has a visible variation in elevation and more or less of approximately
same elevation. The slope has direct relation with rainfall and temperature variation and slope
angle significantly plays a role in water storage and movement (WRCS, 2013).

2.3 Availability of Groundwater

Groundwater is part of the earth‟s hydrological cycle. As rain falls it may be intercepted by
vegetation, become overland flow over the ground surface, infiltrates in to the ground, flow
through the soil subsurface flow or discharged as runoff. Infiltrated water may percolate deeper
through the vadose zone to reach the zone of saturation, where groundwater flow occurs. The
vadose zone has an important environmental role in groundwater systems. Surface pollutants
must filter through the vadose zone before entering the zone of saturation. The process is mere
cycle all kind of short-cut are parallel process take place (Savenije et al., 1996).

The Availability of groundwater is mainly influenced by the geology, geomorphology, tectonics

and climate of the area. The variability of these factors in Ethiopia strongly influences the
quantity and quality of the groundwater in different parts of the country. The geology of the
country provides usable groundwater and provides good transmission of rainfall to recharge
aquifers, which produce springs and feed perennial rivers (Tameru, 2006).

Groundwater occurs in the interstices of the formation which could either be original (created
during the geological process) or due to secondary (which would develop later) the flow is,
therefore, governed by the available voids and their distribution in the geologic formation.
Though most of the materials in the earth's crust are in saturated state, few have got sufficient
porosity and permeability to store and transmit reasonable amount of available groundwater
(Tenalem and Tamiru, 2001).

8
Groundwater potential zones can be said to be water bearing formation of the earth crust that acts
as conduits for transmission and as reservoirs for storing water. Its identification and location is
based on indirect analysis of some observable terrain features such as geologic, geomorphic,
landforms and their hydrologic characteristics (Lazarus et al., 2014). Groundwater is stored in
the open spaces and fractures within geologic materials such as soil, sand, and rock that occur
beneath the land surface. Aquifers are the geologic layers that are filled with water and that can
transmit enough water to supply a well under normal hydraulic gradients (Kresic, 2009).

The relief, slope, depth of weathering, type of weathered material, thickness of alluvium, nature
of the deposited material and the overall assemblage of different landforms play an important
role in defining the ground water regime, especially in the hard rocks and the unconsolidated
sediments. Hydro geomorphological investigations include the delineation and mapping of
various landforms, drainage characteristics and structural features that could have a direct control
on the occurrence and flow of groundwater. Many of these features are favorable for the
occurrence of groundwater and are classified in terms of groundwater potentiality as poor,
moderate, good and very good prospecting zones (Lazarus et al., 2014).

In the study area topography especially the slope angle has good contribution for the availability
of water and emergence of springs in many places. Areas with slope angle between zeros to five
degree and five to ten degrees were with less groundwater potential. Whereas the once with good
contribution of water are those between 10 to 24 and those between 24 to 54 degrees. But in
some cases where the role of faulting, geology and land use have higher role some of the sloppy
lands have also good contribution.Similarly Areas with good vegetation cover when they occur
especially in a relatively low angle or gently falling to flat lands are seen to have good
contribution for groundwater availability. In some places of the rift the water storage as
identified by spring discharge and borehole data is seen to be very good. (WRCS, 2013)

2.4 Groundwater Mapping

A groundwater map is a pictorial representation of groundwater levels for a specific area.

Complicated spatial information is much better presented on maps, than in tables or text;
mapping also allows different types of information to be interpreted together. Increased and easy

9
access to relevant information can therefore allow the decision making process to be better
informed. Water mapping can be applied at different scales and contexts and used in various
ways.

Diverging contour lines indicate regions of groundwater recharge, while converging contour
lines are associated with ground water discharge areas. Furthermore, areas of favorable hydraulic
conductivity can be ascertained from the spacing of the contour lines. In fact for areas with
uniform groundwater flow, the portions having wide water table contour spacing and
consequently flat gradients are characterized by higher hydraulic conductivity or permeability
(Tenalem and Tameru, 2001).

According to Tenalem (1998), hydrogeological maps may also show distribution of lithologic
units. Lithologic units are usually grouped according to their hydrogeological characteristics.
Hydrogeological characteristics of lithologic units, possible recharge areas, chemical quality of
the groundwater, possible directions of groundwater movement, etc. may be indicated on
hydrogeological maps.

A water table contour map shows the elevation and configuration of the water table on a certain
date. To construct it, we first have to convert the water level data from the form of depth below
surface to the form of water table elevation, or after level height above a datum plane, e.g. mean
sea level. These data are then plotted on a topographic base map and lines of equal water table
elevation are drawn. A proper contour interval should be chosen, depending on the slope of the
water table. For a flat water table, 0.25 to 0.50 m may suit; in steep water table areas, intervals of
1 to 5 m or even more may be needed to avoid overcrowding the map with contour lines (Kumar,
2006).

The depth to the water table can be determined by installing wells that penetrate the top of the
saturated zone just far enough to hold standing water. Preparation of a water table map requires
that only wells that have their well screens placed near the water table be used. If the depth to
water is measured at a number of such wells throughout an area of study, and if those water
levels are referenced to a common datum such as sea level, the data can be contoured to indicate
the configuration of the water table. In addition to various practical uses of a water-table map,

10
such as estimating an approximate depth for a proposed well, the configuration of the water table
provides an indication of the approximate direction of groundwater flow at any location on the
water table. Lines drawn perpendicular to water-table contours usually indicates the direction of
ground-water flow along the upper surface of the groundwater system. The water table is
continually adjusting to changing recharge and discharge patterns. Therefore, to construct a
water-table map, water-level measurements must be made at approximately the same time, and
the resulting map is representative only of that specific time (USGS, 2006).

Heads measured in wells tapping an unconfined aquifer are used to construct a water table
contour map .This map helps hydro geologists define groundwater recharge, movement, and
discharge. Groundwater typically follows a path that is approximately perpendicular to water-
table contours and is referred to as a low line. Head, measured in wells tapping a confined
aquifer, is used to construct a water-table contour or potentiometric-surface map. It is analogous
to a topographic map, but represents the slopes of a pressure water surface rather than of a land s
Groundwater potential zones can be said to be water bearing formation of the earth crust that acts
as conduits for transmission and as reservoirs for storing water. Its identification and location is
based on indirect analysis of some observable terrain features such as geologic, geomorphic,
landforms and their hydrologic characteristics (Lazarus et al., 2014).

The topographic base map should contain contour lines of the land surface and should show all
natural drainage channels and open water bodies. For the given date, the water levels of these
surface waters should also be plotted on the map with these data and data on the land surface
elevation can water table contour lines be drawn correctly. For a proper interpretation of a water
table contour map, one has to consider not only the topography, natural drainage pattern, and
local recharge and discharge patterns, but also the subsurface geology. More specifically, one
should know the spatial distribution of permeable and less permeable layers below the water
table. For instance, a clay lens impedes the downward flow of excess irrigation water or, if the
area is not irrigated the downward flow of excess rainfall. A groundwater mound will form
above such a horizontal barrier (Kumar, 2006).

The use of remote sensing and GIS techniques is a fast emerging field in groundwater resource
identification, mapping and planning. Remote sensing provides an opportunity for better

11
observation and more systematic analysis of various geomorphic units, landforms, lineaments
and drainages, due to its synoptic and multispectral coverage of a terrain. The techniques is
increasingly used in prospecting for groundwater potential zones, because of their ability to
identify and outline different ground features that may serve as direct or indirect indicators of the
presence of groundwater resources (Lazarus et al., 2014).

Hogan (2010) suggested that in addition to various practical uses of a water table map, such as
estimating an approximate depth for a proposed well, the configuration of the water table
provides an indication of the approximate direction of ground water flow at any location on the
water table. Lines drawn perpendicular to water table contours usually indicates the direction of
ground water flow along the upper surface of the ground water system. The water table is
continually adjusting to changing recharge and discharge patterns. Therefore, to construct a
water-table map, water-level measurements must be made at approximately the same time, and
the resulting map is representative only of that specific time.

A basin wise approach yields the best results where the groundwater basin can be characterized
by prominent drainages. A thorough study of the topography, geology and aquifer conditions
should be taken up. The limit of the groundwater basin is controlled not only by topography but
also by the disposition, structure and permeability of rocks and the configuration of the water
table. Rainfall is the major source of recharge to groundwater. Part of the rain water, which falls
on the ground, is infiltrated into the soil. A part of this infiltrated water is utilized in filling the
soil moisture deficiency while the remaining portion percolates down to reach the water table,
which is termed as rainfall recharge to the aquifer. The amount of rainfall recharge depends on
various hydro meteorological and topographic factors, soil characteristics and depth to water
table. The methods for estimation of rainfall recharge involve the empirical relationships
established between recharge and rainfall developed for different regions (Kumar, 1997).

Groundwater flow direction and water table elevation of boreholes mapping is constructed by
measuring borehole static water table and subtracting from surface elevation to get ground water
elevation. A water table contour map shows the elevation and configuration of the water table on
a certain date. Water table contour lines are similar to topographic lines on a map. They
essentially represent elevations in the subsurface. Water table contour lines can be used to

12
determine the direction groundwater will flow in a given region. Many wells are drilled and
hydraulic head is measured in each one. Water table contours or equipotential lines are
constructed to join areas of equal head. Groundwater flow lines, which represent the paths of
groundwater down slope, are drawn perpendicular to the contour lines. A map of groundwater
contour lines with groundwater flow lines is called a flow net. Groundwater always moves from
an area of higher hydraulic head to an area of lower hydraulic head, and perpendicular to
equipotential lines. Hydrological maps are prepared from available information and additional
information collected from field surveys (Kumar, 1997; Tenalem and Tamru, 2001).

The depth to the water table is highly variable and can range from zero, when it is at land
surface, to hundreds or even thousands of feet in some types of landscapes. Usually, the depth to
the water table is small near permanent bodies of surface water such as streams, lakes, and
wetlands. An important characteristic of the water table is that its configuration varies seasonally
and from year to year because ground-water recharge, which is the accretion of water to the
upper surface of the saturated zone, is related to the wide variation in the quantity, distribution,
and timing of precipitation (USGS, 2006).

2.5 Groundwater recharges and discharge areas

Groundwater is naturally recharged upstream and discharged downstream. Recharge areas are
close to mountain peaks, where precipitation is likely to be higher than in the adjacent lowlands.
Shallow groundwater discharges in the valleys and other low-lying zones of the Earth's crust.
Through human intervention, groundwater is subject to artificial discharge, that is, the process of
pumping groundwater from an aquifer to satisfy a socioeconomic need. In certain instances,
groundwater may also be subject to artificial recharge. Some progressive peoples are presently
accomplishing the artificial recharge of their aquifers in order to conserve the groundwater
resource (Ponce, 2006).

Water is continually recycled through aquifer systems. Groundwater recharge is a process of

water movement downward through the saturated zone under the force of gravity or in a
direction determined by the hydraulic condition. Processes that contribute to groundwater
recharge include precipitation, stream flow, leakage (reservoirs, lakes, aqueducts), and artificial

13
means (injection wells).Part of the rain water, which falls on the ground, is infiltrated into the
soil. This infiltrated water is utilized partly in filling the soil moisture deficiency and part of it is
percolated down reaching the water table. This water reaching the water table is known as the
recharge from rainfall to the aquifer. Recharge due to rainfall depends on various hydro
meteorological and topographic factors, soil characteristics and depth to water table (Rawat et al.
, 2012).

Recharge to the aquifers will also have local variations due to variation in geology, structural
connectivity, land use, morphologic variations. The evapotranspiration variation in many places
is higher and will have significant impact to net recharge of groundwater or storage of
groundwater. This implies that there is scarcity of water for many months in the year in the area
and the recharge is mainly during the wet periods. The groundwater recharge will be variable
based on rock variation; a recharge between 75 to 112 mm of average recharge can be considered
for the area (WRCS, 2013).

Tameru (2006) discussed the recharge of groundwater system, which is too variable as the
rainfall over Ethiopia is extremely variable in both space and time. The main source of recharge
for the vast groundwater system is the rainfall on the highlands. The major recharge occurs in the
northeastern and southwestern plateau where annual rainfall is high. Rapid infiltration occurs in
areas covered by fractured volcanic and to a lesser extent in sedimentary rocks and thick
permeable soils. The Ethiopian rift acts as a discharging zone, which contains numerous
perennial rivers, fresh and salt lakes, cold and thermal springs.

Groundwater in unconfined aquifers moves from topographically high areas (recharge) to

topographically low areas (discharge). In a recharge area, the potential energy decreases with
depth, this results in downward movement of water. Between the recharge and discharge areas,
groundwater flow is primarily horizontal. In a discharge area, the potential energy increases with
depth, this results in upward movement of groundwater (Moore, 2011). For selected basins
groundwater recharge has been estimated based on conventional water balance approaches and
systematic river discharge measurements. Generally, the main source of groundwater recharge is
rainfall and river channel losses. The average yearly groundwater recharge for Ethiopia is around
2.8 billion cubic meters (Tadesse, 2004).

14
The groundwater discharge in the study area is mainly from rainfall like many other localities in
Ethiopia. There are also local recharge possibilities from streams and adjacent aquifers especially
from the highland. The groundwater type mixing is found in the rift margins and parts of rift
floor where morphology falls steeply due to subsequent faults. Groundwater flows from higher
gradient to low gradient areas and can be considered as local recharge from adjacent aquifers.
Recharge to the aquifers will also have local variations due to variation in geology, structural
connectivity, land use and morphologic variations (WRCS, 2013).

Recharge to groundwater is also important in controlling the availability of groundwater during

drought. Recharge to groundwater usually occurs annually and depends on a number of factors,
including: total annual rainfall; distribution and intensity of rainfall events; connection to streams
and rivers; soil type; and land use. Besides, the rate of infiltration is a function of soil type, rock
type, antecedent water, and time. Aquifers react slowly to changes in rainfall and long term
average rainfall is more important in controlling recharge to aquifers than short term variations.
Therefore groundwater sources can bridge surface water deficits. General water balances is
subtracting of input and output, and give as change in storage (Tameru, 2006).

According to Tesfaye (1982) the geology of the large part of the Ethiopian rift valley areas is
characterized by lacustrine sediments and volcano-sedimentary Rocks. Lacustrine sediments are
the most common one within the rift valley. The geological formation in the upper soil profile
has good primary and secondary porosity and permeability characteristics which enable
continuous recharge to the groundwater.

The quantity of groundwater discharge or flux to and from surface water bodies can be
determined for a known cross section of aquifer by multiplying the hydraulic gradient, which is
determined from the hydraulic head measurements in wells and piezometers, by the permeability
of the aquifer materials. Permeability is a quantitative measure of the ease of water movement
through aquifer materials. For example, sand is more permeable than clay because the pore
spaces between sand grains are larger than pore spaces between clay particles (USGS, 2006).

Groundwater recharge area can be defined as that portion of the drainage basin in which the net
saturated flow of ground water is directed away from the ground surface and the water table

15
usually lies at some depth; whereas, discharge areas can be defined as the movement of the net
saturated flow of groundwater is directed toward the ground surface and the water table usually
lies at or very close to the surface (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).On the other hand, continuous
increased withdrawals from a groundwater reservoir in excess of replenishable recharge may
result in regular dropping of water table. In such a situation, a serious problem is created causing
in drying of shallow wells and increase in pumping head for deeper wells and tube wells. This
has led to emphasis on planned and optimal development of water resources. An appropriate
strategy will be to develop water resources with planning based on conjunctive use of surface
water and groundwater (Kumar, 1997).

It is arguably one of the least understood and quantified components of the hydrologic cycle. It
cannot be measured directly, is highly variable in space and time, and must be inferred from
measurements and determinations of related geologic and hydrologic properties. Recharge to the
aquifers will also have local variations due to variation in geology, structural connectivity, land
use, morphologic variations. The evapotranspiration variation in many places is higher and will
have significant impact to net recharge of groundwater or storage of groundwater (WRCS,
2013).

2.6 Review of aquifer characteristics and types

For quantification of groundwater resources, proper understanding of the behavior and

characteristics of the water bearing rock formation, known as aquifer, is essential. An aquifer has
two main functions (i) to transit water; conduit function and (ii) to store it; storage function. The
groundwater resources in unconfined aquifers can be classified as static and dynamic. The static
resources can be defined as the amount of groundwater available in the permeable portion of the
aquifer below the zone of water level fluctuation. The dynamic resources can be defined as the
amount of groundwater available in the zone of water level fluctuation. The replenish-able
groundwater resource is essentially a dynamic resource which is replenished annually or
periodically by precipitation, irrigation return flow, canal seepage, tank seepage, influents and
seepage (Kumar, 1997).

16
Aquifers are classified as unconfined and confined; the water table is the upper boundary of an
unconfined aquifer. Recharge to unconfined aquifers is primarily by downward seepage through
the unsaturated zone. The water table in an unconfined aquifer rises or declines in response to
rainfall and changes in the stage of surface water to which the aquifer discharges. When a well
that taps an unconfined aquifer is pumped, the water level drops, gravity causes water to flow to
the well, and sediments near the well are dewatered. Unconfined aquifers are usually the
uppermost aquifers and, therefore, are more susceptible to contamination from activities
occurring at the land surface (Moore, 2011).

The rift Valley area is enclosed by volcanic rocks, which are very variable in hydro-geological
characteristics; because of difference in their mineralogy, texture and structure. As a result their
water bearing capacity varies accordingly. The circulation and storage capacity of these rocks
depends on the nature of porosity and permeability of the aquifer. Permeability is largely a
function of primary and secondary structures in the rock mass (Tenalem and Tameru, 2001). The
tectonic activity and lithological variation in the rift valley area also partly or wholly control the
drainage density and drainage pattern. Most of the river channels follow the young lineaments
and discharge into lakes at the bottom of the rift (Habtamu and Rapprich, 2014).

2.6.1 Coefficient of permeability/Hydraulic conductivity

Jordan (2013) discussed the coefficient of permeability thus the parameter (K) depends on the
porosity of the medium, the pore-size distribution of the medium, the shape, orientation and
arrangement of the individual grains of the media, the effectiveness of the interconnection
between pores, roughness of mineral particles, degree of soil saturation and the physical
properties of the fluid. It measures the linear permeability of an aquifer and is determined by
dividing the transmissivity value by the saturated thickness of the aquifer (LDEQ, 2003).
Hydraulic conductivity has dimensions of length divided by time (l/t). It is expressed in feet per
day. The hydraulic conductivity of a water-bearing layer is affected by the density and viscosity
of the groundwater. The higher the temperature, the lower the viscosity of the water will be and
the easier it will be for the water to move through the pores of a water-bearing layer, resulting in
a higher value for hydraulic conductivity.

17
Hydraulic conductivity (k) is a measure of the ability of a fluid to move through inter connected
void spaces in the sediment or rock .it may also be defined as the volume of water that will move
through a porous medium in a unit area measured at right angles to the direction of flow. It is
determined by dividing the transmissivity value by the saturated thickness of the aquifer
(SFWMD, 2009). It can be estimated from lithologic logs (grain size), laboratory measurements
and aquifer tests. Laboratory and field methods are useful for determining hydraulic
conductivity. However, values obtained in the laboratory are applicable to small scale situations
and may not be representative of the bulk properties of the aquifer. The value of aquifer tests is
that they measure less disturbed materials.

It depends on both the characteristic of the porous medium and the characteristic of the flowing
fluid, expressed in terms of m/day (distance/time). It is a function of the size and shape of
particles, and the size, shape, and connectivity of pore spaces. Hydraulic conductivity is
generally expressed in meters per day. The coefficient of permeability also designated as
hydraulic conductivity reflects the combined effects of the porous medium and fluid properties
(Subramanya, 1994)

Horizontal hydraulic conductivities are commonly greater than vertical hydraulic conductivities.
Horizontal hydraulic conductivity may be determined from single or multiple well aquifer tests.
Hydraulic conductivity varies over a very wide range for different geological materials. The
range of conductivity for unconsolidated deposits of silt and clay sand is from 10-5 to 10-2 cm/sec
and for fractured and weathered igneous and metamorphic rocks is from 10-6 to 10-2 cm/sec
(Freeze and Cherry, 1979).

In addition to hydraulic conductivity, another quantitative parameter called intrinsic permeability

(or simply permeability) is also used in the studies of fluid flow through porous media. It is
defined as the ease with which a fluid can flow through a porous medium. In other words,
permeability characterizes the ability of a porous medium to transmit a fluid (water, oil, gas,
etc.). It is dependent only on the physical properties of the porous medium: grain size, grain
shape and arrangement, or pore size and interconnections in general. On the other hand,
hydraulic conductivity is dependent on the properties of both the porous medium and the fluid
(Kresic, 2009).

18
2.6.2 Transmissivity (T)

Is the rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic
gradient. Transmissivity is the product of the aquifer hydraulic conductivity (K) and the saturated
aquifer thickness (b), such that Transmissivity has dimensions of length squared divided by time
(L2/T) (SFWMD, 2009). It is the rate of flow under a hydraulic gradient equal to unity through a
cross-section of unit width over the whole saturated thickness of the water bearing layer. It is
expressed in m2/d (Boonstra and Selik, 2001).

This is a restrictive definition which suggests that the concept of transmissivity is only applicable
to homogeneous aquifers. In fact, transmissivity can describe a variety of layered aquifer
systems. The definition of transmissivity is the sum, or integral, of the hydraulic conductivities
over the saturated depth of the aquifer. It is one of the most important parameter in ground water
system analysis. Transmissivity is the product of horizontal hydraulic conductivity and thickness
of the saturated soil layer. Since the water table gets higher away from the drain, the
transmissivity increases away from the drain. When partially penetrating wells are present there
is a further increase in transmissivity because the imaginary impermeable layer descends away
from the drain (Oosterbaan, 1986).

2.6.3 Storativity or Storage coefficient (S)

The storativity or storage coefficient of the aquifers is defined as a volume of water that an
aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in
the component of hydraulic head normal to that surface. For a vertical column of unit area
extending through a confined aquifer, the storage coefficient S equals the volume of water
released from the aquifer when the piezometeric surface declines a unit height. Storativity is
dimensionless quantity involving a volume of water per volume of aquifer. The storativity of a
saturated aquifer is a function of its thickness. Storativity is a dimensionless quantity, as it
involves a volume of water per volume of aquifer (Boonstra and Selik, 2001). It is generally
calculated as the sum of the specific yield (SY) and the product of specific storage (Ss) to the
saturated thickness (b) of the aquifer.

19
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the study area

The study was carried out in Lower Gidabo catchment, Abaya Chamo lakes basin, SNNPR,
Ethiopia. It is situated in the Main Ethiopian Rift valley (MER), North-east of Lake Abaya. The
catchment is geographically located between 6°39‟N to 6°12‟north and 38°14‟E to 38°21‟east
covering an area of about 1047.5 km2. The Lower Gidabo catchment contains 38 sub-basins
which includes some tributaries that contribute to the Gidabo River. According to WRCS (2013)
topographically the Lower Gidabo catchment is undulating and ranges from low relief
characterized by high fault cliffs, steep hills and low flat land near Lake Abaya to high relief.
The study area lies in seven Woredas which are found in Sidama and Gedeo zones viz. Loca-
abaya, Aleta wendo, Aleta Cuko, Wenago, Dilla, Dara, and Bule woredas.

Figure 3. 1 Location map of Lower Gidabo catchment

20
3.1.1 Drainage

It is well known that the drainage pattern is mainly determined by lithology and tectonic events
occurred during the geological past activities. Depending up on these factors, the drainage
pattern may then assume different shapes and behaviors. Area of high drainage density indicates
less infiltration which favors runoff and hence acts as poor groundwater prospect, because major
part of the rainwater over the area is lost as surface runoff with little infiltration for recharging
the groundwater reservoir. On the other hand low drainage density areas permit more infiltration
and recharge to the groundwater reservoir, hence can be described as a good potential zone for
groundwater prospect (Hutti and Nijagunappa, 2010).

The Lower Gidabo catchment consists of main Gidabo River and some tributaries which flow to
the main River in the western direction. A drainage system is termed as compatible if its pattern
relates to the structure and relief of the landscape over which it flows. It depends on the
topography and geology of the land. The type of drainage pattern provides information related to
runoff, infiltration and permeability. The catchment stream network shows dendritic drainage
pattern in the upstream areas and sub-parallel patterns in the downstream sections. In a dendritic
system, there are many contributing streams which are joining together to the tributaries of the
main river. The eastern part of the catchment is topographically higher while the south western
part is lower near Lake Abaya. There is a large topographic elevation difference between the
valley and the highland in the sub-catchment. The altitude of Lower Gidabo catchment ranges
from 1170 to 3,200 m a.m.s.l. Figure 3.2 shows the drainage patterns of the catchment.

21
Figure 3. 2Drainage map of Lower Gidabo River catchment

3.1.2 Climate

The climate of the study area ranges from Woina Dega to Dega. It is generally characterized by
the subtropical Weina Dega on the rift floor and temperate to humid Dega climatic zones on the
escarpment and adjacent highlands. The rainy season of the area start from March to May and
from July to October. The mean annual rainfall and temperature is 1,100 mm and 20 °C
respectively. The weather condition of the area is mainly controlled by the seasonal migration of
the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ), which is adapted by the convergence of trade winds
of the northern and southern hemispheres (Habtamu and Rapprich, 2014). Rainfall is the main
source of ground water recharge in the study area and it significantly affects groundwater

22
occurrence. Based on the average annual monthly temperature and rainfall, the climate condition
of the study area varies among temperate, subtropical tropical and tropical and traditionally
called “Dega” “Woina Dega” and “Kolla”, respectively (National Atlas of Ethiopia, 1988).

3.1.3 Land use-Land cover

The interference of human beings has exerted change on the physical environment of the
catchment. Particularly, due to high population growth and urbanization the need of farmlands
and infrastructure expansion has enhanced and resulted in the clearance of existing vegetation
cover. According to Habtamu and Rapprich (2014) the vegetation cover in the study area varies
from east to west. It depends on the altitude and soil type across the sub catchment. The major
crops grown in the upper parts of the sub catchment are coffee, enset, maize and teff. However,
in the lower and middle parts of the catchment, livestock production is the main activity of the
community. The catchment area is covered by 73.3% of intensively cultivated land, 9.5%
moderately cultivated land, 14% shrub land, 1.7% marsh land and 0.16% forest (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3. 3 Land use Land cover map of Lower Gidabo catchment

23
3.1.4 Soils

Soil property influences the relationship between runoff and infiltration rates of the soil. It
determines the water storage capacity and affects the resistance of water flowing into the deeper
layers. The development of soils depends primarily on geologic and climatic conditions. The
main types of soil erosion in the catchment are sheet and gully erosion, yet large areas of the
catchment have been subjected to sheet erosion. Cultivation and deforestation have considerably
changed the natural vegetation cover over the area. They have accelerated the rate of weathering
and erosion problem (Habtamu and Rapprich, 2014). The soil associated with lacustrine
sediments, River alluvium and pumice are poorly developed and unconsolidated. They are highly
permeable and likely to make little surface runoff (Tenalem, 1998). According to FAO (1988)
soil classification the major soil units in the catchment are categorized as chromic luvisols,
Eutric Leptosols, Eutric Vertisols, Humic Nitisols and Lithic Leptosols (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3. 4 Soil map of lower Gidabo catchment

24
Table 3. 1 Soil classification and area coverage

Soil type Symbol Area (Km2) Area (%) Soil texture

Lithic Leptosols LPq 670.77 64.28 Sandy loam
Chromic Luvisols LVx 76.83 7.36 Loam
Eutric Vertisols VRe 245.24 23.50 Clay
Eutric Leptosols LPe 49.94 4.79 Sandy loam
Humic Nitisols NTu 0.70 0.07 Loam
Total 1047.5

Chromic luvisols (LvX)

These soils have a strong brown to red argic B horizon and lack vertic properties. In soils with a
heavy textured B horizon, permeability could be low. Base saturation is high and they have
weatherable minerals. There dominant characteristics is manifested with a textural definition in
the soil profile, when they were taken into cultivation. Various reasons: increased erosion led to
truncation of the Ah-horizon, E-horizon and the larger part of the albeluvic tongues, and
increased homogenization by soil fauna, notably worms, after a long period of liming
fertilization (FAO, 1988).

As per the soil classification, chromic luvisol covers 7.36 percent of the catchment area (Table
3.1). Luvisols have a distinct clay accumulation horizon. Most Luvisols are well-drained but
Luvisols in depression areas with shallow groundwater may develop gleyic soil properties in and
below the argic horizon. Stagnant properties are found where a dense illuvial horizon obstructs
downward percolation and the surface soil becomes saturated with water for extended periods of
time (WRCS 2013).

Eutric Leptosols (LPe)

Leptosols having an ochric A horizon and a base saturation of 50 percent or more throughout,
lack hard rock and continuous cemented layer within 10 cm and permafrost within 200 cm of the
earth. The soil is perceived by high cation exchangeable capacity and base saturation. It is
shallow soil over hard rock or highly calcareous material but the deeper layers are extremely

25
gravelly or stony. This soil covers 4.79 percent of the study area with sandy loam soil texture
(Table 3.1).

Eutric Vertisols (VRe)

The vertic property of a soil is associated with clayey soils. At the same period in most years, it
show as various properties such as; cracks ,slicken sides, wedge-shaped or parallelipied
structural aggregates; which are not in a combination or are not sufficiently exposed for the soils
quality. These are Vertisols having a base saturation (NH4 OAC) of 50 percent or more at list
between 20 and 50 cm from the surface and lacking a calcic or gypsic horizon.

Eutric Vertisols are commonly red in color and are highly susceptible for erosion. It covers 23.5
percent of the catchment area associated with clay dominant textured soils. According to WRCS
(2013) it is produced from weathering of the basalt which is exposed throughout the area. This
soil forming, erosional and depositional land feature is hard and prevents water from percolating.
It has water logging characteristics and it is very difficult to plough during the rainy seasons due
to its high clay content.

Humic Nitisols (NTu)

A soil having an argic B horizon shows clay distribution. It does not display a relative decrease
from its maximum of more than 20 percent within 150 cm of the surface. Nitosols have an
umbric or a mollic A horizon and are strongly humic. Nitosols are the most inherently fertile of
the tropical soils because of their high nutrient content and deep permeable structure. They can
be exploited for plantation agriculture. They also have good permeability, a favorable structure,
and high water holding capacity (WRCS 2013). The Humic Nitisol comprises 0.07 percent of the
total area, which is dominantly associated by loam soils (Table 3.1).

Lithic Leptosols (LPq)

Leptosols are limited in depth by continuous hard rock or continuous cemented layer within 10
cm of the surface. The soils are limited by continuous hard rocks or highly calcareous material
(calcium carbonate equivalent of more than 40 percent) or contentious cemented layer within 30

26
cm of the surface; or having less than 20 percent of fine earth materials over a depth of 75 cm of
the surface. The Litic Leptosols is covering the maximum area of the catchment (64.28 percent)
with sandy loam textured soil (Table 3.1).

3.1.5 Slope of the area

Slope of an area is significant to understand the general direction of groundwater flow and it
influences the recharge and discharge of groundwater. When the adjacent rock cover has vertical
hydraulic connectivity with the high slope forming faulted rocks of the rift, groundwater storage
and movement will be expected within the fractures and cooling joints. The rocks that form high
slope angle are usually the trachytes, tuffs, ignimbrites and basalts. As the structures are vertical
to sub-vertical with slight inclination at the bottom, the storage near such faults can be affected
by the nature of the in-filled sediments (WRCS, 2013). The slope elements, in turn are controlled
by the climate change processes in the area having the rock of varying resistance. Slope plays a
key role in groundwater occurrence as infiltration is inversely related to slope (Hutti and
Nijagunappa, 2010). It plays vital role in groundwater occurrence as infiltration is inversely
related to slope. Area of high slope value will cause more runoff and less infiltration, thus have
poor groundwater availability compared to low slope areas (Agarwal et al., 2013).

Slope map of the study area was generated from DEM data using spatial analyst tool in ArcGIS
9.3. The steep slopes of the catchment produce a smaller recharge because water runs rapidly on
the land surface. The slope map in the Lower Gidabo catchment indicates that there is a slope
variation in percent. The slopes of the catchment are categorized in to four classes. The identified
slope category varies from 0 to 91percent viz. 0-2 (gentle), 2-8 (moderate), 8-36 (steep) and
greater than 36 percent (very steep) slopes. The eastern parts of the catchment are dominantly
covered by steep and very steep slopes. However, the upper and western parts of the catchment
are relatively considered as gentle slopes.

27
Figure 3. 5 Slop map of Lower Gidabo catchment

3.1.6 Geology

3.1.6.1 Regional Geology

The Rift Valley Basin is a long and narrow strip of low lying plain land in the highlands of
Ethiopia. The Basin stretches from the north eastern part of the country to the southern border
with Kenya and it divides the highland masses in to two, which are the Central and Eastern
Highlands of Ethiopia. It is part of the great rift valley of East Africa (Getachew, 1998).The
Central MER encompasses most of the Lakes Region up to the Lake Hawasa with the main
boundary faults trend roughly N30o–35o. The Southern MER extends south of Lake Hawasa to
the 300km wide system of basins and ranges (referred to as broadly rifted zone) and faults in the
Southern MER show a dominant north south to 20o north (Ebinger et al., 2000). The MER divide
the 1000 km wide Ethiopian volcanic province asymmetrically into the northwest and southeast
plateaus. The margin of Ethiopian rift exposes locally pre-Tertiary sedimentary and basement

28
rock uncomfortably overlain by Paleogene volcanic flows that are just as old as the flows
covering the northwest plateau (Woldegabriel, 1990).

Acoording to Mulugeta (2007) the Main Ethiopian Rift Vally (MER) is divided geographically
in to three parts viz. Northern, Central and Southern. The central part of the MER is about 175
km long and 75 km wide, which extends from north of Lake Ziway to Lake Abaya in the south.
It is a symmetrical rift, mostly characterized by clear synthetic rift margins having variable throw
along the strike of the boundary faults. The rift escarpment is passive at places due to weathering
and accumulation of pyroclastic falls along the margins.

The geology of the large part of the rift valley areas is characterized by Lacustrine Sediments and
Volcano-Sedimentary Rocks. Lacustrine Sediments are common in the rift valley (Tesfaye,
1982). According to WRCS (2013) the geology of the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley contains basic
to felsic volcanics, lacustrine sediments and recent to sub-recent Quaternary cover. The volcanic
rock varies between Tertiary to Quaternary rocks of basalt, rhyolite, locally trachyte, trachy
basalt, ignimbrite, tuff, with minor obsidian, tephrites, scoria, and other rocks. The sediments are
lacustrine, pyroclastic or reworked volcano sedimentary sediments that vary in composition and
thickness from place to place. The geologic formation in the upper soil profile has good primary
and secondary porosity and permeability characteristics, which enables continuous recharge to
the groundwater (Getachew 1998). According to Kazmin and Seife (1980, cited in Paola, 1972)
the Dino formation was previously called as Rift Pyroclastic formation. The rift ignimbrites are
highly faulted and outcrop in most parts of the rift. Most of the geologic sections exposed along
the rift margins are dominated by Tertiary volcanic rocks except for a few locations where
crystalline basement is unconformably overlain by Mesosozoic sedimentary and/or Tertiary
volcanic rocks. Such pre-Tertiary rocks covered by Tertiary basalt are present along the eastern,
western, and southern Afar margin (Zenethin and Justin Visentin, 1974).

The basement in the southern and south western parts of the region is grouped under
Mozambique Belt, which are Neoproterozoic, polycyclic and collisional belt (Tenalem, 2006).
Tectonic activity creates dynamic morphology with steep scarps prone to debris flows and
landslides. Zones with frequent rock-fall features follow the edges of the Main Ethiopian Rift.
These basement where granitic and gneisses predominate has been more strongly

29
metamorphosed. Most of these basement rocks are relatively impermeable and have been
subjected to several organic episodes since their formation. This process, combined with the
rifting associated with the development of the Red Sea and East African-Ethiopian Rift Valley,
has resulted in considerable fracturing and shattering (Kazmin, 1975).

The young vesicular basalt outcrops mainly along major faults within the rift floor. It can be
divided at least into three subgroups. The first type that covers the relatively elevated plateau of
the rift floor is vesiculated, moderately fractured rock. It intrudes the ignimbrite or overlies (flow
over it) in various cases. The basalt that outcrops nearby the floor is moderately jointed or
fractured basalt characterizing the first type. It outcrops along and in between fault thrown areas
and at places, which forms quite elevated topography. It is vesiculated, while the vesicles are less
connected to each other. The vesicles are massive in most cases, which have few shallow seated
fractures and some penetrative fractures.The volcanic rock varies between Tertiary to Quaternary
rocks of basalt, rhyolite, locally trachyte, trachy basalt, ignimbrite, tuff, with minor obsidian,
tephrites, scoria, and other rocks. The youngest sediments are of Quaternary age. These include
lacustrine, pyroclastic or reworked volcanic sediments that vary in composition and thickness
from place to place and conglomerate, sand, clay and reef limestone which accumulated in the
Afar depression and the northern end of the MER. Sediments which accumulated in former lakes
occur in the south end of the Afar, in the MER, and in the Omo valley (Kazmin, 1975).
Generally the rock types related and named after the known Chialo, volcanics containing trachy
basalt, rhyolite and other rocks form higher topography in the rift margin. The rhyolites and
Nazreth group and Dino group ignimbrite and tuff layers also form relatively elevated terrains.
The morphology in the main rift floor is mainly the result of tectonic effect (WRCS, 2013).

As per Mulugeta (2007, cited in Woldegebriel, 1968) a variety of continental sedimentary basins
were developed in the course of the rift system. Lacustrine sedimentation is wide spread in the
MER during the pluvial period of quaternary resulted the present rift valley lakes; they are the
remnants of one mega ancestral lake. The principal feature of the Rift Valley is a graben and a
block fault geological structure, in which the floor of the valley has become vertically displaced
with respect to the valley sides. The tectonic activity and lithological variation in the area besides
relatively control the drainage density and drainage pattern. Most of the river channels follow the

30
young lineaments and discharge their water into lakes at the bottom of the rift (Habtamu and
Rapprich, 2014).

3.1.6.2 Local Geology

The geology of Lower Gidabo catchment is classified in seven geologic formations Viz.
Trachytic basalt and Rhyolit (NQs); Terrace gravel deposits (PNv), Nazareth group Alkaline and
per alkaline stratoid silicics (N1_2n), Dino Formation (Qdi), Pyroclastic fall deposit (Qvs),
Transitional mildy alkaline (Pv) and Bofa Basalts (N2b). The catchment is dominantly covered
by Trachytic basalt and Rhyolit formation. The geological formation of the study area is shown
in Figure 3.6 and Table 3.2.

Table 3. 2 Geologic formation and its area coverage

Type Symbol Area (km2) Area (%)

Dino Formation Qdi 154.68 14.80
Transitional mildy alkaline Pv 98.75 9.40
Nazareth group Alkaline and per alkaline N1_2n 165.21 15.80
stratoid silicics
Terrace gravel deposits PNv 402.36 38.40
Pyroclastic fall deposit Qvs 11.16 1.10
Bofa Basalts N2b 13.47 1.30
Trachytic basalt and Rhyolit NQs 201.84 19.30
Total 1047.48

31
Figure 3. 6 Geological map of Lower Gidabo catchment

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Data sources

In this study qualitative and quantitative data were collected from secondary sources. The
secondary data were collected from different organizations such as: Minister of Water, Irrigation
and Energy, National Mapping Agency, South Water Works Construction Enterprise and Sidama
Zone Water Resources Development Department. The data that were utilized in the study are;
water resources study reports, completion reports of pump test boreholes data (location of the
well, aquifer properties data, well dimensions, water level data, pumping test hours), geologic

32
well log data, features of boreholes and hand dug wells, geological and soil data and topographic
map at the scale of 1: 50000m.

3.2.2 Data analysis and interpretation

The methods employed to acquire efficient information for investigating ground water potential
of the study area such as; generation of thematic maps to present drainage patterns of the
catchment, slope, soil, geologic formation, developing groundwater flow direction, aquifer
characterization, recharge and discharge areas were analyzed using different software. Global
mapper 12, Arc GIS 9.3, Surfer 8 program and Aquifer-Test 2015 software‟s were used in the
study.

3.2.2.1 Mapping of ground water flow direction

Ground water is normally hidden from physical observation; as a result many people
have difficulty in visualizing its occurrence and movement. This difficulty affects their
ability to understand and to deal effectively with groundwater related problems. The
problem can be somewhat solved through the use of ground equipotential lines and flow
directions or lines (Zelalem, 2009).

The significance in advance of groundwater flow direction was analyzed using Arc GIS 9.3 and
Surfer 8 program. Surfer was developed as the industry standard contour mapping software used
by geologists, hydrologists and engineers to rapidly and easily change XYZ data into clear
surface, contour, wireframe, image, shaded relief and vector maps. Three D (3D) maps generated
with Surfer are known for their clarity, color and accuracy (ECUC, 2001). The most common
application of Surfer is to generate a contour map or surface plot from an XYZ data file. The
Data command from the Grid menu uses an XYZ data file to produce a grid. To determine the
flow direction of groundwater in the study area, a contour map of the catchment was generated
using 40 XYZ data of boreholes and hand dug wells. XYZ data of the well are given in
Appendix 2. The flow lines and equipotential lines (i.e. groundwater contours) were digitized by
Arc GIS 9.3 software to create the shape files of features such as; towns, water wells and Rivers.

33
3.2.2.2 Aquifer characterization

Aquifer characterization of Lower Gidabo catchment was analyzed by using the secondary data
of borehole lithological log data (geological description), surface geological units and aquifer
hydraulic properties.

Aquifer parameters (hydraulic properties) of the catchment were estimated with Aquifer-Test
2015 software by using six bore holes pumping test data. According to Cheini et al. (2008, cited
in Week, 2005; Stefans and Vitaly, 2005) the pumping test data analysis and interpretation is
used as a method for estimating the hydrological properties of the aquifer. Estimation of these
parameters permits quantitative prediction of the hydraulic response of the aquifer to recharge
and pumping. An aquifer test is a precise experiment which was used to determine basic aquifer
parameters such as Hydraulic conductivity (K), Transmissivity (T) and Storativity (S) in the
district of a pumping well data (Bear, 1979). It is commonly used tool for characterizing systems
of aquifers. The general approach for analyzing the aquifer-test data for this study was to match
the simulated time-drawdown solution with the two analytical methods. The pumping test data
were taken from the well completion reports of the bore holes which are located in Aleta Wendo,
Chuko, Wenago, Bule, Dilla and Dara Woredas. To evaluate the constant rate drawdown test;
Cooper and Jacob I solution method in a confined aquifer were used for identification of aquifer
parameters viz. Tranmissivity and Storativity of the well. However, Hydraulic conductivity of
the aquifer was analyzed based on Hvoslve‟s slug test solution method.

The Cooper and Jacob I solution applies the following assumptions; the aquifer has infinite areal
extent, aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of uniform thickness, control well is fully
penetrating, flow to control well is horizontal, aquifer is confined, flow is unsteady, water is
released instantaneously from storage with decline of hydraulic head, diameter of pumping well
is very small so that storage in the control well can be neglected.

Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity is the rate of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit cross-
sectional area of aquifer. It is a measure of material's capacity to transmit water. It is a constant
of proportionality relating the specific discharge of a porous medium under a unit hydraulic

34
gradient in Darcy's law (SFWMD, 2009). Hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer was estimated
based on Hvorslev (1951) Slug test analysis methods. The Hvorslev solution assumed that; the
aquifer is unconfined or none-leaky confined aquifer of “apparently” infinite extent,
homogeneous; isotropic aquifer of uniform thickness, water table is horizontal prior to the test,
instantaneous injection/withdrawal of a volume of water results in an instantaneous change in
water level, inertia of water column and non-linear well losses are negligible, fully penetrating
well, the well is considered to be of an infinitesimal width and flow is horizontal towards or
away from the well (SWS user‟s manual, 2011).

Where K is hydraulic conductivity in m/day, L is the screen length in m; T i is the time lag when
ht/h0= 0.37 in day; R is the radius of the well including the gravel pack and r is the effective
radius of the piezometer in m.

Transmissivity

Transmissivity is the rate of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit width of
saturated thickness of the aquifer. It is equivalent to the hydraulic conductivity times the
thickness of an aquifer. Aquifer transmissivity is most easily analyzed from aquifer pumping
tests. It is a measure of the capability of the aquifer to transmit ground water through a one meter
wide band over its full depth, under a one meter or unit gradient. It ranges between 0 and the
effective porosity of the aquifer. All the transmissivity were ultimately calculated using the slope
of time-drawdown data plotted on semi log paper. According to Cooper and Jacob I time-
drawdown analysis the transmisivity of an aquifer related to its hydraulic conductivity are
calculated as (Rushton, 2003):

Where, T is transmisivity in m2/s, Q discharge of the well in m3/s and ΔS is change in drawdown.

35
Storativity (Storage coefficient)

Storage coefficients are important for understanding hydraulic response to transient stresses on
aquifers. Storativity is a measure of the amount of water a confined aquifer will give up for a
certain change in head. As per Schlumberger Water Services (2011, cited in Cooper and Jacob,
1946) and Rushton (2003) the storativity of an aquifer is analyzed with Cooper and Jacob I time-
drawdown method.

Where, T is transmissivity of the aquifer; r, distance from well to piezometer and to is elapsed
time in the starting of pumping to which the set of drawdown data correspond.

The storativity of a confined aquifer varies with specific storage and aquifer thickness, usually it
ranges from 5x10-5 to 5x10-3 (Todd, 1980); yet in unconfined aquifers, storativity ranges from
0.1 to 0.3 (Lohman, 1972).

Besides, the identification of an aquifer type was allowed by comparing its drawdown versus
time curve with that of the Cooper and Jacob I theoretical model curves. Based on the type of
curves plotted, the type of aquifer was identified. The plotting of drawdown versus time graphs
are schemed in linear scale in meter and second unit respectively, it was plotted through pumping
test records. The plots are supporting in identifying an aquifer types which nearly confides on the
theoretical model curves.

To identify surface geology of the catchment, 1:500,000 scale geological map of the catchment
was utilized. The hydrogeological map of the study area was also made from these geologic units
to hydrologic unit. Borehole lithologic units were taken from the well completion reports, which
was to characterize an aquifer. A borehole geological log is constructed from sampling and
inspection of well cuttings collected at frequent intervals during drilling the well or test holes.
Such logs provided a picture of the geological character and thickness of each stratum
encountered as a function of depth thereby allowing aquifers to be defined. It is the most

36
significant way of understanding the aquifer system than the others, but preparation of it required
careful follow up (Afewerk, 2011, cited in Todd, 2004).

3.4.2.3 Groundwater recharges and discharge area identification

In order to prepare sound land-use planning and management approach, analysis of groundwater
flow system connecting recharge and discharge areas is vital. This information can be derived
from different technologies like hydrological mapping, vegetation mapping and groundwater
flow modeling (Batelaan et al, 2003). However, in this study the discharge and recharging zone
of the catchment were characterized with hydrologic and groundwater modeling approaches. The
recharge and discharging zone of the catchment were identified with the help of Surfer 8
program, Geographic Information system (GIS) and integration of thematic map of the
catchment. The water table contour map was done using Surfer 8 program. Based on the
groundwater flow direction in a contour map, the convergence and divergence zone of the
catchment were identified. A water table contour map was used to categorize groundwater
recharge and discharge areas. The flow line on a flow net tends to diverge from recharge areas
and converges towards to discharge areas (Fetter, 2001).

According to Afewerk (2011) and Toth (1963, cited in Fetter, 1994) groundwater recharge,
discharge and intermediate zones of the study area were mapped based on different indicators
such as; topography, groundwater flow pattern and static groundwater levels; those have
contributed for the demarcation of the recharge, transitional and discharge zones. Among these
indicators, topographic elevation is the simplest (Freeze and Cherry, 1979). Topography is a
major factor which has to be considered for delineating the recharge and discharge zone, high
land areas are an indicator of recharge areas. The divergence and convergence of vector flow
lines is an indicator of the recharge and discharge areas respectively in general. A water-table
contour map was also used to locate groundwater recharge and discharge areas (Fetter, 2001).

37
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Groundwater flow direction

Groundwater flow is controlled by geological structures and lithology. Water table maps were
constructed to determine horizontal groundwater flow directions. The 3D map presented below
show the flow directions (Figure 4.1). In three dimensional groundwater contour and flow
direction map abrupt change in flow direction is observed by convergence and divergence of the
flow lines. Also view provides a visible picture and displays the controlling factors which affect
the flow pattern (Figure 4.1) .

Elevation

2000
1970
1940
1910
1880
1850
1820
1790
1760
1730
1700
1670
1640
1610
1580
1550

Figure 4. 1 Groundwater contour map of Lower Gidabo River catchment in three dimensions

38
The water table elevation in the catchment along the Southwestern escarpments of the catchment
is defined by 2000 m a.m.s.l; however the lowest water table elevation is about 1520 m in
western Dilla. According to Julius and Merrious (2010, cited in Buddemerier and Schloss, 2000)
groundwater flows from the highest values of the contour elevation to the lowest values in the
direction perpendicular to the contour line. The groundwater contour map (Figure 4.1) revealed
that the groundwater flows downwards from the South in a higher hydraulic head (elevation)
towards to West located within the locations close to Dilla. Likewise, groundwater flows from
East northern towards Northwestern direction of the catchment. It was realized by employing the
idea that groundwater flows from topographically higher elevation to lower elevation. The main
sources of groundwater pollution were leachates from dumpsites and the wellbeing of
inhabitants, therefore, based on the groundwater flow pattern the western parts of the catchment
might stand at risk if leachates are allowed to contact with groundwater.

Groundwater is driven by lateral variation in water table or phreatic aquifers. Local relief in
topography causes local system of groundwater flow. Due to pronounced local relief, various
condition of groundwater flow in local and intermediate flow systems possibly exists. In the
study area the flow system generally follows the topographic variation. It is important to
determine the position of the water level and the direction in which groundwater moves because
many water related projects and constructions are highly influenced by groundwater flow
system.

4.2 Aquifer characterization

For characterization of the aquifer, classifications of hydrogeological units were done in the
study area; important aquifer parameters and geological materials were considered; which are
vital to identify the types of aquifer. Aquifers have been classified on the basis of permeability
which they exhibit and the extent of the aquifer. The lithological data were taken from well
completion reports of boreholes and shallow wells. The aquifers of the catchment are dominantly
covered with weathered and fractured basalt. The other main aquifer formation materials
comprised in the well in the ascending order of coverage are gravel, tuffaceous sediments and
rhayolite. The aquifers of the catchment are characterized based on geologic materials by using

39
surface geological information‟s, borehole lithological log and pumping test data of the wells in
the catchment are discussed in the following sections.

4.2.1 Aquifer characterization by using surface geology

Investigating hydrogeological units of an area plays significant role in describing the availability
and quality of groundwater resources, because they control the movements of water through it.
Hydrogeological study includes the correlation between the geological materials with the
corresponding natural water. The availability and distribution of water in the area are affected by
geology, topography and climate conditions. The surface geological units found in the catchment
are characterized in both primary and secondary porosities such as; trachytic basalt and rhyolite,
Nazareth group alkaline and peralkalil stratoid silicics, Dino formation, pyroclastic fall deposit,
transitional mildy alkaline, Bofa basalts and terrace gravel deposits (Figure 4.3). Major
hydrogeological units of the catchment are shown in Figure 4.3.

The hydro-lithologic units of the catchment are mainly classified under volcanic and alluvial
aquifers formations (Figure 4.3). The volcanic aquifers principally presents in the escarpment
and the highlands, while the alluvial aquifer are inhabited in the valley floors of the catchment.
The eastern parts of the catchment are covered by highly fractured and weathered basaltic rocks
forming either highlands or cliffs. The high degree of fracturing and weathering and its high
topographic nature results the rock to be a recharge zone in the eastern side of the study area.
There are quaternary sediments and various volcanic rocks of quaternary to tertiary age of the
formation. There are also other factors that play a key role to the availability and distribution of
water in the area such as topography and climate. As a result rocks can only be described
qualitatively in terms of their capacity to store and transmit groundwater.

40
Figure 4. 2 Hydrogeological map of the Lower Gidabo catchment

Thus, rock formations with similar hydrogeological character are grouped into one
hydrogeological unit. These hydrogeological units have important role in defining groundwater

41
availability and quality, because they control water movement through them. The major
geological units identified in the catchment are discussed as follows:

Trachytic basalt and Rhyolite (PNv)

Trachyte is an igneous volcanic rock with an aphanitic to porphyritic texture and it belongs to the
alkali series of intermediate volcanic rocks. It is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock
composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. This type of geological unit spreads
from the central to the south western parts of the catchment (Figure 4.3). It covers about 19.3
percent of the study area (Table 3.2). Trachytic basalt and Rhyolite are the second dominant
geological units in the catchment next to Terrace gravel deposits. These geological materials
often have characteristics of minute irregular steam cavities which make the broken surfaces of
specimens of these rocks rough and irregular. According to WRCS (2013) Trachytic basalt and
Rhyolite usually consist of sanidine feldspar in principal extent; and low to moderate potential
aquifer of welded tuff and lacustrine sediment. It is fine grained and contains fine grained
trachytic basalt which is underlain by thin layer of pumice rich tuff that intern underlain by
ignimbrite.

Dino Formation (Qdi)

This type of formation is ignimbrite, which is light grey colored that out crops stratgraphically
above the Nazareth group Alkaline and peralkalil stratoid silicics. The Dino formation was
designated as (Qdi) and used to represent ignimbrites, tuffs, water lain pyroclastic and occasional
lacustrine beds, which are overlain by coarse, unwelded pumiceous pyroclastics. It is either with
tuff mostly or pumice. Dino formation ignimbrite has some obsidian rich layers medium to fine
grained in most cases. It locates in the northern parts of the catchment (Figure 4.3); covering
with 14.8 percent of the study area (Table 3.2). Pyroclastic deposits consist of pumice fragments
within a fine ground-mass; they are light, highly friable and light gray to yellowish colored.
Welded ignimbrites contain abundant black casing of compacted pumice fragments (Habtamu
and rapprich, 2014).

Bofa Basalts (N2b)

42
This type of formation is situated in the middle and western parts of the chachment (Figure 4.3).
Bofa Basalts is covering about 1.3 percent of the study area (Table 3.2). It is likely to affecte
with faulting and jointing which have positive impact for groundwater recharge and storage
through the aquifer. The physical properties of the basalt are also variable from place to place. At
places it forms well developed and interconnected joint sets that form boulder type of basalt; and
at other places it is relatively massive except the joints that developed along the flow layers and
some vertical joints that are either rays of minor faults or relatively penetrative joint sets (WRCS
,2013).

Nazareth group Alkaline and per alkaline stratoid silicics (N1_2n)

The Nazareth group Alkaline and per alkaline stratoid silicics are located in western parts of the
catchment. As it can be presented in Table 3.2, this formation covers nearly 15.8 percent of the
study area. The Nazareth ignimbrite spreads within the rift in larger extent, they extend at the
boundaries of the fault thrown ridges and westerly edges of the faults. The eruption may be prior
to the young faults from the outcrop towards the elevated sides. The rock is fractured and
exposed due to northeast and northwest trending faults (WRCS, 2013). The rocks of this
formation are at places highly weathered and some sections show series of weathered layers. It is
sometimes with columnar-joints.

Terrace gravel deposits

A Terrace gravel deposit is situated dominantly in the eastern parts of the study area (Figure 4.3).
This type of formation covers the largest area of the catchment, which comprises about 34.4
percent of the catchment (Table 3.2). A terrace consists of a flat or gently sloping geomorphic
surface which mainly having gravel with diameters ranging from 2 mm to an excess of 256 mm.
These gravels are continuously graded unconsolidated materials or sediments formed as a result
of natural disintegration of rocks. Gravels can be found in numerous depositional environments.

Pyroclastic fall deposit (Qvs)

A pyroclastic fall is a uniform deposit of materials which has been ejected from an eruption or
plume such as; an ash fall or tuff. It is situated in the Middle Western part of the study area

43
(Figure 4.3). This type of formation is covered relatively the smallest portion of the catchment, it
consists about 1.1 percent of the total area (Table 3.2). Pyroclastic falls occurred relatively in the
spontaneous geological time scale and are great indicators of time. It is composed of silt sand,
silt clay and gravely sand soil textures; and is variable in thickness, composition and compaction.

Transitional mildy alkaline (Pv)

The transitional mildly alkaline and sub-alkaline basalts are located in the northeast and
southeastern edge of the catchment area (Figure 4.3), which is comprised nearly 9.4 percent of
the study area (Table 3.2). This type of formation is usually strong weathered, namely along
fractures and joints, where exposed basalts tend to create cliffs. Transitional basalts are overlain
by rhyolites. Locally, this unit comprises minor ignimbrite and trachyte bodies; generally with
too small an aerial extent to be mapped at actual scale (Habtamu and Rapprich, 2014).

4.2.2 Aquifer characterization by using borehole lithological log

The borehole lithological data of the well completion reports are necessary to estimate the
aquifer features of the catchment. The boreholes which are located in different places of the
study area were systematically investigated for the purpose of aquifer characterization.
According to the borehole lithological log data of the study area, the main aquifer type of most of
the wells are weathered and fractured basalts. As per the well completion reports of the entire
wells, weathered and fractured basalt of many wells are tapped at a depth ranges about 45 meters
up to 162 meters, where 40 and 160 meter water depths of the well strike at Sokicha Well #3 and
Aleta Wendo well #2 respectively. With regarding to the well completion reports in the study
area, the lithological data indicates the presence of confined aquifers in the catchment. Some of
the wells situated in the northern part of the catchment (i.e. Aleta wendo #3) have an identical
aquifer formation (viz. weather and fractured basalt) with the wells located in the southern part
of the catchment. The distribution of the boreholes in the catchment is shown in Figure 4.4.

44
Figure 4. 3 Water wells location map in Lower Gidabo catchment

45
Aleta wendo #2 Teferi Kela Bule#1 Korie Wenago Rufo Debeka

Weathered
Weathered Scoria (36-39)
tuff (6-8) Grain crystalline
SW(81.2m) Tuff (8-12) Pyroclastic
deposit(18-42) sand and clay (6-12)
Clay with Chert (39-42)
Ignimbrite(81-87)
tuff (18-24) Highly weathered
Highly Fractured basalt
Sand clay tuff (12-16)
weathered (42-63)
Weathered (42-66)
Trachyte (88-91) Tuff (12-24) Massive basalt
tuff (24-36)
(63-66) Weathered
Trachyte basalt Clay (66-105) River deposit ignimbrite (16-28)
(91-94) (66-71)
Clay (24-42)
Basalt (36-74)
Pyroclastic ash Sand clay (105-108)
Scoracious
deposit (94-100) Pyroclastic deposit
basalt (71-108)
(108-114) Highly weathered
Slightly tuff (28-64)
weathered Silt sand (114-118)
Weathered pyroclastic tuff (42-75) Scoria (76-80)
deposit of tuff (100-104)
Ignimbrite Ash (118-123)
(75-80) Basalt (80-93) Massive basalt
(126-135) Coarse grained
gravel (64-85)
Fractured basalt
(104-162)

Figure 4. 4 Vertical distribution of aquifer formation from well log data

46
The vertical distribution of the wells log data are presented in Figure 4.4 and Appendix 3. The
vertical distribution of the wells log data displays that as moving from northern part of the
catchment where the wells situated in Aleta Wendo (i.e. Aleta wendo #2 and #3) to the south of
the catchment where the wells located in Dara (Sokicha # 1, 2 & 3) and Bule woreda (Bule #1 &
2), the common hydrogeological unit found in the area is fractured and slightly weathered basalt.
And it is typically go thinner. For instance, the thicknesses of basaltic aquifer in Aleta wendo #2
and Aleta wendo #3 wells are 58.23 and 86.5 meters and that of Bule #1 and 2; Sokicha # 1, 2
and 3 is 13, 16, 2.7, 16, 17 and 5 meters respectively (Appendix 3). This shows that the thinner
thickness of an aquifer is the lesser groundwater storage capacity; while the thicker thickness is
the greater it stores water. It indicates that an aquifer is rich in groundwater as we go from
southern to northwester and western part of the catchment.

The aquifer formation are included lacustrine sediments; weathered and fractured volcanic rocks,
which are classified as high, moderate and low permeability respectively. The major water
bearing formations in all of the boreholes are summarized as lacustrine and alluvium (gravel,
sand and silt) sediments. Relatively high yield boreholes from Dengora Morocho and Rufo
Debeka well fields belong under the group of weathered and fractured basalt, pyroclastic deposit,
and fractured ignimbrite formations.

There are two types of aquifer systems distribution in the catchment, which are shallow and
deep aquifer systems recognized through identifying over the lithologic log and depths of the
existing wells in the catchment. The shallow aquifer system ranged from 18 to 54 m depth and
the formation included: lacustrine sediments (sand and gravel), volcanic sand and ash, weathered
basalt, quartz sand and ignimbrites and tuff. The deep aquifer system is encountered at the depth
range of 54 to 232 meters and the types of aquifer constituted are coarse gravel, boulders, tuff,
fractured ignimbrites, massive basalts and weathered ignimbrite.

4.2.3 Aquifer characterization by using pumping test data

Aquifer characterization of an area can be estimated based on hydraulic parameters and well log
data such as aquifer thickness, pumping hour with drawdown data and static water level.

47
Time versus drawdown graph of the wells using Cooper and Jacob I solution method for Aleta
Wendo # 2, Bule #1, Kore #1, Teferi kela, Wenago #2 and Rufo Debeka wells plotted on semi-
log paper are presented in Figure 4.5.

Time [s] Time [s]

10 100 1000 10000 100000 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
0 0

1 10
Drawdown [m]

Drawdown [m]
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50

(a) Aleta wendo well #2 (b) Bule well #1

Time [s] Time [s]

10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000
0 0

10 6
Drawdown [m]
Drawdown [m]

20 12

30 18

40 24

50 30
(c) Kore well #1 (d) Teferi kela well

Time [s] Time [s]

10 100 1000 10000 100000 10 100 1000 10000 100000
0 0
4 10
Drawdown [m]

20
Drawdown [m]

8
12 30
16 40
20 50
(e) Wenago well #2 (f) Rufo Debeka well

Figure 4. 5 Time verses drawdown graph of the wells with Cooper and Jacob I solution method

48
The six boreholes (i.e. Aleta wendo well #2, Bule well #1, Kore well #1 and Wenago well #2,
Rufo Debeka and Teferi kela well ) illustrated nearly similar curves (Figure 4.5). Depending on
the time drawdown graph and the borehole lithological data, the aquifer corresponding to them
adheres to the wells revealed to be confined aquifers. For several wells, there were no extensive
raise of the static water levels above the water strike depth, indicating usual occurrence of
confined aquifers in the catchment.

Aquifer properties of an area such as capability of storing useful amount of water, allowing
reasonable flow rate and capacity of transmitting water can be characterized using hydraulic
properties of an aquifer viz. Transmisivity (T), Hydraulic conductivity (K) and Storativity (S) of
an aquifer.

Transmissivity

Transmissivity is the rate of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit width of aquifer
of a given saturated thickness. This is a measure of how much amount of water can be
transmitted horizontally through a unit width of a fully saturated aquifer under a hydraulic
gradient of one. The value of transmissivity provides a basis for future groundwater exploration,
development, abstraction and protection. It is related with saturated thickness of an aquifer and
its hydraulic conductivity. The transmissivity of an aquifer is calculated using equation (3.2).
The values of transmissivity analyzed using Aquifer test program from pumping test data are
given in Table 4.1.

Table 4. 1 Spatial distribution of transmissivity

Location Project No_ Thickness of aquifer (m) Type of aquifer T ( m2/s)

Aleta Wendo AW2 6 Confined 6.43* 10-8
Bule B1 29 Confined 8.22*10-5
Rufo Debeka (Chuko) AC2 21 Confined 9.16*10-3
Teferi Kela (Dara) D1 30 Confined 3.18*10-4
Wenago WS2 36 Confined 1.96*10-3
Korie (Chuko ) AC3 27 Confined 1.36*10-4
Average 1.96*10-4

49
The transmissivity distribution from the aquifer pumping test is highly variable. The estimated
value of transmissivity of an aquifer ranged from 6.43*10-8 to 9.16*10-3 m2/s. The transmissivity
analyzed on Rufo Debeka well #2 is 9.16*10-3, which is the highest value of an aquifer
transmissivity over the other wells located in the catchment (Table 4.1).This indicates that this
location has the greatest potential for productive aquifers. According to Krasny (1993)
transmissivity classification discussed on Appendix 4, the transmissivity of aquifer is existed in
intermediate range. Therefore, the well could be maintained for local water supply (small
communities, plants). However, the transmissivitys of aquifer in Bule #1 and Teferi Kela # 2 are
very low, which is found in the rang 0.1 and 1m2/day (Table 4.1). The groundwater supply is
limited consumption in the well with regarding to transmissivity. Likewise, the transmisivity of
aquifer in Wenago #2 and Korie #3 wells are low; it implied that smaller withdrawal of water for
local water supply (private consumption) could be maintained in the well. The Groundwater
supply in Aleta Wendo # 2 is very challenging for local water supply; because the transmissivity
of an aquifer is impracticable. The aquifer is underlined by a clay formation at six meter depth,
which provides impermeable basement formation in the aquifer. In general, confined condition
of an aquifer is existed in all the six wells located in the catchment down dip of their outcrops.
The overall average transmisivity of the well is found to be 1.96*10-4 m2/s.

Hydraulic conductivity

Hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeability of the aquifer is a measure of a materials

capacity of porous medium to transmit water. It is expressed with the volume of water that will
move through a porous medium in a unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area.
Hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer is determined using equation (3.1). The analyzed value of
hydraulic conductivity is presented in Table 4.2.

50
Table 4. 2 Estimated values of hydraulic conductivity and storativity

Location Project No_ K ( m/day) S

Aleta Wendo AW2 8.57*10-3 1.18* 10-6
Bule B1 1.04*10-7 9.64*10-4
Rufo Debeka (Chuko) AC2 3.13*10-1 2.02*10-14
Teferi Kela (Dara) D1 3.35*10-4 4.08*10-4
Wenago WS2 2.91*10-3 4.24*10-10
Korie (Chuko ) AC3 2.94*10-4 9.51*10-12
Average 5.43*10-2 2.29*10-4

According to Freeze and Cherry (1979) hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer varies in different
geological materials. The ranges of hydraulic conductivity value with the types of material
formation are presented in Appendix 5. With regarding to the available data, hydraulic
conductivity of aquifers in the study area ranged from 1.04*10-7 to 3.13*10-1 m/day with an
average value of 5.43*10-2 m/day (Table 4.2). Hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer is highest in
Rufo Debeka #2 at the western parts of catchment, it implied that the aquifer materials around
the boreholes of Rufo Debeka # 2 is the highest permeable, whereas lowest value of hydraulic
conductivity is existed in Bule #1 in south eastern of the escarpment. According to Bouwer
(1997), Lewis (2006) and Tenalem and Tamiru (2001) discussed on the ranges of hydraulic
conductivity with lithology on Appendix 5, the aquifer material found in the catchment close to
Aleta Wendo #2, Rufo Debeka #2 and Chuko (Korie) #2 are Fractured basalt and Welded tuff
and ignimbrite dominate. However, the hydraulic conductivity of the Bule #2 borehole is
1.04*10-7 with 29 meter well thickness (Table 4.2). As it can be seen from the result, the
hydraulic conductivity of the well is relatively low; the aquifer formation is associated with
dense crystalline rock material. The hydraulic conductivity of the boreholes of Teferikela and
Wenago #2 are found be in the rangs of 5*10-5 to 2*10-1m/day hydraulic conductivity, which is
dominantly associated with Welded tuff and ignimbrite lithological formation (Appendix 5).

51
Storativity

Storativity is the volume of water released from storage per unit decline in hydraulilc head in the
aquifer, per unit area of the aquifer. The storativity (S) of an aquifer is approximated in semi-log
distribution. The storativity of an aquifer is calculated using equation (3.3). The analyzed values
of storativity are given in Table 4.2. Storativity ranged from 2.02*10-14 to 9.64*10-4 with an
average value of 2.29*10-4 (Table 4.2). This result covers the range of confined values of
storativity of an aquifer. The borehole‟s tapped in dense crystalline rock formation in the
southeastern hill side of the study area shows highest value of storativity (Table 4.2). Whereas,
the well‟s located in the western lowland parts of the catchment closes to Rufo Debeka # 2 are
presented with lower value of storativity. With regarding to the storativity of boreholes given in
the Table 4.2, storativity of an aquifer decreases from northeast to northwest of the study area.
Likewise, storativity of an aquifer increases moving from southeast highlands to central parts of
the catchment.

4.3 Groundwater recharge and discharge zone identification

In order to formulate a sound water resource planning and management strategy, analysis of the
groundwater flow system regarding recharge and discharge areas are required.

According to Winter (1999) the groundwater flow system are supposed that groundwater
recharge occurs in topographically higher areas and groundwater discharge in topographically
lower areas. Water enters in the ground water systems is in recharge areas and moves through
them as dictated by hydraulic gradients and hydraulic conductivities to discharge areas (Zelalem,
2009). The major source of groundwater recharge in lower Gidabo cachment is rainfall.

Groundwater is discharged by springs in highland areas mainly around Bule, ester Aleta Wendo
and southeastern Wenago. Likewise, discharge is originated in low land areas in the form of
seepage. A discharge in natural from groundwater system is not only from the flow of water into
Rivers, wetlands and springs, but also evaporation from upper parts of capillary fringes where
groundwater is close to the surface. The situation is likely suited in the low lands of the
catchment area where groundwater level is close to the surface. Figure 4.7 and 4.8 shows the
groundwater recharge and discharge areas of the study area.

52
Figure 4. 6 Groundwater level contour lines, converging and diverging flow zones

The recharge to the aquifer varies in different locations due to variation in geology, slope,
hydraulic connectivity, land use, morphologic variations. The evapotranspiration variation in
many places is higher, which have significant effects on the recharge of groundwater. According
to Habtamu and Rapprich (2014), the potential evapotranspiration is nearly 750mm per year and
the annual average precipitation is about 700mm per year in the rift areas. As it can be seen from

53
Figure (4.6), the diverging groundwater flow lines are suited from the north eastern highland
parts towards the western part of the study area of discharging zones. However, recharging zone
is located in the eastern plateaus of the catchment area. The major recharge occurs in the Easter
and Northeastern highlands of the catchment where annual rainfall and slope is high. Rapid
infiltration occurs in areas covered by fractured volcanic and to a lesser extent in sedimentary
rocks and thick permeable soils, in somewhat dry lands, due to the fact that the area located in
the western and northwestern part of the catchment are discharge areas like; Loca Abaya,
northern Wenago; eastern part of Dilla and Chuko.

Topographic setting relates to the local relief circumstance gives an idea about the general
direction of groundwater flow and its effect on groundwater recharge and discharge. The
identified slope classes of the catchment varies from 0 to 91 percent categorized in to four
classes viz. 0-2 (gentle), 2-8 (moderate), 8-36 (steep) and greater than 36 percent (very steep)
slopes Figure (3.4). The eastern and southeastern parts of the catchment area have higher slope
value; which are dominantly steep slope, it resulted greater runoff and thus lesser groundwater
discharge. However, the western and northwestern parts of the catchment are gentle slopes,
which considered as lesser runoff; hence groundwater recharge is lesser (Figure 4.7). Therefore,
with regarding to the slopes of the catchment area, the upper parts of the catchment are
considered as high groundwater potential zone. Whereas, the slope of lower catchment
area(eastern and southeastern parts) is greater than 13o, the surface runoff is high allowing less
time for rainwater to percolate and consider to be poor groundwater potential zone. It flows
rapidly on the surface keeping other factors constant.

54
Figure 4. 7 Groundwater recharge and discharge zones

55
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

Groundwater potential investigation of an area is vital to promote implementation of appropriate

technologies, which is suitable for water deficient areas in order to mitigate water scarcity. The
result of this study is significant in filling the gap in understanding groundwater perspectives by
identifying the potential of groundwater in the catchment. The study was carried out in Lower
Gidabo River catchment, which is located in Abaya chamo lake basin; topographically the
catchment is undulating and ranges from high to low relief characterized as high fault cliffs,
steep slope hills and low flat topographic feature near Lake Abaya.

The hydrogeological map was prepared by classifying volcanic rock of the area based on surface
geology, observing the borehole lithologic log and groundwater flow lines. As a result the
hydrogeological units are identified and mapped. Trachytic basalt and Rhyolites are the
predominant hydro geological units in the study area. The other main lithological units mapped
and identified are Terrace gravel deposits, Nazareth group Alkaline and per alkaline stratoid
silicics, Dino Formation, Pyroclastic fall deposit, Transitional mildy alkaline and Bofa Basalts.

As the boreholes lithological log data demonstrates, the major aquifer in the study area is
weathered and fractured basalt rock. The aquifers of Lower Gidabo catchment have two systems;
the shallow and the deep aquifer systems. From lithological data of some shallow aquifer
systems, it is observed that the aquifer depth ranges between 12 and 50 meters. The major
constituent geological material of this aquifer system is mainly of fractured and slightly weather
basalt and lacustrine and alluvial sediments. As per the well completion reports of the boreholes;
the pumping test data confirms that the aquifer is generally found in confined formations. The
deep aquifer system exists in the range of 54 to 232 meters. In this system, the major constituents
of aquifer are lacustrine and alluvium sediments; weathered and fractured ignimbrite and basalt,
welded tuff coarse gravel and boulders (Basaltic and rhylitic origin) and gravel (different
volcanic rock origin), pumice and massive basalts. These different aquifer formation shows
unlike permeability states of the catchment in the range of high, high to medium, moderate; and

56
low to moderate and low respectively. In deep aquifer system of the catchment the ground water
exists in confined aquifer system.

With regarding to the pumping test data of the six wells, the study area is categorized in to
different hydraulic conductivity zones. The areas in the southern parts of the catchment are
mainly covered by ignimbrites and basalts (pyroclastic rocks); which is highly affected by
tectonic activists. Hydraulic conductivity of the boreholes ranged from 1.04*10-7 to 3.13*10-1
m/day; it is high in southeaster parts of the catchment. The transmissivity of an aquifer is ranges
from 6.43*10-8 to 9.16*10-3 m2/sec. The wells tapping in a fractured basalt, basalt and ignimbrites
lithological formation in the central and northern part of the catchment have the lowest value of
transsmissivity (6.43*10-8 to 3.69*10-4); whereas the wells tapping with ash, massive basalt and
coarse grained gravel boulders which are found in southern and south western parts of the
catchment have maximum value of transsmissivity (3.69*10-4 to 9.16*10-3 m2/sec.). The
transmissivity of an aquifer is increases from plateau to the low-lying areas of the catchment.

Groundwater flow directions in the catchment are generally flows from east to west based on the
contour map and the ground water flow lines generated. It is furthermore affected by local flow
systems observed in the locality of elevated hills, central parts and margins of the catchment. The
plot of stream networks of the catchment and contours of hydraulic head reveal that, the
catchment generally gain water in the western part and loses in the eastern part of the catchment.

The groundwater recharge and discharges of the area is mapped using different indicators, in
broad-spectrum it can be understood that there is deep and shallow movement of groundwater
giving different aquifer systems. With regarding to the ground water flow direction and
discharging and recharging zones of the study area, in low relief areas along the western parts of
the catchment is characterized with good groundwater yields. Direct recharge is important in the
eastern and upper part of the catchment, because the area is constituted of trace gravel deposit,
trachytic basalt and rhyolite and transitional mildy alkaline. The northern and eastern parts of the
catchment have high amounts of recharge in high plateau areas, groundwater generally moves
towards to western parts of the catchment, where Gidabo River withdraws from the catchment.
There is also the contribution of tectonic structures mainly fractures and faults from eastern to

57
the western parts of the catchment which could have significant role in the descendent
movements of water from the adjacent water bodies.

5.2 Recommendations.

Based on the results of the study the following recommendations are given.

 For future development of the well, provision of geophysical assessment should have to
be done on the potential areas of ground water.
 For effective utilization of water resource, conjugative use of surface water and ground
water resource could be good.

 So far there are many boreholes; shallow wells and hand dug wells in the study area, but
most of them lack proper well history such as pumping test and lithological drilling logs.
Hence, further appropriate database organization of the wells should have to be done.
 There is lack of borehole data in the highlands of eastern cliffs in contrasting with the
lowlands of the catchment; therefore some extra well drilling test is needed in order to
give information on aquifer properties which significantly contributes for ground water
potential evaluation in the catchment.

 Dumpsites should not be sited in the Southeastern, southern and northeastern parts of the
catchment in order to minimize groundwater contamination by dumpsites mainly in the
western parts of the study area.
 Hand dug well for potable water should not be cited at the Southeastern and eastern
escarpment of the catchment, because the area is characterized with steep and very steep
slope. It could be good developing in western, northwestern and central parts of the study
area.

58
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7. APPENDIXES

Appendix 1: Pumping test data and locations of boreholes analyzed to construct contours

Y Depth G.W.L
No. Zone Wereda Site name X (UTM) Z S.W.L(m)
(UTM) (m) (m)
1 Gedeo Bule Bule town 434316 695956 2801 70 23.6 2777.5
2 Gedeo Dilla Dilla Town #1 424597 709592 1549 74 5 1544
Dilla Donbsco
3 Gedeo Dilla 422600 709500 1520 125 64 1456
Salesian #1
Dilla Donbsco
4 Gedeo Dilla 422600 709500 1518 125 64.65 1453.4
Salesian #2
5 Gedeo Dilla Zuria Chichu Well #2 425822 711671 1741 115 14 1727
6 Gedeo Dilla Zuria Chichu Well #1 425821 711672 1741 103 5 1736
7 Gedeo Wenago Dako 411694 693793 1957 75 55 1902
Tumticha chirecha
8 Gedeo Wenago 420365 699739 1616 72 31 1585
#1
9 Gedeo Yergachefe Adame 410589 669811 2005 56.7 15.32 1784
10 Gedeo Wenago Wenago town 418196 698026 1739 100 47 1692
11 Sidama AletaChuko Korke 426114 732875 1786 123 22.3 1505
12 Sidama AletaChuko Rufo Chancho 423164 725273 1858 84 41.65 1816
13 Sidama AletaChuko Senterya 432145 723778 1962 151 11.7 1950.3

66
14 Sidama AletaChuko Futahe 429832 721112 1940 111 40 1900
Gambela Kilto-
15 Sidama AletaChuko 422104 719204 1600 91 80 1520
Lamala
16 Sidama AletaChuko Gembela Gurara 423232 720691 1673 80 20 1653
17 Sidama AletaChuko Tesso Village 424000 72000 1685 70 30.6 1654
18 Sidama AletaChuko Rufo Debeka 420400 723500 1640 85.5 55.4 1585
19 Sidama AletaChuko Rufo Waeno 424176 726407 1870 93 46.1 1824
20 Sidama AletaChuko Rufo Chancho 423164 725273 1858 84 41.65 1816
21 Sidama AletaChuko Chuko #2 425635 729575 1840 108 30 1810
Chuko Gambella-
22 Sidama AletaChuko 425209 723579 1799 162 41.03 1758
New
23 Sidama AletaChuko Loka Haytale 422391 731463 1718 84 49.7 1668.3
24 Sidama AletaChuko Miridicha 420422 727153 1662 183 148.8 1513.2
25 Sidama AletaChuko Gunde 420635 732564 1679 93 35 1644
26 Sidama AletaWendo Shiko 438425 735391 1900 122 66.97 1833
27 Sidama AletaWendo A/ Wendo #1 434769 729514 1890 90 48 1842
A/ Wendo-High
28 Sidama Aletawendo 436215 730654 1904 154 72 1841
school
A/ Wendo-Gidibo
29 Sidama Aletawendo 436047 73200 1886 145.5 57.3 1828.7
BH
A/ Wendo Chenese
30 Sidama Aletawendo 433220 727800 1880 79.89 15.81 1864
#5

67
31 Sidama Dara Teferi Kella 433707 718366 1858 91 10 1848
32 Sidama Dale Shafina 439985 740659 1840 175 30.52 1809
33 Sidama Dara Mechisho town BH 422257 711782 1488 172.5 30 1458
34 Sidama Dara Kebado new#1 427622 716074 1778 72 35.2 1742.8
35 Sidama Dara Kumato new #2 423987 715920 1612 92 21 1591
36 Sidama Dara Odolla new #3 424470 710141 1565 72 22 1543

68
Appendix 2: Pumping test data analyzed for some boreholes around the study area.

Zone Site Coordinates _UTM Depth S.W.L Yield Aquifer Aquifer

name (m) thickness type
X Y Z (L/sec)
(m)

Sidama Aleta 435581 731867 1905 162 85.16 5 6 Confined

Windo
#2

Sidama Teferi 433707 718161 1854 80 11.5 5 30 Confined

kella

Sidama rufo 420400 723500 1640 85.5 55.3 5 9.4 Confined

debeka

Sidama Kore 426114 732875 1786 123 22.3 4.4 27 Confined

Gedeo Wenag 420425 698290 1644 135 35.96 11.66 36 Confined

Well# 2

Gedeo Soke- 410589 669811 2005 56.7 35.96 6.5 12 Confined

Adame

Appendix 3: Borehole lithological data from well completion report

Wenago#1 Aleta Wendo #2 Teferi Kella Dengora Morocho

Depth(m Lithology Depth(m) Lithology Dep Lithology Depth( Lithology

) th( m)
m)

0-3 Red Clay 0-3 Red clay 0-8 Red Clay 0-2 Brown clay

3-6 Basalt 3-6 Tuff 8- Weathered 2-6 weathered

69
 12 Tuff ash

6-27 Fractured 6-9 Trachytic 12- Highly 6-12 Tuff

ignimbrite basalt 24 Weathered
Tuff

27-39 Weathered 9-13 black soil 24- Clay 12-18 Ignimbrite

tuff 42

39-42 Ignimbrite 13-15 Boulders 42- Slightly 18-42 Pyroclastic

75 Weathered deposit
Tuff

42-51 slightly 15-18 Scoria 75- Ignimbrite 42-54 Sand

fractured 80
ignimbrite

51-57 weathered 18-24 River 54-63 Red clay

trachyte deposit

57-60 black clay 24-27 Welded 63-66 Sandy clay

deposit

60-63 Weathered 27-36 Slightly 66-75 Pyroclastic

ignimbrite fractured deposit
basalt

63-66 Obsidan and 36-39 Scoria 75-84 Sand

rhyolite

66-69 Paleosoils 39-42 Chert 84-87 Sandy clay

69-72 Chert 42-45 Fresh basalt 87-93 Pyroclastic

deposit

72-75 Weathered 45-48 Clay 93-96 Sand

70
 trachyte stone/Chert/

75-78 Fractured 48-63 Fractured 96-105 Clay

basalt basalt

78-81 Paleosoils 63-66 Massive 105-108 Sandy clay

basalt

81-96 Highly 66-69 Fractured 108-114 Pyroclastic

fractured basalt deposit
basalt

96-102 Vescular 69-71 River 114-118 Silty Sand

basalt deposit

102-105 Fresh basalt 71-93 Highly 118-123 Ash

fractured
basalt

105-111 weathered 93-102 Fresh basalt

trachyte

111-114 Chert 102-108 Scoracious

basalt

114-123 River deposit 108-111 Massive

basalt

123-126 Gravel 111-126 Fresh basalt

126-129 Paleosoils 126-105 Massive

basalt

129-135 Massive 129-135 Massive

basalt basalt

71
…continued of appendix 3 for Borehole lithological data

Wenago #1 Wenago #2 Teferi Kella Kore Chuko

Depth Lithology Depth Lithology Depth Lithology Depth Lithology

(m) (m) (m) (m)

0-3 Red Clay 0-3 Red clay 0-8 Red Clay 0-2 Brown clay

3_6 Basalt 3-6 Tuff 8-12 Weathered 2-6 weathered

Tuff ash

6_27 Fractured 6-9 Trachybasa 12-24 Highly 6-12 Tuff

ignimbrite lt Weathered
Tuff

27-39 Weathered 9-13 black soil 24-42 Clay 12-18 Ignimbrite

tuff

39-42 Ignimbrite 13-15 Boulders 42-75 Slightly 18-42 Pyroclastic

Weathered deposit
Tuff

42-51 slightly 15-18 Scoria 75-80 Ignimbrite 42-54 Sand

fractured
ignimbrite

51-57 weathered 18-24 River 54-63 Red clay

trachyte deposit

57-60 black clay 24-27 Welded 63-66 Sandy clay

deposit

60-63 Weathered 27-36 Slightly 66-75 Pyroclastic

ignimbrite fractured deposit

72
 basalt

63-66 Obsidan and 36-39 Scoria 75-84 Sand

rhyolite

66-69 Paleosoils 39-42 Chert 84-87 Sandy clay

69-72 Chert 42-45 Fresh 87-93 Pyroclastic

basalt deposit

72-75 Weathered 45-48 Clay 93-96 Sand

trachyte stone/Chert
/

75-78 Fractured 48-63 Fractured 96- Clay

basalt basalt 105

78-81 Paleosoils 63-66 Massive 105- Sandy clay

basalt 108

81-96 Highly 66-69 Fractured 108- Pyroclastic

fractured basalt 114 deposit
basalt

96-102 Vescular 69-71 River 114- Silty Sand

basalt deposit 118

102-105 Fresh basalt 71-93 Highly 118- Ash

fractured 123
basalt

105-111 weathered 93-102 Fresh

trachyte basalt

111-114 Chert 102-108 Scoracious

basalt

73
114-123 River deposit 108-111 Massive
basalt

123-126 Gravel 111-126 Fresh

basalt

126-129 Paleosoils 126-105 Massive

basalt

129-135 Massive 129-135 Massive

basalt basalt

….continued of appendix 3 for Borehole lithological data

Rufo Debeka Bule #1 Bule #2 Soke

Depth Lithology Depth Lithology Depth Lithology Depth Lithology

(m) (m) (m) (m)

0-6 Clay 0-6 Red clay 0-6 Red clay 0-6 Lateritic
Clay soil

6_12 very coarse 6-18 Weathere 6-18 Weathered 6-24 Highly

graind d tuff tuff weathered
cristalline tuff
sand and
clay

12_16 Highly 18-24 Clay with 18-30 Tuff 24-30 Slightly

weathered tuff weathered
tuff tuff

16-22 Slightly 24-30 Clay 30-36 Weathered 30-36 Tuffaceous

Weathered tuff ash

74
 ignimbrite

22-28 Weathered 30-36 Weathere 36-42 Ignimbrite 36-48 Midium to

Ignimbrite d tuff coars gravel
(Dominantl
y basaltic
origin)

28-64 Highly 36-74 Basalt 42-48 Basalt 48-54 Highly

weathered weathered
tuff tuff (Red in
colour)

64-70 coarse graind 74-80 Scoria 48-54 Black clay 54- coarse
gravel(differ 56.7 gravel and
ent Volcanic boulders
rock origon) (Basaltic
and rhylitic
origon)

70-76 coarse graind 80-93 Basalt 54-70 Basalt

gravel(differ
ent Volcanic
rock origon)

76- coarse graind

85.4 gravel
boulders

75
….continued of annex 3 for Borehole lithological data

Sokicha # 1 Sokicha #2 Sokicha # 3

Depth Lithology Depth(m) Lithology Depth Lithology
(m) (m)
0-6 Red clay soil 0-18 Brownish clay 0-6 clay soil
soil

6-12 Sand 18-38 Clay with 6-18 Highly

fragement of weathered tuff
rock materials

12-18 Clayey Coarse 38-46 Undifferentiated 18-24 Highly

Sand rock fragement weathered tuff
and ash

18-24 Red clay soil with 46-63 Fractured Basalt 24-28 Sandy clay
rock fragements

24-30 Semi rounded and 28-30 Midium size

angular shaped gravel with
fragement of basalt clay

30-36 Angular shaped 30-37 Fragement of

gravel with some basalt
coarse sand
(different volcanic
origin)

36-42 coarse sand with 37-40 Sandy clay

some clay
materials

42-56 coarse sand 40-45 Fractured and

slightly
weathered
basalt
56-63 Clayey coarse sand

63-89 Clayey coarse sand

89- Fractured Basalt

105

76
Appendix 4: Classification of transmissivity

T (m2/day) Designation Groundwater supply potential Class

>1000 Very high Regional importance I
100-1000 High Lesser regional importance II
10-100 Intermediate Local water supply (small communities, III
plants etc.)
1-10 Low Smaller withdrawal for local water supply IV
(Private consumption)
0.1-1 Very low Limited consumption V
< 0.1 Imperceptible Very difficult to utilize for local water VI
supply

Sources: Krasny (1993)

Appendix 5: Ranges of hydraulic conductivity in different rocks/ soils

Lithology Hydraulic conductivity (m/day)

Clay 5*10-7 - 10-3

Loess 10-2 - 10-1
Silt 10-3 - 10-1
Sand 10-1 - 5*102
Gravel 5.00- 5*104
Sand and gravel 5.00 - 102
Limestone, dolomite 5.00*10-6 - 100
Karist limestone 10-1 - 103
Sandstone 5*10-5-1*101
Friable tuff 2.00*10-2 – 2
Welded tuff, ignimbrite 5*10-5 - 2*10-1
Dense basalt 10-6 - 10-3
Fractured basalt 10-4 – 1
Dense crystalline rock 5*10-8 - 10-5
Fractured crystalline rock 10-3 – 10
Volcanic rock Almost 0 - 103

77
Appendix 6: Pumping test duration, Water level and drawdown data

Aleta Wendo # 2 Bule # 1 Wenago # 2

T (min) WL (m) S (m) T (min) WL (m) S (m) T (min) WL (m) S (m)

0.50 85.16 0.00 0.00 23.60 0.00 0.50 40.96 5.00

1.00 85.54 0.38 0.50 25.42 1.82 1.00 40.56 4.60

2.00 85.57 0.41 1.00 27.20 3.60 2.00 44.70 8.74

3.00 85.60 0.44 2.00 29.70 6.10 3.00 44.90 8.94

4.00 86.60 1.44 3.00 30.30 6.70 4.00 45.50 9.54

5.00 86.60 1.44 4.00 33.00 9.40 5.00 45.00 9.04

6.00 85.63 0.47 5.00 34.00 10.40 6.00 44.80 8.84

7.00 85.63 0.47 6.00 35.05 11.45 7.00 44.90 8.94

8.00 85.63 0.47 7.00 35.85 12.25 8.00 44.95 8.99

9.00 85.64 0.48 8.00 36.40 12.80 9.00 44.95 8.99

10.00 85.64 0.48 9.00 37.10 13.50 10.00 45.00 9.04

12.00 85.66 0.50 10.00 37.60 14.00 12.00 45.03 9.07

14.00 85.66 0.50 12.00 38.40 14.80 14.00 45.03 9.07

16.00 85.56 0.40 14.00 39.00 15.40 16.00 45.10 9.14

18.00 85.70 0.54 16.00 39.55 15.95 18.00 45.14 9.18

20.00 85.70 0.54 18.00 40.00 16.40 20.00 45.25 9.29

25.00 85.74 0.58 20.00 40.55 16.95 25.00 44.64 8.68

30.00 85.77 0.61 25.00 41.40 17.80 30.00 44.72 8.76

35.00 85.80 0.64 30.00 42.45 18.85 35.00 44.60 8.64

40.00 85.83 0.67 35.00 43.15 19.55 40.00 44.40 8.44

45.00 85.85 0.69 40.00 43.80 20.20 45.00 44.50 8.54

50.00 85.87 0.71 45.00 44.30 20.70 50.00 44.02 8.06

78
 55.00 85.90 0.74 50.00 44.70 21.10 55.00 44.30 8.34

60.00 85.92 0.76 55.00 44.96 21.36 60.00 44.30 8.34

70.00 85.97 0.81 60.00 45.50 21.90 70.00 44.84 8.88

80.00 85.01 -0.15 70.00 46.16 22.56 80.00 44.84 8.88

90.00 86.05 0.89 80.00 46.84 23.24 90.00 45.08 9.12

100.00 86.08 0.92 90.00 47.45 23.85 100.00 45.10 9.14

120.00 86.14 0.98 100.00 48.00 24.40 120.00 45.03 9.07

140.00 86.20 1.04 120.00 48.96 25.36 140.00 45.20 9.24

160.00 86.27 1.11 140.00 49.80 26.20 160.00 45.17 9.21

180.00 86.32 1.16 160.00 50.60 27.00 180.00 45.27 9.31

210.00 86.37 1.21 180.00 51.11 27.51 210.00 45.58 9.62

240.00 86.39 1.23 210.00 52.00 28.40 240.00 45.60 9.64

270.00 86.47 1.31 240.00 52.73 29.13 270.00 45.66 9.70

300.00 86.53 1.37 270.00 53.10 29.50 300.00 45.84 9.88

360.00 86.65 1.49 300.00 53.40 29.80 360.00 45.78 9.82

420.00 86.75 1.59 360.00 53.60 30.00 420.00 46.06 10.10

480.00 86.89 1.73 420.00 58.70 35.10 480.00 46.20 10.24

540.00 87.02 1.86 480.00 53.85 30.25 540.00 46.32 10.36

600.00 87.16 2.00 540.00 53.90 30.30 600.00 46.32 10.36

660.00 87.28 2.12 600.00 54.20 30.60 660.00 46.43 10.47

720.00 87.41 2.25 660.00 54.40 30.80 720.00 46.55 10.59

780.00 87.52 2.36 720.00 54.60 31.00 780.00 46.54 10.58

840.00 87.64 2.48 780.00 54.70 31.10 840.00 46.72 10.76

900.00 87.74 2.58 840.00 55.00 31.40 900.00 46.77 10.81

960.00 87.85 2.69 900.00 55.70 32.10 960.00 46.90 10.94

79
1020.00 87.93 2.77 960.00 56.30 32.70 1020.00 47.00 11.04

1080.00 87.02 1.86 1020.00 57.00 33.40 1080.00 47.20 11.24

1140.00 88.17 3.01 1080.00 57.70 34.10 1140.00 46.40 10.44

1200.00 88.28 3.12 1140.00 58.00 34.40 1200.00 46.00 10.04

1260.00 88.36 3.20 1200.00 59.95 36.35 1260.00 45.94 9.98

1320.00 88.45 3.29 1260.00 60.00 36.40 1320.00 46.33 10.37

1380.00 88.57 3.41 1320.00 60.10 36.50 1380.00 46.33 10.37

1440.00 88.68 3.52 1380.00 35.55 11.95 1440.00 46.33 10.37

1440.00 36.55 12.95

Appendix 7: Pumping test duration, Water level and drawdown data continue

Rufo Debeka # 2 Teferi Kela # 1 Korie # 3

T (min) WL (m) S (m) T (min) WL (m) S (m) T (min) WL (m) S (m)

0.00 55.20 -0.20 0.50 13.58 2.08 1.00 27.70 5.40

1.00 56.60 1.20 1.00 14.18 2.68 2.00 30.10 7.80

2.00 56.70 1.30 2.00 15.32 3.82 3.00 32.10 9.80

3.00 56.71 1.31 3.00 16.12 4.62 4.00 32.93 10.63

4.00 56.71 1.31 4.00 16.71 5.21 5.00 33.92 11.62

5.00 56.72 1.32 5.00 17.17 5.67 6.00 34.60 12.30

6.00 56.73 1.33 6.00 17.60 6.10 7.00 35.10 12.80

7.00 56.74 1.34 7.00 17.96 6.46 8.00 35.67 13.37

8.00 56.75 1.35 8.00 18.09 6.59 9.00 36.20 13.90

9.00 56.75 1.35 9.00 18.64 7.14 10.00 36.48 14.18

10.00 56.76 1.36 10.00 18.88 7.38 12.00 37.10 14.80

12.00 56.78 1.38 12.00 19.32 7.82 14.00 37.58 15.28

80
14.00 56.70 1.30 14.00 19.84 8.34 16.00 38.02 15.72

16.00 56.78 1.38 16.00 20.20 8.70 18.00 38.40 16.10

18.00 56.78 1.38 18.00 20.33 8.38 20.00 38.75 16.45

20.00 56.79 1.39 20.00 20.33 8.38 25.00 39.40 17.10

25.00 56.79 1.39 25.00 21.52 10.02 30.00 39.00 17.09

30.00 56.79 1.39 30.00 22.10 10.60 35.00 39.00 16.07

35.00 56.79 1.39 35.00 22.50 11.00 40.00 40.37 18.50

40.00 56.79 1.39 40.00 22.96 11.46 45.00 41.20 18.90

45.00 56.80 1.40 45.00 23.18 11.68 50.00 41.55 19.25

50.00 56.81 1.41 50.00 23.50 12.00 55.00 41.83 19.53

55.00 56.81 1.41 55.00 23.77 12.27 60.00 42.20 19.90

60.00 56.82 1.42 60.00 24.00 12.50 70.00 42.65 20.35

70.00 56.82 1.42 70.00 24.44 12.94 80.00 43.00 20.70

80.00 56.84 1.44 80.00 24.80 13.30 90.00 43.25 20.95

90.00 56.86 1.46 90.00 25.10 13.60 100.00 43.60 21.30

100.00 56.86 1.46 100.00 25.39 13.89 120.00 44.40 22.10

120.00 56.86 1.46 120.00 25.52 14.02 140.00 44.85 22.55

140.00 56.87 1.47 140.00 26.36 14.86 160.00 45.43 23.13

160.00 56.89 1.49 160.00 26.51 15.01 180.00 45.83 23.53

180.00 56.89 1.49 180.00 26.83 15.33 210.00 46.30 24.00

210.00 56.89 1.49 210.00 27.10 15.60 240.00 46.90 24.60

240.00 56.89 1.49 240.00 27.27 15.77 270.00 47.01 24.71

270.00 102.33 46.93 270.00 27.45 15.95 300.00 47.03 24.73

300.00 56.90 1.50 300.00 27.75 16.25 360.00 47.03 24.73

360.00 56.90 1.50 360.00 28.00 16.50 420.00 47.03 24.73

81
420.00 56.92 1.52 420.00 28.30 16.80 480.00 47.03 24.73

480.00 56.94 1.54 480.00 28.57 17.07 540.00 47.03 24.73

540.00 56.94 1.54 540.00 28.71 17.21 600.00 47.03 24.73

600.00 56.96 1.56 600.00 28.91 17.41 660.00 47.03 24.73

660.00 56.96 1.56 660.00 29.10 17.60 720.00 47.03 24.73

720.00 56.96 1.56 720.00 29.20 17.70 780.00 47.03 24.73

780.00 56.99 1.59 780.00 29.49 17.99 840.00 47.03 24.73

840.00 56.99 1.59 840.00 29.69 18.19 900.00 47.03 24.73

900.00 56.99 1.59 900.00 29.78 18.28 960.00 47.03 24.73

960.00 57.00 1.60 960.00 29.90 18.40 1020.00 47.03 24.73

1020.00 57.00 1.60 1020.00 30.01 18.51 1080.00 47.03 24.73

1080.00 57.01 1.61 1080.00 30.13 18.63 1140.00 47.03 24.73

1200.00 57.01 1.61 1140.00 30.29 18.79 1200.00 47.03 24.73

1260.00 57.02 1.62 1200.00 30.30 18.80 1260.00 47.03 24.73

1320.00 57.02 1.62 1260.00 30.38 18.88 1320.00 47.03 24.73

1380.00 57.04 1.64 1320.00 30.47 18.97 1380.00 47.03 24.73

1440.00 57.04 1.64 1380.00 30.55 19.05 1440.00 47.03 24.73

1440.00 30.61 19.11

82