Lecture No.

19

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Introduction Actual Cycle

➢ Air- Standard Cycle Analysis gives an estimate of engine

performance which is much greater than the actual
performance

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Comparison of Air-standard,
Fuel-Air and Actual Cycles
➢ The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ
from air-standard cycles in many respects.
1. The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapor
or finely atomized liquid fuel in air combined with the
products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
2. The change in chemical composition of the working
substance.
3. The variation of specific heats with temperature.
4. The change in the pressure, temperature and actual amount
of fresh charge because of the residual gases.
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Comparison of Air-standard,
Fuel-Air, and Actual Cycles
5. The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous
combustion.
6. The heat transfer to and from the working medium
7. The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on
the expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust
valve.
8. Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.
➢ Points (1) to (8) are NOT considered in Air-Standard Cycles,
➢ Points (1) to (4), are considered in fuel-air cycles and Actual cycles.
➢ Points (5) to (8) are the difference between fuel-air cycles and actual
cycles. BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
The Major Loss of Actual
Cycle (Loss in Efficiency)
➢ Time loss factor:
➢ Loss due to time required for mixing of fuel & air; and
also for combustion.
➢ Heat loss factor :
➢ Loss of heat from gases to cylinder walls.
➢ Exhaust blowdown factor :
➢ Loss of work on the expansion stroke due to early
opening of the exhaust valve.

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Time Loss Factor

➢ In air standard and fuel air cycles the heat addition is an

instantaneous process where as in an actual cycle it is over
a definite period of time.

➢ The crank shaft will usually turn about 30 to 400 between

the initiation of the spark and the end of combustion. There
will be a work or efficiency loss during this period of time is
called as time loss factor. (time loss due to progressive
combustion).
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 Time Loss Factor
➢ Due to the finite time of
combustion, peak pressure will
therefore occur some time after
TDC i.e from b to c.

➢ This loss of work (Vc >V3 so

Pc < P3,) hence reduces the
efficiency and is called time loss
due to progressive combustion.

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Lecture No. 20

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Time Loss Factor

➢ The time taken for combustion depends upon

➢ The flame velocity which in turn depend upon the type
of fuel and the fuel-air ratio
➢ The shape and size of the combustion chamber.
➢ the time at which the combustion starts is varied by
varying the spark timing or spark advance which in turn
effects on mean effective pressure and efficiency.

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Time Loss Factor

➢ Figure shows the effect of

spark timing on p-v
diagram from a typical trial.
➢ With spark at TDC (0o
spark advance), the peak
pressure is low due to the
expansion of gases.

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Time Loss Factor

➢ If the spark is advanced

by 35o; additional work
is required to compress
the burning gasses.

35o Spark advance

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Time Loss Factor

➢ With or without spark

advance the work area
could be less and the power
out put and efficiency are
lowered than fuel-air cycle.
➢ There fore a moderate or
optimum spark advance
(17o) is the best compromise
resulting in minimum losses
on both the compression
and expansion strokes.
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Time Loss Factor

➢ Table shows the engine performance for various ignition

timings (rc = 6).

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Time Loss Factor

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Lecture No. 21

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

 Time Loss Factor
However some times a
deliberate spark
retardation from optimum
may be necessary in
actual practice to avoid
knocking and to
simultaneously reduce
exhaust emissions of
hydrocarbons and carbon
monoixde. BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Time Loss Factor

Other factors i.e other than ignition advance or spark

advance, factors affecting the Time Loss Factor are

1) Fuel air ratio (discussed in chapter 3, also see next slide)

2) Type of fuel used (detailed study will be done in chapter

5 and 6)

3) Combustion chamber shape and size (detailed study will

be done in chapter 11)

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Time Loss Factor
➢ Composition exhaust gases for various fuel-air ratio at
optimum spark advance (17o)

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 Heat Loss Factor
➢ During combustion the heat flows
from the cylinder gases to
➢ Cooling water
➢ Lubricating oil

➢ Heat loss during combustion will

have the maximum effect on the
cycle efficiency while heat lost just
before the end of the expansion
stroke have the minimum effect
because its contribution to useful
work is very little. BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Exhaust Gas Blowdown Factor

➢ When to open the exhaust valve?

➢ The cylinder pressure at the end of expansion stroke is high as 7 bar
depending on the compression ratio employed.
➢ If the exhaust valve is opened at BDC, the piston has to do work
against high cylinder pressure during the early part of the exhaust
stroke
➢ If the exhaust valve is opened too early, a part of the expansion
stroke is lost
➢ The best compromise is to open the exhaust valve 400 to 700 before
BDC there by reducing the cylinder pressure to halfway (say 3.5 bar)
before the exhaust stroke.
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Exhaust Gas Blowdown

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Working Principle of SI Engine
4 Stroke

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Lecture No. 22

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Exhaust Gas Blowdown

Loss due to Gas Exchange process

➢ The work done for expelling the exhaust gases and
the work done against the fresh charge during the
suction stroke is called pumping work.
➢ Pumping loss increases with speed.
➢ Pumping loss affect the Volumetric efficiency. The
performance of the engine, to a great deal, depends
on the volumetric efficiency. Hence it is worthwhile to
discuss this parameter in greater detail.
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Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency affected by

➢ The density of fresh charge (refer next 2 slides)
➢ The exhaust gas in the clearance volume
➢ The design of intake and exhaust manifold
➢ The timing of intake and exhaust valves (pumping
loss)

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Volumetric Efficiency

The density of fresh charge decreases because mass of

charge and volume of charge also decreases as
➢ As the fresh charge arrives in the hot cylinder, heat is
transferred to it from
➢ The hot chamber walls
➢ The hot residual gases
➢ See next slide for detailed explanation

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Volumetric Efficiency
➢ Initially when suction valve opens, fresh charge enters the cylinder, some charge (air + fuel) in SI
engine converts to the gas because of heat or temperature inside the cylinder due to residual gases of
previous cycle and heated cylinder walls. Whatever heat generated after the combustion of some
amount of fresh charge will be lost via gas flowing through the partially opened exhaust valve and
through the engine cylinder walls. Hence this heat is not converted to mechanical work. Also some
mass of fresh charge or volume of air in the fresh charge will be also lost through exhaust valve. Net
mass of fresh charge left will be then expanded, then compressed, and then combusted with the help
of spark. Net mass of fresh charge (SI Engines) or volume of air left (CI Engine) is less than total mass
of fresh charge or volume of air inducted inside the cylinder. Hence volumetric efficiency of SI Engine
decreases when it is defined as = (net mass of fresh charge / total maximum fresh charge which can
be inducted in the cylinder). However in case, data required in above formula if not available then in SI
engine volumetric efficiency may be predicted as = (net volume of air inducted / maximum volume of
air that can be inducted). However volume based formula ONLY used to predict volumetric efficiency
in case of CI Engines.
➢ The volumetric efficiency increased by increasing MASS of fresh charge which can be achieved by
➢ Low temperature
➢ Induction of fresh charge at high pressure BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Volumetric Efficiency
Exhaust gas in the clearance volume
➢ The residual gas occupy a portion of piston displacement
volume, thus reducing the space available to the
incoming charge.
➢ In addition, these exhaust products tend to rise the
temperature of the fresh charge., thereby decreasing its
density and further reducing volumetric efficiency.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Volumetric Efficiency
The design of intake and exhaust manifold
➢ The exhaust manifold should be designed to enables the
maximum exhaust products to escape quickly.

➢ The intake manifold should be designed so as to bring in

maximum possible fresh charge flowing into the cylinder.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Volumetric Efficiency
The timing of intake and exhaust valves
➢ Valve timing is the regulation of the points in the cycle at
which the valves are set to open and close.
➢ Valves requires a finite period of time to open or close for
smooth operation.
➢ The cam setting determines the time at which valves get
open or close.

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Lecture No. 23

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Volumetric Efficiency
(These valve settings angle i.e cam design will vary from Engine to Engine to get

most satisfactory results)

The timing of intake and exhaust valves

Low speed High speed

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Volumetric Efficiency

HOW TO READ VALVE DIAGRAM ?

What is Physics behind it ? (Refer Next slide)

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Volumetric Efficiency
Refer Valve Timing Diagram while answering

Why to open Inlet Valve before TDC and why to close it after BDC ? (To
have more fresh charge inside cylinder, volumetric efficiency increases)
Why to open Exhaust Valve before BDC? (Explained already in the article
Exhaust Blow Down)
What happens if inlet valve closes after BDC? (NO Loss of Fresh Charge
will take place since Exhaust valve is in the closed position. Hence NO
drop in volumetric efficiency. Piston is moving against mass of fresh
charge inducted. This is compression process. This is NOT pumping
loss. Pumping Loss is ONLY considered during Exhaust Stroke.)
Why to close exhaust valve after TDC?(COMPRESSED Residual gases of
present cycle gets moment once piston moves from TDC to BDC for the
suction stroke of the next cycle, for example during 20 degree after TDC
in high speed engine more gases will be thrown outside due to moment
gained as per design of combustion of chamber. However some fresh
charge coming via inlet valve will go out via exhaust valve hence drop in
vol. efficiency. Here both the valves are open at a time is known as
OVERLAP. )
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What is overlap ? (See answer in last para of previous
slide)
Is it the pumping loss increases with speed ? (Yes, at high
speed, more pumping work by piston because high
amount gases at more pressure have to expel out in
exhaust stroke than in case of low speed engine.)

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

Volumetric Efficiency

Is it pumping affect the volumetric efficiency ? (Yes, because

if inlet valve opens 10 degrees before TDC during exhaust
stroke, piston has to work against downward inertial force
of fresh charge and pressure of residual gases. Hence
some amount of power will be utilized to overcome force
and pressure resulted due to fresh charge and gas,
respectively. During this time pressure of gases will be at
atm pressure so piston mainly has to work against the
downward inertial forces of fresh charge which is coming
inside at pressure more than atm pressure and once Piston
overcome these forces, some of the fresh charge also
goes out of the cylinder through exhaust valve. Hence
volumetric efficiency decreases. Thus pumping affects
volumetric efficiency.
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus
Volumetric Efficiency

Why NOT to keep the 60 degree angle between BDC and

Inlet Valve Closes for LOW SPEED ENGINE ? (: Mass
flow rate of fresh Charge while coming inside cylinder is
low in low speed engine is the basic point. Hence it is
possible to overcome the inertial forces of low speed
incoming fresh charge by the piston moving from BDC to
TDC during compression stroke. Hence if Inlet valve will
close after long angle (long time) say 60 degree after
BDC then during the compression stroke, piston starts
pushing back fresh charge into the intake manifold,
subsequently reduces volumetric efficiency.)

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Loss due to Running Friction

➢ The losses are due to friction between

➢ The piston and the cylinder walls
➢ In various bearings
➢ Energy spent in operating the auxiliary equipment
(cooling pump, ignition system, fan…)
➢ The piston ring friction increases rapidly with engine
speed.

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For CI Engines

In the diesel cycle losses are less than Otto cycle. The
main loss in the diesel cycle is due to incomplete
combustion and heterogeneous mixture.

Ratio of Actual cycle efficiency to fuel air cycle efficiency is

around 70% for SI Engine and 80-85% for CI Engine.

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HW

Solve following multiple choice questions from book

Ganesan (4th ed.)

Q. 1 to 7
Q. 9 to 11
Q. 13 & 15

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