A University Grammar of English:

By: Quirk & Greenbaum

[Type the document subtitle]

Al-Qalam University College

English Department
2020/2021

BY:
Mr.Mohammed Hameed Rasheed
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An Introduction to English Grammar

Syntax

Third Year- Students

………………………………………

A door is much smaller

Compared to the house

A lock is much smaller

Compared to the door

A key is the smallest of all,

But a key can open entire house

Thus, small, thoughtful solutions

Can solve major problems

Set by:

Mr. Mohammed H. Rasheed

2020-2021
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Chapter 2
Syntax
1) Subject and predicate
Old grammarians used to analyze the sentence into subject (the doer of the action) and
predicate (what is said about the subject).

e.g: Ali may meet his boss in his office on Friday

subject predicate

Note: Range of operator:

An operator is an auxiliary used for negation, interrogation and emphasis.

Auxiliary includes as follows:

1. Verb to be: {is, are, am, was, were}

2. Modals: {shall, should, will, would, can could, may, might , must …etc}

3. Verb to have {have-has-had+ p.p)

4. Verb to do { do not , does not , did not + infinitive}

Note: All points mentioned above are called auxiliaries verbs in English.

A) In case of having more than one auxiliary; the first one will be used as an operator

Suha should have been chosen. Affirmative

Operator

Should Suha have been chosen? .Interrogative

Suha shouldn’t have been chosen .Negative.

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B) If the sentence doesn't have an auxiliary verb , (do, does and did) can be used as
an operator in both cases: negative and question, as in

e.g: He wrote a letter

Did he write a letter: question?

He did not write a letter. Negative.

e.g: She plays the piano

She does not play the piano

Does she play the piano?

 S, V, O, C, A:
A) SV The child laughed

B) SVCs Ali is a doctor

C) SVA They are in the class

D) SVO I write an essay

E) SVOCo We appointed him a teacher

G) SVOO he offered me a pen

H) SVOA I put the cup on the shelf

2) S, V, O, C, A

However, this way of analysis looks unfair because the predicate is too long as compared
with the subject. The modern way of analysis is to divide the sentence into its functional
elements such as S (subject), V, (verb), O (object) C (complement), and A (adverbial).
These five elements can be realized by different kinds of phrases. The subject can be
realized by a noun phrase, proper noun and clauses,the verb can be realized by the verb
phrase and main verb, the object can be realized by noun phrase and clauses, the subject
complement can be realized by the adjective, noun phrase, clauses and adverb of place
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the adverb can be realized by the adverbs of (place, manner, time & reason), and also all
prepositional phrases are considered as an adverb. These are the (while, when, after, as,
since, because are called conjunctions……. etc)

 SUBJECT FORMS:

I am at home.

Ali gets a pen.

To smoke heavily is dangerous.

What he said is correct.

Telling lies is not a good habit.

The car that I bought is great.

The shirt made of cotton is really cheap.

A man holding his umbrella is my brother.

How the book will sell depends on its author

Note: Those that are underlined bold are in the position of subject. Almost they are applied
to other elements in different positions as well.

 VERB:

The man is happy. V

The girl has too many toys. V

The car has been bought. V

Ali can go to school now. V

They have been told many stories. V

Note: All auxiliaries are verbs. There are two kinds of verbs: First , primary verb (is ,
are , am ,was, were ) and modals ( can , could , shall , should , may , might……etc),
Second, main verbs: such as (go , writ , play , leave , see , ….etc)
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Note: There are two types of verbs: transitive verbs and intransitive verbs
 OBJECTS ARE DIRECT AND INDIRECT

I eat an apple. O

I gave her a book.

I can't imagine what made him do it.

I told him that he was wrong.

I want to see whoever deals with complaints.

He likes to watch movies

She likes sailing boats.

 SUBJECT COMPLEMENT:
She is a teacher. NP

He is happy. Adjective

That she is still alive is a surprise . Clause

The problem is who will do the job . Clause

 ADVERBS:
She puts her ring in drawer. AdV

The party will be tomorrow. Adv

The party was at 8.30. Adv

The party began when Ahmed arrived. Adv

She eats quickly. Adv

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3) Types of elements:

Each one of the five elements can have different categories. The subject can be pronoun,
a proper noun or a noun phrase. The verb can be a stative and dynamic, intensive and
extensive or transitive or intransitive. The object can either be direct object or indirect
object. The complement can either be subject complement (Cs) or object complement
(Co). Finally, the adverb can either be an adverb of place, an adverb of time and an adverb
of process (manner).

4) Types of structures:
There are different types of verbs according to the different types of object and complement.
Categories of verbs can be divided into three items:

1) intensive and extensive:

Intensive: an intensive verb is a verb that describes what the subject or object is. This term is
used in some grammatical analysis referring to structure where there is a close semantic
relationship between the elements of structure as between the subject and complement, as
in
as in He is here SVA
as in He is a dentist SVC
Extensive: an extensive verb is a verb that describes what the subject is. It describes an

action .This term is used in some grammatical analysis referring to structure where this is no

close semantic relationship between elements of structure, such as

SV she came
SVO she washed the house
SVOO I gave my friend a book
SVOCo He made me happy
SVOA She met her sister yesterday.
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Stative and dynamic:
 Stative verbs cannot be used in the progressive aspect. They include verbs of sensation
such as ( see, small, taste, look, sound) , verbs of perception and cognition ( like, love, hate,
imagine, think, understand), relational verbs ( belong to, consist of, contain, deserve) ,
possession verbs ( own, have, possess).

e.g: She knows the answer

He likes to watch an English film

 Dynamic verbs can occur or be used in the progressive aspect. They are divided into
four groups:
 1- Activity verbs: drink, read, play,
 2- Process verbs: change, grow,
 3- Sensational verbs: (with different meaning) ache, feel, hurt
 4- Transitional event verbs: arrive, fall, die, leave
 5- Momentary verbs: hit, jump, kick.

 Intransitive and transitive:

Intransitive verbs those verbs which do not need objects to complete the meaning
e.g: The boy came, The man smiled
Transitive verbs require objects so that their meanings would be complete.
 They have three subcategories:
A) Mono transitive verbs need only one object . SVO
e.g: Kawa saw his friend
B) Ditransitiuve verbs require two objects .these verbs usually take two objects (send, take,
write, give, make offer…etc) . SVOO
e.g: I sent him a gift.
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C) Complex transitive verbs require one object followed by an object complement. They

include these verbs (call, name, make, select, elect, regard, appoint, choose, find, drive,

paint, think, and keep). Or they are followed by an object and adverb. SVOCO/SVOA.

e.g: We made him the chairman

We treat him kindly.

 Sentence structures depending on verb category:

1) S+ V (intensive, stative, intransitive) + Cs
She is a nurse
2) S+ V (intensive, stative, intransitive) + A
She is in the class
3) S+V ( St, ext, intran) + O
I know the answer
4) S+ V (dynamic, extensive, monotran) + O
She wrote the report
5) S+V ( dyn, ext, ditran) + O+O
I bought him a shirt
6) S+V ( Dyn, ext, complex) + O+C
She made him sad
7) S+V ( dyn, ext, intra) +
They came.

.
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5) Parts of speech:
Parts of speech means classes of words. There are TEN parts of speech in English which is

divided into two main items:

A) Open class items are those that have endless numbers. They include nouns, verbs,

adjectives and adverbs

B) Closed class items are those that have a limited number of elements. They include

preposition (at, of, on in), pronoun (he ,we ,me, her), articles (a, an ,the), demonstrative

(that this, these , those) , conjunctions (when, because, as, while ) and interjection

( wow,oh, ouch,)

6) Proforms:
Pro-form is a term which refers to the replacement of certain items in a sentence that substitute

for other items. They are of a few items as follows:

A) Pronouns are used to replace nouns

e.g: Suha looked for Ali but she could not find him.

B) Pro-verbs are auxiliaries used to replace verbs. The auxiliary Do is one form of pro-forms.

It can act as a substitution for the main verb or a whole verb phrase.

e.g: I thought Nada would come but she did not.

She speaks English much better than he does. (= than she speaks English)

The Chinese learned to make glass long before the Western nations did.

We study English hard and they do too.

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 Do so is another form of pro-verb also is called pro-prediction. It is used to substitute
along with the 'pro-verb' do - for a main verb and whatever follows it in the clause:

e.g: She hoped that they would clean the house carefully before her arrival , but
unfortunately they didn't do so. ‫فعم ذنك‬

C) Pro-adverbs are used to replace adverbs of different types:

1) Place: Ali is in London and Tom is there too.

2) Time: Ali arrived at 7:20 and Rebeen arrived then.

3) Process: Ali came early and Mohammed came so.

 Negation:
Negation is denying what is really expressed by some items. It changes an affirmative
sentence into negation. To change a sentence from an affirmative sentence into negative
sentence should be on the following :

1) If there is an auxiliary verb in the sentence, the particle ( NOT) is placed after it.

These are auxiliaries { is , are, am, was, were, shall, should, can , could, may, might,

must, will, would, {has/have/ had + past participle }.

e.g) We are happy We are not happy
They may have a party today They may not have…….

He is a teacher He is not a teacher

She was a doctor She was not a doctor
We can build a house We cannot build a hose
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2) If the sentence has no auxiliary, the form- ( do, did, does) should be used
according to tense and the subject :
e.g) We watched TV……………. we didn’t watch
He leaves his country……… He doesn’t leave his ……
They speak well…………….. They do not speak

Note: There are some changes occurred in the sentence while converting to a negation:
Assertive non-assertive
Some any
Too either
A lot of /plenty of many/ much
Sometimes rarely, never
already/ just yet
too many very many
still now / any longer
someone anyone
somewhere anywhere
something nothing
somehow in any way
some extend at all.
a long way far
a great deal much.
e.g) She buys a lot of pens
She doesn’t have many pens

e.g) You get some books

You don’t get any books.

She sees someone there

She doesn’t see anyone there.

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 How to make questions in English:

1. By using (wh-word) such as (when, where, why, how, what, how many/
much, how often) ….etc. To form an interrogative sentence, put the following
helping verbs/ auxiliaries before the subject.
e.g) He is writing an essay
What is he writing?

2. If there is an auxiliary verb such as {{is , are , am ,was, were & can , could ,
will , would , shall , should , may , might ……etc} precede the auxiliary verb in
the position of subject then place the question mark at the end of sentence
e.g: He is a boy ……..Is he a boy ?
They will play the piano at the concert…….Will they……………..?
She can cook well…………….Can she cook well?

2. If there is no operator (auxiliaries) , (Do) can be used according to tense and the
subject of the sentence
e.g: Ali reads a story…………….Does Ali read a story?
Tom studied hard ……….…..Did he study hard?
They play tennis …………….Do they play tennis?
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7) Types of sentences:

There are two main types of sentences: assertive and non-assertive.

1) Assertive sentence can be assertive by being positive and declarative, such as
e.g: She watches TV
2) Non_assertive can either be negative or interrogative and interrogative sentence
maybe positive or negative
e.g) She will not come today
Will she come today?
Wont she come today?

Sentence

Assertive non_assertive

Negative interrogative

positive negative

" ‫" اعتني جيدا بسمعتك‬

‫قال شكسبير‬ ‫النها ستعيش اكثر منك‬
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Chapter 3

The verb and the verb phrase

Types of verbs:

Verbs can be classified into two main groups according to its function in the verb phrase.
Therefore, we have to know the distinction between lexical verbs and auxiliary verbs.
 Lexical verbs have five forms:
Base -s. form past -ing. Participle -ed.participle
Play plays played playing played
Write writes wrote writing written

 There are TWO main types of lexical verbs, Regular verbs and Irregular verbs:
 Regular verbs are those that have the same –ed inflection for both past form and the –ed
participle.
 Irregular verbs are those that differ in two forms.
 Phonological rules:
A) The (-s) or (-es) can be pronounced (iz), (z), ( a) as follows:
1- It is pronounced /iz/ after /s, d3,sh,ch,x : dish….dishes , watch..…watches /iz/
2- It is pronounced /z/ after vowels or /b, d, g, l, m, n, v …etc : design…..designs
3- It is pronounced /s/ after / p, t, k, f, gh, th : help…helps , book…books

B) The (ed) can be pronounced /t/ , /d/ or / id/ :

1. it is pronounced /t/ after (p,k,s,f,gh,sh,ch,th), helped- /helpt/
2. it is pronounced /id/ after (t,d), decide…..decided , wanted /id/
3. it is pronounced /d/ with the rest of phonemes, as in designed.
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 Morphological Rules:

A) The final consonant:

1. The final consonant is doubled if the word ends with one consonant preceded by one
vowel and if the word consists of on syllable
Fit…fitting ,
2. If the word consists of more than one syllable, the final consonant is doubled if it is one
consonant preceded by one vowel and if the final syllable is stressed:
Permit….permitting ,

 Exception:
a) Bases ending in certain consonants are doubled also after single unstressed vowels:
{g…gg , c…ck}:
Humbug humbugging humbugged
Traffic Trafficking Trafficked
b) BrE , as distinct from AmE, breaks the rule with respect to certain other consonants also:
{l……ll , m…….mm , p…….pp}
Signal Signaling Signaled (BrE)
Signal Signalling Signalled (AmE)
Program Programming Programmed (BrE)
Program Programing Programed (AmE)
Stop Stopping Stopped (BrE)
Stop Stoping Stoped (AmE)
B) The final (e) :
1- The final (e) is removed if the suffix begins with a vowel:
Write..…writing , take…taking
2- The final (e) remains if the suffix begins with double (ee):
agree…agreeing, Flee…fleeing
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Note: These are exception with remaining (e):
ye: dye……..dyeing
oe: hoe……...hoeing
ge: singe…..singeing.
C) The final (y):
1.The final (y) is changed into (i) if preceded by a consonant:
Study…..studied
Except with (-ing) remains (y), cry….crying
2. The final (y) remains if preceded by a vowel:
buy …buying
3. The verb ends with (ie) ,it is changed into (y) when (-Ing) is added
Tie….tying, die……dying.

Regular verbs:
Irregular verbs can be classified into groups according to the way of inflection.
1. Class 1: in this class, (ed1) and (ed2) are the same suffixation and the same vowel.
ed1 ed2
burn burnt burnt
dwell dwelt dwelt
smell smelt smelt

2. Class 2: in the class, (ed1) and (ed2) are also the same suffixation but with one
vowel changed

Creep crept crept

Deal dealt dealt
Keep kept kept
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3. Class 3: in this Class, (ed1) and (ed2) are the same with vowel change but no suffixation

Bleed bled bled

Lead led led
read read read
4. Class 4: in this class, all the three forms are the same :
Bet bet bet
Cut cut cut
Put put put
5. Class 5: in this class, (ed1) is regular, while (ed2) has two forms: either regular
or irregular:
Hew hewed hewed/hewn
Saw seen sawed/sawn
Sew sewed sewed/sewn

6. Class 6: in this class, (ed1) and (ed2) are different with vowel change and with
suffixation on (ed2)
Break broke broken
Choose chose chosen
7. Class 7: in this class, (ed1) and (ed2) are also different but there is no suffixation
and there is a vowel change: {I - a - u }
Begin began begun
Drink drank drunk
8. Class 8 : in this class , the last letter (d) turns into (t) :

Build built built

Send Sent Sent
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 Auxiliary Verbs:
Auxiliary verbs can be divided into two main groups:

(1) Primary auxiliary. (2) Modal auxiliary

1.primary auxiliary: this group includes Do, Have, Be

Do : do , does , did
Have : have . has , had
Be : am , is , are, was, were
Primary auxiliaries differ from modal auxiliaries in the use of as lexical verbs too
e.g) Tom is a teacher
lex.verb
The boy is running fast
Aux
e.g.) She has a bag
lex,verb
She has studied hard
aux.
They did the homework
Lex.verb
We do not do that
Aux.
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2) Modal auxiliaries: Modal auxiliaries are the following:

Can, could, may , might , shall, should, will. Would, must, ought to, used to, need, dare.

Modal auxiliaries are used to transfer such meanings as possibility, certainty, ability

,request, permission, offer. They are used as auxiliary verbs only except marginal

auxiliary (used to, need, dare) which are treated as lexical verbs as well.

e.g: She used to sleep late

Did she use to sleep late?

She did not sleep to sleep.

e.g) He need not do that job now

aux.

Need he do that job now?

Aux.

He needs to get the job

Lex.v

He does not need the job

Lex.v

Does he need anything to do?

Lex.v.
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Finite and non-finite verbs
Finite verbs have tense, aspect, time, voice and mood.it includes all tenses in English. In
a finite verb, there is a person and number concord between the subject and the predicate.
In addition, they have mood (declarative and imperative).
e.g: He reads the article every day

They drive a car to work

We are doing our assignment right now.

Non-finite verbs have no mood, time , tense ,aspect, voice. It doesn’t include tenses
generally. They are of three kinds:
1) To- infinitive VP e.g) To drive fast is dangerous
2) Ing participle VP e.g) I found them fighting
3) Ed participle VP e.g) Hurt, I could not walk back.

Time, Tense, Aspect, Mood:

Time has three division: past, present and future. Tense, on the other hand, is the relation
between the form of the verb and the concept of time.it is used to indicate time. It includes
the following:
Present simple, present perfect, present continuous, past simple, past perfect……etc.

Aspect concerns the manner in which the verbal action is regarded or experienced whether
it is in the progressive or perfective manner. Finally, mood relates the verbal action to such
condition as orders, request, declaration, interrogation, possibility, certainty, and obligation.
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Time:
Present: It is of three types of (timeless, limited m instantaneous):
1. Timeless present: It is expressed with simple present form, and it is used to indicate
facts, repeated action, universal statement and habits

e.g) The sun sets in the west.

e.g) bees make honey
e.g) I go to school every day.
2. Limited present: it is expressed with present progressive tense, which indicates that the
action in of limited duration.
e.g) He is eating lunch now.
3. Instantaneous present: This time is expressed with either simple present or the progressive
present tense
e.g) As you see, Iam dropping the cup.

Past: there are two types of past tense:

1) An action that occurred at a particular point of time in the past. It is expressed in the

past tense.

e.g) He wrote an essay yesterday .

2) An action that occurred over a period of time. This is action may be of two types:

A) An action extending up to the present: it is expressed with present perfect tense.

e.g) She has just left the mobile on the table.

b) An action occurring over a period: this action may be either completed as in,

e.g) I lived in Kirkuk in 2002.

Or not completed as in

e.g) I was painting my house

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Future: There are different possibilities for indicating future time:
1) Will, shall + base. / e.g) I will go home tomorrow

2) Be + going to + infinitive: e.g) We are going to hold a party

3) The present continuous tense: e.g) he is moving to London

4) (will, shall ) _+ be + ing : e.g) he will be playing at this time

5) Be+ to + infinitive: e.g) we are to be married soon

6) Be + about to + infinitive: e,g) we are about to leave.

Aspect:
The aspect of the English sentence may be either perfective or progressive. The choice of the
perfective aspect is associate with time orientation and such indicators as ' lately, since, so far
….etc . The perfective aspect may be manifested by the present perfect tense and the past
tense.
A) The present perfect tense is used to express an action that began in the past and
extended up to the present and finished
e.g ) I have finished the report
It has rained
B) The past perfect tense is used to express an action that began in the past before a point in
the past also.
e.g) She had done the work before we came.

Concerning the progressive aspect. It is expressed by several tenses. The past continuous

tense for example is used to specify a limited duration of an action that happed in the past

The present perfect continuous is used to indicate incompleteness of the an action.

e.g) I have been reading this book (I did not finish it).
23
Future in the past:
The future in the past can be expressed by one of the following ways:
1) would
e.g) She would finish the job

2) Be + going to + infinitive
e.g) You were going to help me
3) past continuous:
e.g ) I was meeting him in Paris
4) Be + to + infinitve:
e.g) The meeting was to be held in Iraq
5) Be + about t + infinitive:
e.g) We are about to start doing it.
Mood:
Mood in English is expressed by the subjunctive the past tense and the modal auxiliaries:
1.The subjunctive: there are three types of the subjunctive:
A) The mandative: it is expressed in that clause by the base form of the verb:.
These verbs are included ( demand, suggest, require, recommend)
e.g) it is necessary that he teach himself .
B) The formulaic subjunctive: it is used in expressions that should be learned as wholes,
here the base form of the verb is used :
e.g) God save you
C) The subjunctive were (instead of was): It is used with conditional and concessive
clauses and in subordinate clause after optative verbs like 'wash' :
e.g) If she were there, I would not come
I wish I were dead
2) The modal past: In unreal conditions, involving verbs like ' wonder, the past tense
conveys the possibility
e.g) I wondered if you would like a drink.
24
3) The modal auxiliaries:
Can, could: they convey the following meanings:
a) ability: e.g) He can speak English
b) permission: e.g) Can I smoke here?
c) Theoretical possibility: e.g) we could go to the zoo
d) Conditional possibility: e.g) if he had money, we could buy a car.
May, Might:
a) Permission: e,g) you may come in
b) possibility: e.g) you might take tomorrow
Shall, Will:
a) willingness: e.g) she shall get the result
b) polite request: e.g) will we help you?
c) intention: e.g) we shall win the prize
d) Insistence: e,g) you will do it
e) predication: e.g) the game will be finished by now.
Should:
a) obligation: e.g) you should clean the room
b) putative use: e.g) Iam sorry that this should have got it
c) Conditional use: e,g) we should love to go if we had the chance.

Would:
a) willingness: e.g) would you come
b) insistence: e.g) you would do it
c) characteristic activity in the past: e.g) Tom would make a mess of it.
d) conditional use: e.g) we would do it, if we didn’t stop them.
e) probability: e.g) that would be his friend
Must:
a) obligation: e.g) you must come early
b) necessity: e.g) she must solve it now
c) conclusion: e.g) he must be sad.
25
Ought to:
a) obligation: e.g) you ought to work harder
b) necessity: e.g) you ought to be here by now .
26
Chapter Four
We have to distinguish between two types of nouns {Proper nouns} and {common nouns}.
Proper nouns include : personal names and names of cities, states……etc.
Common nouns include are non- personal names: count-nouns (those that can be counted ) or
non-nouns (those that cannot be counted.
Old linguists also distinguished between abstract nouns like (love , warmth , , speed) and
concrete noun like (book , room , watch).
Abstract nouns can be countable like (idea----ideas) or non-countable like (speed). Besides ,
there are some nouns that uncountable in English but countable in other languages like (
anger, chess , courage , light…..etc). Moreover , there are some nouns that are considered
both non-count and count , but with a slight deference in meaning.

Count Nou-count
Paper….papers paper
Lamb….lambs lamb
Determiners
Determiners are the elements that occur the head of the non-phrase. There are six classes of
determiners:
1. Quantifiers: (all ,both , half , some , any , many …..etc)
They are called pre-determiners because they occur before articles, demonstratives and other
types of determiners.
e.g.) all the boys both those pens
However , sometimes ‘ all and both ‘ occur after the head of the noun-phrase
e.g) The students all passed the exam.
The determiners (both , either , neither) are used with dual nouns, i.e they refer only to two
e.g.) both men
The determiners (double , twice , three times …..etc) occur with non-count and plural count
nouns as well
e.g.) Double his salary
27
Three times this amount
Twice his strength.
The fraction determiners (one-third , two fifth ,….etc) are used with non-count nouns (singular
and plural)
e.g.) one third the time
Phrasal quantifiers called partitives can impose count ability on non-count nouns. They are of
three types:
a) General partitives:
e.g.) Two pieces of news
an item of furniture
b) Typical partitives:
e.g.) A slice of cake
Two loaves of bread.
Three bottle of milk.
c) Measures:
e.g.) A kilo of rice
A pound of butter
2. Numerals: There are two types numerals:
 Cardinal numerals ( one , two , three , ….etc) and ordinal numerals ( first , second ,
third……etc).
The cardinal ‘ one’ is used with singular count nouns. The rest (two , three…etc) are used
with plural count nouns
e.g.) One table two tables.
Usually ordinal numerals precede the cardinal except with general ordinal (next, last) which
can occur freely before or after the cardinals
e.g.) The first three girls
His two last books
His last two books
28

 Reference:
1. Specific reference: Reference is associated with articles:
a) Definite article (the)
b) Indefinite articles (a , an)
c) Zero article.
In this sentence (I saw a lion in a cage) the reference is specific , because we have in mind a
specific ‘ lion’.
The same is true in the following example:
e.g) I found the book in my bag.
The books were scattered on the table.
There were books on the table.
Some noun can be used with zero article although they are countable. These nouns can be
classified as follows:
1) Seasons: In spring we go on picnics
2) Institutions : They go to church every Sunday
3) Transports: He came by car
4) Times: At night he left
5) Illness: I have flu
6) Meals: We met at lunch
7) Parallel structure: They came arm in arm.

2) Generic reference:
With generic reference , we do not refer to a particular thing but things in general. The
definite article , the indefinite articles and zero article can be used in generic reference.

e.g) The French like music.

29
Concrete ( count) nouns , abstract ( non-count) nouns and plural count nouns are used with
zero article to form NPs having generic reference.

e.g) He likes wine He likes games

He likes music
3) Articles (a , an , the):
The indefinite articles (a ,an) are used with singular count only, while the definite article (the)

is used with non-count and count nouns {singular and plural}

e.g) A book the boy

An old friend the boys the furniture

Articles are associated with reference ( generic , specific and unique reference).

e.g) The moon shines at night. (unique)

I saw an owl on the tree. (specific)

The tiger
A tiger is a dangerous animal. (generic)
Tigers are dangerous animals. (generic)

With (generic , specific) reference , singular count nouns take the indefinite article (a , an) ,
while non-count nouns and plural count nouns take zero.

4) Demonstratives (this , that , these , those):

The demonstratives (this , that ) are used with singular count nouns and noun –count noun,
while (these , those) are used with plural count nouns. With the first item (this , these) used
for near reference and the second (that , those) for far reference.

e.g) This car These cars

That car Those cars.
31
5) Possessive pronouns:
Possessive pronouns ( my , his , her …..etc) also precede nouns to form NPs ( noun phrases)

e.g) My book his room their house

More than one determiner can be precede the head noun in an NP.

e.g) My first prize His three brothers.

3) Unique reference:

Unique reference is that obtained with nouns that are specific or unique . These nouns include

proper nouns ( personal , geographical , calendar):

 With Zero –article:

a) Personal names : Mr. Tom , Ali , John

b) Calendar items: Christmas , Easter , Monday

c) Geographical names:

 Continents: Africa , Asia

 Countries: Iraq , America
 Cities: Roma , Kirkuk , London
 Lakes and seas: Silver lake
 Mountains: Mount Everest

d) Name + noun: Oxford street: Kennedy airport

 With the definite article:

a) Without modification: The Gurdian
b) With Premodification: The Sueze canal
c) With postmofication: The Bay of Biscay
d) Ellipted elements: The Atlantic (ocean)
31
 NUMBER:
Nouns can be either invariable (non-count) or variable (count)
1) Invariable nouns:

Invariable nouns are those that can be pluralized like : Music , furniture, rice

However, some invariable nouns end with (S) , yet they take singular verbs.

They can be listed as follows:

1) News: The news is good

2) Some diseases: measles , mumps , rickets , shingles
3) Subject names: Linguistics , phonetics
4) Some games : Billiards , dominoes
5) Some proper nouns: Algier , Athens , Brussels

Besides , some variable nouns ending with (S) are listed as plural such as:
Bellows , pliers , shears , tongs , glasses , trousers ,, the middle ages , archives , auspices ,
bowels , goods

2) Variable nouns:
Variable nouns have two forms, singular and plural. To pluralize a variable nouns, we add
an (S) at its end. However , there may be some irregular cases which can be summarized as
follows:
1) Noun ending in (-y) preceded by consonants:
Spy…….spies , city……….cities
Sometimes the (-y) is not changed into (i) :
The kennedys , the two Germanys , stand-bys.
2) Some unusual nouns take ("s):
Dot your I’s , in the 1980’s . two ,MP"s
32
3) Nouns ending in (-o) sometimes we add (s) only and sometimes (es) , and some nouns
accept both:
Banjo………………….…banjos………..……….es
Volcano………………….volcano……...………..es
Motto……………………mottos………….……..es
Cargo………………..…..cargos………………...es
Echo..................….echos , hero…………..…..heroes
Potato……………potatoes , tomato………….…tomatoes.
Veto………..……vetoes

Compound nouns sometimes have the plural (s) on the first noun , sometimes on the second
and sometimes on both:
On the first: passer-by……………………..passers-by
Mother-in-law……………….mothers-in-law

On the second: boy-friend………………….…..boy-friends

Stand-by………………..………stand-bys
Grown-up………………………grown-ups .

On both : Manservant……………..menservants
Woman-doctor……………..women-doctors
33
 Some variable noun having irregular plurals:
1) Noun ending in (th): mostly such nouns have regular plurals:
e.g) death…..deaths , birth……births
But when the (th) preceded by a vowel, sometimes the (S) is voiced:
e.g) bath….baths , youth…..youths
2) Noun ending in (f) or (fe):
 Some nouns have (ves): life……....lives , knife….…..knives.
 Some nouns have (fe) or (fes) : roof….…roofs , belief…….beliefs.
 Other nouns have both : dwarf…..dwarfs or dwarves
Hoof…..hoofs or hooves
3) Mutation (vowel change only):
Woman…….…women , foot……...feet , louse………..lice.
4) En Plural : Child……....Children , ox….oxen.

5) Zero Plural : sheep ……sheep , fish…………..fish.

 However , some animal accepts regular plural :

E.g) bird..………....birds , cow……………..cows

 Some accept only zero plural : sheep……sheep

 Others accept both : antelope…..antelopes or antelope

Fish………fishes or fish

 Quantitative nouns:- quantitative nouns take zero plural:

Hundred………….hundred, million………..million

Dozen……………..dozen , brace……………brace.

e.g) He has hundred books

 In some cases both zero plural and regular plural are possible:

e.g) He bought two ton/ tons of coal.

34
 Nouns in (s) or (es) : such nouns have zero plural as well:

e.g) He gave two series of lectures.

Foreign plural:

 Nouns ending in (a) …..(ae):

Larva…………larvae

 Some nouns ending in (a) have regular plural:

Area……….areas

 Nouns ending in (us) …..(i):

Locus…….loci , bacillus ……bacilli

 Some nouns ending in (us) have regular plural:

Bonus….bonuses , virus……..virses , campus….campuses.

And other nouns have both :

focus ……foci , or focuses

fungu……fungi or funguses.

Nouns ending in (um) (a) :

Curriculum……curricula

Ovum……ova , stratum……strata

Some nouns ending in (um) have regular plural:

Album………...albums , museum ………....museums.

And other nouns have both :

Medium …..media or mediums

35
 Nouns ending in (ex) or (ix) (ice)

Codex………...codices , matrix …………...matrices.

Some nouns ending in (ex) or (ix) have both regular and foreign plural:

Apex…….…..apices or apexes

Index………...indices or indexes.

 Nouns ending in (is) (es) :

Basis…………bases , axis…….….axes , oasis………..oases.

But the noun: metropolis metropolises.

 Noun ending in (on) (a) :

Criterion……..….criteria , phenomenon……….phenomena.

Some nouns ending in (On) have regular plural:

Demon…..demon , electron……electron

 Nouns ending in (eau) or (eu) (eaux) or (eux)

Bureau…….bureaux , adieu……..adieux

Plateau…..…plateau , tableau……tableaux.

Some French nouns ending in (s) or (x) have zero plural but with different

pronunciation ( ) (z)

Chassis………chassis , pateis……..patois

 Nouns ending in (o) (i):

Tempo……tempi , solo…..soli , libretto……libretti

Noun ending in ( ) (im) : Kibbutz……kibbutzim

But: cherub….cherubs , seraph…….seraphs.

36
 Gender means the sex of the noun whether it is animate or inanimate masculine,
feminine or neutral . Gender can be shown in pronoun:
e.g) He ………masculine
She……...feminine
It can be shown by certain suffixes :
e.g) lion………..masculine
lioness……. Feminine
Further, it can be shown by different words:
e.g) king……. ….Masculine
Queen……... Feminine
 We can distinguish between different types of nouns with regard to gender:
1. Personal masculine/ Feminine nouns:
Morphologically unmarked for gender:
e.g) bachelor ……….spinster , king…….queen
brother…………..sister , monk …….nun.
Morphologically marked for gender:
e.g) lion……….lioness , god……goddess , hero…….heroin
Some masculine / feminine pairs have common (dual) terms referring to both:

e.g) father ……………..mother , son…………….daughter

parents child
2. Personal dual gender nouns:
Some nouns have dual gender (i.e , refer to both masculine and feminine ) such as :
Artist , doctor , cook , friend , person , write, student
However , sometimes, a gender- marker is added to different between masculine and
feminine nouns
e.g) boyfriend………………………………..girl friend
man student …………………………….woman student
male engineer……………………………female engineer
37
3. Common gender nouns:
Common gender nouns are intermediate between personal and non-personal . For example ,
we can use (who) instead of (he , she ,it ) . We can also use the pronoun (it) to refer to a
baby if we are not sure of its sex.

4. Collective nouns:
With some nouns like (army , team , family , crew) , we can use both (it) or (they) to refer
to them
e.g) The team (is / are) doing exercises

 Collective nouns can be classified into three groups:

Specific: army , club , crew , crowd , group…….etc
Generic: the pubic , laity , aristocracy
Unique: the congress , the United Nations

5. Higher animals:
Some animals (pets) can be substituted by such pronouns as (he , she , who )
e.g) dog , cat , horse , cow , bull , hen…..etc
6. Higher organisms:
With nouns of countries and ships use different gender depending on their use in different
context (policy , geography , sport….etc)
e.g) France is in Europe. (it / she ) is a large country
France has been able to increase her export.
France have improved their chance to win the cup.
7. Lower animals and inanimate nouns:
Both of lower animals and inanimate nouns have the same gender. For example , both
(snake ) and (book) have (which) and (it) as pronoun. Sometimes, we can use gender
markers to distinguish between masculine and feminine nouns
e.g) she- goat , he – goat , hen-pheasant
male frog , female frog , cock-pheasant
38
CASE
We have to distinguish between cases of nouns:
The common case (boy) and the genitive (boy’s). The genitive case is shown by either the
(s) genitive or the (of) genitive
 The ‘S genitive :” it used with animate nouns:
e.g) The boy’s room. (singular)
The boys’ room. (plural)
 The (of) genitive : it is often used with inanimate nouns:
e.g) The door of my car
Sometimes, we may have the two genitive for the same noun
e.g) The ship’s name
The name of the ship .
 The – ‘S genitive is used in the following noun classes:
1. Personal names: Ali’s book
2. personal noun: The girl’s pen
3. Collective nouns: The nation’s security
4. Higher animals: The horse’s tail.
5. Geographical nouns: Europe’s future
6. Temporal nouns: A week’s holiday
7. Noun related to man’s activity: The game’s history.
39
 Group Genitives:
Nouns phrases that have two genitive, both the (‘s) genitive and (of) genitive are used.
e.g) The teacher of music’s room
We may use ellipsis with the genitive case of the context makes it clear.
e.g) My car is faster than Tom’s
I shall go to Bill’s – ( Bill’s house)
I shall go to the dentist’s .- (the dentists’ clinic)
Double genitive : Some Noun phrases double genitive (‘s and of ) if the noun is both
definite and personal
e.g) A book of my friend’s
A friend of the doctor’s arrived
A friend of mine.
 Genitive Meanings:
1. Possessive genitive: my son’s wife = my son has a wife
2. Subjective genitive: the rise of the sun = the sun rise
3. Objective genitive: the boy’s release = somebody released the boy
4. Genitive of origin: the girl’s story = the girl told a story
5. Descriptive genitive: A women’s college = a college for women
6. Measure genitive: two week’s absence = the absence lasted two weeks
7. Appositive genitive: the city of York = York is a city.

 Pronouns:
Pronouns are class of items that have several features in common:
1. They do not admit determiners
2. They have an objective case
3. They have person distinction
4. They have gender distinction
5. They have number distinction
41
 Case: Pronouns unlike nouns have three case distinctions:
- Subjective case: He , she , it , we you , they , I
- Objective case: him , her , it , us , you , them , me
- Genitive case: his , her , its , our , your , their , my .

 Person: All the three types of pronouns ( personal pronouns , possessive pronouns
and reflexive pronouns) have person distinctions:

Personal Possessive Reflexive

- 1st person : I, we, me ,us my, our myself, ,ourselves
- 2 nd person: you your yourself yourselves
rd
- 3 person: he, she, it, they his, her, its, their, himself, herself,
- itself, themselves .

 Gender: All the types of pronouns show gender distinction. For example , (he, him, his,
himself) refer to masculine gender , while ( she , her , herself) refer to feminine gender.

 Number: The pronouns ( I , he , she , it , his, her , its, me , him ,her , myself,
himself,…..etc) have singular ad plural number , while ( you , they , we , us , them) have
plural number.

 Types of pronouns:
1. Personal pronouns:
Subjective: He , she , it , we you , they , I
Objective: him , her , it , us , you , them , me
Genitives: his , her , its , our , your , their , my
41
2. Reflexive pronouns: These pronouns refer to back to a previously mentioned entity in
the same sentence.
e.g) Ali hurt himself
3. Reciprocal pronouns ( each other , one another )
e.g) Tom and Suha like each other
The four children were fond of one another.
4. Possessive pronouns (my , his , our ,….etc ) , ( mine, his , hers , theirs ……etc)
o There are two types of possessive pronouns:
1. Attributive possessive pronouns: my book , his car
2. Nominal possessive pronouns: mine , his , hers.

5. Relative pronouns: They can be listed as follows:

- Wh relative pronouns: who , which , whom ,whose….etc
- ‘’That ‘’ is used irrespective of gender ( masculine & feminine)

e.g) The pen that I want is missing

The boy that broke the glass is Tom
The woman that received us is Mary.
- Zero relative pronoun: ‘’ that ‘’ can be omitted unless used as subject.
.e.g) The pen I wanted is missing.
The boy broke he glass is Ali. Wrong

6. Interrogative pronouns: (who , whom, whose , what…etc):

e.g) Which books do you like?
What boys do you mean?.
7. Demonstrative pronouns ( this , that , these , those ):
e.g) This & That …………singular
These & Those……….plural
This pen is mine , these pens are yours
42
8. Universal pronoun ( each , all ,every , every one…..etc):
e.g) I saw these boys and gave an apple to each.
e.g) Everybody looked happy.

9. Partitive pronouns: There are three groups of partitive pronouns:

Assertive partitive pronouns: someone , somebody , something , some
Non-assertive: anyone , anybody , anything , any
Negative: no one , nobody , nothing , none.

Finally , ‘’ either . neither and none are also among partitive pronouns

e.g) None failed in the exam

Neither ( of the two ) saw Suha
Either (of the two) may fail.
10. Quantifiers ( many , much , few , little , several and enough): These quantifiers can be
used as pronouns as well as their main function as determiners.
e.g) I met the boys. Many (of them) wore glasses
11. Numerals: ‘’ one ‘’ is used as pronoun in all its three types:
Numberal ‘’ one ‘’
e.g) Ali has literary books. I told him that need one
- Indefinite ‘’one ‘’ which means ‘’ people in general :
e.g) One must be careful
- Replacive ‘ one ‘ which replaces an NPs
e.g) Iam looking for a book
Do you mean this one?
Besides , both cardinal numerals (one ,two , three….etc) and ordinal numerals ( first,
second, third ….etc) can be used as pronons
e.g) I met two boys. The first was Ahmed.
43
Chapter Five
Adjectives & adverbs
Some adjectives are identified by such suffixes as (ous, ful, less, able, ible, …..etc),

e.g: (beautiful , courageous , responsible) , other common adjectives have no identifying

shape , e.g: (good , hot , nice , ….etc).

Adjectives are distinguished by being modified by the intensifier ‘’ very ‘’ and by taking

the comparative superlative forms.

e.g) old , older , oldest

useful , more useful , most useful .

An adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as head which may be preceded by an

intensifier (very , quite , so , too).

 Syntactic and functions of Adjective:

1) Attributive :

Adjectives are attributive when they premodify nouns, i.e. : when they appear between the

determiner and head noun in noun phrase

e.g) the smart girl

det attrib head.

2) Predicative:

Adjectives are predicative when they occur as :

Cs as in : Your father is nice

Co as in : She made him sad.

44
Adjectives that follow the item they modify are called postpositive in which case they may
be regarded as relative . This occurs usually with indefinite pronouns ending with (-body ,
one , thing , where )
e.g) I want to try something large
besides , some adjectives are always postpositive in fix noun phrases.
e.g) the president elect, London proper , attorney general
court material , notary public .
3. Heads of noun phrase:
When an adjective function as head an noun phrase , it must take a definite determiner.
Such adjective have personal reference.
e.g) the old , the rich , the blind….etc
These adjectives have generic and plural reference. This is clear with adectives denoting
nationalities:
e.g) The French love music
The Japanese are happy.
4. Verbless clause :
An adjective can function as a verbless clause :
e.g) Nervous , the man opened the door
5. Contingent clause:
An adjective may function as a contingent (condition) clause.
e.g) when ripe , these apples are sweet
we can it hot
6. Exclamatory clause:
An adjective can function as an exclamatory clause when it is a head of an adjective phrase
e.g) How good of you
How wonderful !
45
Syntactic Classification of Adjectives
1. Attribute Adjective:
Attribute adjectives do not characterize the referent of noun directly. For example ,
‘’My old friend ‘’ does not mean that ‘’ my friend is old ‘’ , therefore , ‘’ old ‘’’ is here
non- inherent because it characterizes the referent of the noun directly.

2. Intensifying Adjective:
There are two types of intensifying adjectives :
 Emphasizers which have a general heightening effect and they are attribute only
e.g) a real hero , an outright lie
 Amplifying which denote scale upwards from an assumed norm. They are central
adjectives when inherent
e.g) a complete victory = the victory is complete
But many of them are attributive only
e.g) a close friend , a great helper

3. Limited Adjectives:
Such adjectives particularize the reference of the noun they modify
e.g) The main reason , the only occasion , the same student
Some adjectives can function as a limiter in a context and as an intensifier in another
context
e.g) particular sure
a certain person , a certain winner
limiter intensifier
46
4. Adjectives related to adverb:
Some attributive adjectives can be related to adverb . They are non- inherent.
e.g) my former friend = formerly my friend
an occasional visitor = occasionally a visitor
a hard worker = a worker who works hard
a fast car = a car driven fast
5. Denominal Adjective:
Some adjectives are derived from noun. They are attributive only.
e.g) criminal law = law about crime
an atomic scientist = a scientist specializing in atomic science
a medical school = a school for students of medicine
6. Predicative Adjective:
Some adjectives are predicative only . They tend to refer to conditions rather than to
characteristics. Such adjectives include: faint , ill, well , afraid of , fond of , …..etc

Most of these adjectives resemble verbs

e.g) He is afraid of it . = He fears it
He is fond of her = He likes her
However, some of these adjectives can occur as both attributive and predicative
e.g) the conscious patient = the patient is conscious
47
Semantic Classification of Adjectives
1. Stative / Dynamic:
Stative adjectives cannot be used with the progressive aspect . For example , the adjective
‘’ tall ‘’ is stative , therefore , we cannot say
He is being tall or be tall
Dynamic adjectives , on the other hand , can be used with the progressive aspect. Such
adjectives include : careful cruel , foolish , good , greedy , noisy….etc

e.g) He is being careful . Be careful.

2. Gradable and non-gradable:

Most adjectives are gradable , i.e : they show degrees of their intensity. Gradablility
includes comparison.

e.g) absolute comparative superlative

tall taller tallest
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful.
Good better best.
Gradability cannot be shown also by other forms of intensification:
e.g) very young , so clever , extremely wonderful
Non-gradable adjectives do not show degrees of intensity
e.g) atomic scientist , British products

3. Inherent / non-inherent :
Most adjectives ( especially the dynamic ones ) are inherent , i.e . they characterize the
referent of the noun directly , otherwise, they are non-inherent

For example , the adjective ‘’ new ‘’ in ( the new student) is inherent because we can
say ( the student is new ) . But , the same adjective is non-inherent in ( my new friend ) ,
because we cannot say ( my friend is new).
48
Order of Adjectives
1. intensifying adjective: e.g) a real hero
2. postdetermners and limited adjective: e.g) the only occasion
3. General adjective of subject . measure: e.g) lovely , careful
4. general adjective of object measure: e.g) wealthy , large
5. adjective denoting age: e.g) young , old , new
6. adjective denoting color : e.g) red , black
7. adjective denoting material : e.g) wooden, metallic
8. adjective denoting provenance: e,g) British , French

Comparison of Adjectives
There are three degrees of comparison in adjectives : absolute and completive and
superlative:
Old older oldest
Important more Important most Important.
The comparative degree is used for comparison between two , while the superlative is used
for comparison among more than two persons or things. The comparative degree requires
the use of ‘’ than ‘’ as correlative to ‘’ more ‘’ , less ‘’ … and ‘’ as….as correlative to ‘’
a’’
e.g) Tom is more intelligent than Ali
Tom is as intelligent as Ahmed
Intensifiers ( so , very , quite ..) and amplifiers ( complete , extreme , great,..) and
comparatives can modify gradable adjectives , i.e those having values on a scale. They
cannot be used with non- gradable adjective like ‘ English ‘
Very English
More English.
49
Change in Spelling:
 The final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by one vowel:
e.g) big , bigger , biggest
 The final (y) is changed into (i) if preceded by a consonant
e.g) early , earlier , earliest
 The final (e) is dropped before the suffixes (er) or (est)
e.g) brave , braver , bravest

Adjectives and other word- classes:

1. Adjectives and adverbs:
Most adverbs are derived from adjectives by suffixation.
e.g) quick…………quickly , heavy……………..heavily
She writes quickly , She writes in a quick manner.
Some adjectives and some adverbs begin with ‘’ a ‘’ as sleep (adj) , abroad (adv)
A-adjectives include , ablaze , afloat , afraid , alike , alive , alone
A- Adverbs include , abroad , away , around.

2. Adjectives and nouns:

Some words can be used both as noun and as adjectives .
e.g) Criminal , black , noble
e.g) The attack was criminal
e.g) The criminal pleaded guilty
Nouns that modify other nouns function similarity to adjectives
e.g) the city council , a stone wall , a love poem , the concrete floor.
51
3. Adjectives and participle:
Some adjectives have the same form as participle (ed , ing )
e.g) surprising , armed , offended , astonishing ,…..
These adjectives can be both attributive and predicative .
e.g) his surprising view = his view is surprising
attrib. predict.
e.g) the offended man = the man appeared offended
attrib. predict.
It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between a participle and an adjective ending in ‘ ed
‘’ or ‘’ ing ‘’ . However , when an object exists after the – ing form or the –ed form , that
form is definitely a verb and not an adjective.
.e.g) His views are alarming
adj
e.g) His views are alarming his audience
verb
similarly, if the – ed form is followed by a ‘’ by ‘’ agentive that form is a verb not an
adjective.
e.g) the man was offended = adj
e.g) the man was offended by the policeman = verb
51
ADVERBS
Most adverbs are formed by adding ‘’ ly ‘’ to adjectives . An adverb functions either as an
adverbial , as a modifiers or as complement of a preposition. In all cases it functions as an
adv.p.
1. As adverbial:
An adverb may function as adverbial . This distinguishes it from subject, verb ,…… there
are three types of adverbials: { adjuncts , disjuncts , and conjuncts }

 Adjuncts are integrated within the clause structure.

e.g) They are waiting outside. I can now understand it
He spoke to me sharply
 Disjunts like : ( frankly , fortunately , probably , ..)
 Conjuncts like : ( yet , but , though ,….) are not integrated within the clause

e.g) Frankly , I am tired .

He is tired , yet , he is working hard.
2. As modifiers:
Modifier of adj: most adverbs premodify adjective .
e.g) That’s very nice
One adverb (enough ) postmodifies adj.
e.g) He is young enough.
Modifier (intensifier) {adv} include : so , rather , quite. They may also include (adv) of
viewpoint such as : politically , theoretically , economically ,…

Modifier of Adv:
 An adverb may premodify another adverb and function as intensifier
e.g) They are smoking very heavily
 Modifier of Prep. P.
e.g) The nail went right through the wall
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 Modifier of determiner:
e.g) Nearly everybody came
 Modifier of noun phrase:
e.g) He tells such funny stories
He was rather a mess
He was quite some player.
3. As complement of a preposition:
Some place and time adverbs function as complement of a preposition . The place adverbs
‘’ here , and ‘’ there ‘’ are good of this use
e.g) From here , down there , over there
The adverb of ‘’ home ‘’ can be the complement of the preposition { at , from , near ,
towards}
e.g) at home , near home
Time adverb can be used with the prepositions: { since , till ,after , before , from , for …}
e.g) since recently , till tomorrow , for today

Comparison : Adverbs can be used in the three degrees of comparison:-

Absolute , comparative , superlative
Easily more easily most easily
Short shorter shortest
Early earlier earliest
Hard harder hardest
Well better best
The comparative and superlative of both adverbs and adjectives can be premodified by
Amplifying intensifiers ( very , so , far )
e.g) very much better , very sooner , far more carefully , rather better
somewhat better , a little less carefully ….
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The correspondence between Adverb and Adjective
 Most adverbs are derived from adjective by suffixation.
In addition there is correspondence between adverbs and adjectives which can be shown in
the following examples:
e.g) He likes Mary considerably
He liked Mary to a considerable extent

e.g) politically , it is a bad decision

from the political viewpoint, it is a bad decision
 Sometimes , there is correspondence between sentence with an adv and NPs
e.g) He loved her deeply
His deep love for her
 Some intensifying adj. are related to adv
e.g) a real idiot = he is really an idiot
 some limiter adj. are related to adv.
e.g) the main reason = it was mainly the reason
 some adj-noun sequences may imply a process time relationship with a
corresponding NP containing as adv
e.g) fast car = a car that moves fast

This is my opinion in life

The happiest persons are those who give more than take . The more you give ,
the happier you become.
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