Chemistry for Sanitary Engineers Role of Sanitary Engineers

Sanitary Engineering • Environmental Pollution and Control

• The application of engineering methods to – understand pollution

improve sanitation of human communities,
– understand the environment
primarily by providing the removal and
disposal of human waste, and in addition to – provide controls. prevention,
the supply of safe potable water. corrective measures
Sanitation – how????

• The hygienic means of promoting health – application of science and math? - SO,
through prevention of human contact with 1 - as an engineer??
the hazards of wastes as well as the treatment
– what math? which science?
and proper disposal of sewage or wastewater.
How?
Miasma Theory

In miasma theory, diseases were caused by

the presence in the air of a miasma, a poisonous
vapor in which were suspended particles of decaying
matter that was characterized by its foul smell.

The theory originated in the Middle Ages and

endured for several centuries. That a killer disease like
malaria is so named - from the Italian mala ‘bad’ and
aria ‘air’ - is evidence of its suspected miasmic origins.

The miasma theory (also called the miasmatic

theory) is an obsolete medical theory that held
Why is chemistry important?
diseases—such as cholera, chlamydia, or the Black
Death—were caused by a miasma (μίασμα, ancient • Chemistry – a branch of physical science that
Greek: "pollution"), a noxious form of "bad air", also studies the composition, structure, properties,
known as night air. The theory held that the origin of and change of matter
epidemics was due to a miasma, emanating from
Environmental Issues
rotting organic matter.
• Red Tide
• In 19th-century England the miasma theory
o Red tide is a phenomenon caused by
made sense to the sanitary reformers. Rapid
algal blooms during which algae
industrialization and urbanization had created
become so numerous that they
many poor, filthy and foul-smelling city
discolor coastal waters (hence the
neighborhoods that tended to be the focal
name "red tide").
points of disease and epidemics. By improving
o The algal bloom may also deplete
the housing, sanitation and general
oxygen in the waters and/or release
cleanliness of these existing areas, levels of
toxins that may cause illness in
disease were seen to fall, an observation that
humans and other animals.
lent weight to the theory.
o How Are Red Tides Harmful?
• The germ theory of disease emerged in the
▪ Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
second half of the 1800s and gradually
(PSP) - This disease is caused
replaced miasma theory. Although it had been
by the production of saxitoxin
disproved and rejected, the miasma theory’s
by the Alexandrium species.
existence was not without its merits. By
Causing disruption of nerve
removing the causes of bad smells, reformers
function and paralysis.
often inadvertently removed bacteria, the real
Extreme cases may result in
cause of many diseases
 death by asphyxiation by • Changes
respiratory paralysis.
– Physical (a change not involving a
▪ Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
change in the substance’s chemical
(DSP) - This disease is caused
identity)
by the Dinophysis species.
Symptoms of DSP include – Chemical (a process in which chemical
diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, bonds are broken and new ones are
abdominal pain, and cramps. made)
DSP is generally not lethal.
▪ Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning • Classification of matter based on state
(ASP) - This disease is caused – Solid
by domoic acid producing
planktonic and benthic algae, – Liquid
including Pseudo-nitzschia – Gas
pungens forma. Gastric and
neurological symptoms
include dizziness,
disorientation and memory
loss.
• Acid Rain
o Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a
broad term that includes any form of
precipitation with acidic components,
such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall
to the ground from the atmosphere in
wet or dry forms. • Classification of Matter Based on composition
o This can include rain, snow, fog, hail
– Element
or even dust that is acidic.
o Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide – Compound
(SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are
– Mixture
emitted into the atmosphere and
transported by wind and air currents.
The SO2 and NOX react with water,
oxygen and other chemicals to form
sulfuric and nitric acids. These then
mix with water and other materials
before falling to the ground.

- A pure chemical substance is any matter that

Basic Concepts from General Chemistry has a fixed chemical composition and
characteristic properties. Oxygen, for
• Matter
example, is a pure chemical substance that is
– anything that has mass and volume a colorless, odorless gas at 25°C.
- Very few samples of matter consist of pure
substances; instead, most are mixtures, which
 are combinations of two or more pure
substances in variable proportions in which
the individual substances retain their identity.
- If all portions of a material are in the same
state, have no visible boundaries, and are
uniform throughout, then the material is
homogeneous. Homogeneous mixtures are
also called solutions.
- If the composition of a material is not
completely uniform, then it is heterogeneous.
- Distillation makes use of differences in
volatility, a measure of how easily a substance
is converted to a gas at a given temperature.
- A simple distillation apparatus can be used for
separating a mixture of substances, at least
one of which is a liquid. The most volatile
component boils first and is condensed back
to a liquid in the water-cooled condenser,
from which it flows into the receiving flask.
- An element is a substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler ones by chemical
changes.
- a compound, contains two or more elements
and has chemical and physical properties that
are usually different from those of the
elements of which it is composed.
Three Fundamental Laws of Chemistry
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
- The law of conservation of mass states that
mass in an isolated system is neither created
nor destroyed by chemical reactions or
physical transformations.
- According to the law of conservation of mass,
the mass of the products in a chemical
reaction must equal the mass of the
reactants.
- The law of conservation of mass is useful for a
number of calculations and can be used to
solve for unknown masses, such the amount
of gas consumed or produced during a
reaction.
2. Law of Definite Composition
- The law of definite composition was proposed
by Joseph Proust based on his observations
on the composition of chemical compounds.
- Proust proposed that a compound is always
composed of the same proportions of
elements by mass.
- Though initially controversial, the law of
definite composition was supported by
Dalton’s atomic theory.
 3. Law of Multiple Proportions

Water Chemistry

Why treat water??

Periodic table of Elements • Contaminants

– Physical, Chemical, Biological

(bacteriological)

• Parameters

– measure

– units of measure (sample tables from

PNSDW, DAO2016-08 and even RA
8749 to show units of measure)

General Steps in Chemical Analysis

• The analytical process often begins with a
question such as “Is this water safe to drink?”
or “Does emission testing of automobiles
reduce air pollution?”

• A scientist translates such questions into the

need for particular measurements.

• A procedure is to be chosen or invented

Three Distinction of Elements:

o Metals
o
o Nonmetals
o Metalloids

1. Formulate the question

- Translate general questions into specific
questions to be answered through chemical
measurements
2. Selecting Analytical Procedures
- Literature (find appropriate procedures)
- Devise new procedures to make the required
measurements
3. Sampling
- selecting representative material to analyze
4. Sample Preparation
- the process of converting a representative
sample into a form suitable for chemical
analysis
Environmental Measurements
Concentration Units
• Chemical concentration is one of the most
important determinants in almost all aspects
of chemical fate, transport and treatment in
both environmental and engineered systems.
• This is because concentration is the driving
force that controls the movement of
chemicals within and between different
environmental media, as well as the rate of
many chemical reactions.
• In addition, the severity of adverse effects,
such as toxicity and bioconcentration, are
often determined by concentration.
Common Units of Concentration Used in
Environmental Measurements
- Some of the most important prefixes are
Mass Concentration Units directly proportional to the number of moles
of gas present, therefore, pressure fractions
1. Mass/Mass Units
are identical to mole fractions (and volume
= commonly expressed in ppm, ppb, ppt fractions).

parts per million by mass (ppmm) = the number of - For this reason, partial pressure can be
units of mass of chemical per million units of total calculated as the product of the mole or
mass. volume fractions and the total fraction and
the total pressure.
2. Mass Volume Units
Pi = volume fraction or mole fraction x P total
= commonly expressed in mg/L, μg/m³, and mg/m³
= ppm v x 10 -6 x P total
In most aqeous solutions, parts per million by mass
(ppmm) = mg/L because the density of water is
approximately 1000g/L.

3. Volume/volume and mole/mole Units

• Thus, partial pressure can be added to the list
= commonly expressed in parts per million by of unit types that can be used to calculate
volume(ppmv) ppm v.

Ideal Gas Law • That is, either volume, moles or partial

Using the Ideal gas Law to convert ppm to μg/m³.
MOLE/VOLUME UNITS
The ideal gas law states that pressure (P) times
volume occupied (V) equals the number of moles (n)
times the gas constant (R) times the absolute
temperature (T) in degrees Kelvin or Rankine.
PV =nRT
Here R is the universal gas constant, may be
expressed in many different sets of units.
pressure can be used in ppm v calculations.
• Molarity defined as the number of moles of
compound per liter of solution.
• Thus a 10 -4 M solution of copper contains 10 -
4
moles of copper per liter of solution.
Concentrations expressed in these units are
read as molar.

PARTIAL-PRESSURE UNITS

- The total pressure exerted by a gas mixture • Molality is the number of moles of a solute
may be considered as the sum of the partial added to exactly one liter of solvent.
pressures exerted by each component of the
mixture.
- The partial pressure of each component is
equal to the pressure that would be exerted if
all the other components of the mixture were
suddenly removed.
Percent Composition
- Partial pressure is commonly written as Pi,
where I refer to the particular gas being • Percent by Weight or Mass, wt%
considered.
- For example, the partial pressure of oxygen in
the atmosphere P O2 is 0.21 atm.

- Remember that the Ideal Gas Law states that,

at given temperature and volume, pressure is
 • Volume Percent, vol%
Preparing Solutions
To prepare a solution with a desired
morality, weigh out the correct
mass of pure reagent, dissolve it in
solvent in a volumetric flask, dilute
with more solvent to the desired
final volume, and mix well by
inverting the flask m a n y t i m e s .
Dilution formula
Other Equations
Introduction to Water Chemistry
Why Water?
- Water dissolves more substances than any
other liquid, so it carries chemicals, minerals
and nutrients as it travels
- The U.S. uses ~346 billion gallons of fresh
water every day; the average American uses
80-100 gallons every day
- The overall amount of water on our planet
has remained the same for two billion years
- 80% of the Earth's surface is water and
humans can drink only 2.5% of available water
Water Quality Key Terms
- Contamination: The presence of a minor
component in another chemical or mixture.
- Purification: To make something pure or to
cleanse.
- Remediation: To correct something that has gone
bad or defective.
- Adsorption: The adhesion of atoms, ions or
molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved
substance to a surface.
Why do we treat/purify water?
Because water dissolves substances making it either
mineralized, or even contaminated or polluted.
Water Characteristics and Quality
Pure water is a tasteless, colorless, and odorless
liquid made up of hydrogen and oxygen with a
chemical formula H2o.
Because water is almost universal solvent, most
natural as well as man-made substances are soluble in
it to some extent.
Consequently, water in nature contains dissolved
substances. In addition, as a result of hydrologic cycle,
it contains various other substances as well as gases.
These substances are often identified as the
impurities found in water.
Impurities in Water
• The impurities are classified as
(1) ionic and dissolved,
(2) nonionic and undissolved, and
 (3) gases. • Often, the results of chemical analyses are
reported in terms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Dissolved impurities are further classified into two
This is done by multiplying the weight of a
groups depending on whether the ions are positive or
constituent expressed in milliequivalents per liter
negative.
(meq/l) by the milliequivalent weight of CaCO3 (50
Nonionic and undissolved impurities are often mg/meq).
categorized according to size and are identified as
suspended if they will settle and colloidal if they will
not settle. Characteristics of Water

Color and organic matter can be classified as both • Physical

ionic and dissolved, as well as nonionic and
• total solids, suspended, and dissolved
undissolved, depending on the nature of the
solids.
molecules. For example, humates are ionic and
• Total solids are determined by
dissolved, whereas tannins are nonionic and
evaporating a sample and
undissolved.
weighing the dry residue.
• In the evaluation of water quality, the impurities
• Suspended solids found by
in the water are usually classified as physical,
filtering a sample of water. The
chemical, and biological.
difference between total solids
• The bacteria that are colloidal, nonionic, and and suspended solids represents
undissolved impurities would be considered a dissolved solids.
biological characteristic with respect to water
• Depending on the size of the
quality.
opening in the filter paper that is
• Where water is to be used as a public water used, a portion of the colloidal
supply, the physical, chemical, and biological material will also be measured as
impurities that may be present are also referred suspended solids. Information on
to as contaminants total suspended solids is used for
design of water-treatment
• The presence or absence of impurities depends on
facilities. Total dissolved solids
the source of the water. For example, suspended
concentration, in conjunction with
matter is commonly found in surface water, but it
a detailed chemical analysis, is
would not be expected in groundwater because of
used to assess the suitability of
the filtering action of the aquifer.
various water sources for
• To evaluate whether the specific impurities are alternative uses such as industry
harmful one must determine (1) the nature and of agriculture.
amounts of the impurities present, (2) the uses to
• Turbidity.
be made of the water, and (3) the tolerance for
• Turbidity decreases the clarity of
various impurities for each use.
water and results from the finely
• The unit most commonly used to define the divided impurities, regardless of
concentration of impurities found in water is source, that may be present in
milligrams per liter (mg/L), which is also equal to water. Turbidity is usually caused
grams per cubic meter (g/m'). Concentration can by clay, silt, and soil particles, and
also be expressed as parts per million (ppm), on a other colloidal impurities. The
weight basis. The interrelationship of these units degree of turbidity depends on
is, the fineness of the particles and
their concentration. In the past,
the standard of comparison was
the Jackson turbidimeter in which
turbidity was taken as a measure
of the depth of water required to
cause the image of a candle flame
 to disappear. Today, turbidity is
measured with a turbidimeter by
measuring the interference to the
passage of light through a water
sample. Surface waters in which
there is a significant increase in
the level of turbidity after a
rainfall are often identified as
“flashing waters”. Such waters are
more difficult to treat than waters
in which the level of turbidity
remains reasonably constant.
• Color.
• Fresh wastewater: Gray Septic /
Stale: Black
• Anthropogenic sources:
• Paper mills
• Textile mills
• Food Processing
• Chemical compounds:
humic acid (yellow); Iron
oxides (red) and
Manganese oxides
(brown)
• Impact:
• Aesthetic displeasing and
unacceptable
• May be an indication of
toxicity
• May stain textiles and
fixtures
• Types of Color:
• Apparent Color – due to
suspended solids
• True Color – due to
dissolved solids that
remain after suspended
solids
• Measurement: Colorimetric
(Visual Comparison Method)
• Unit Measurement of Color:
• 1.True Color Unit (TCU)
• 2. Platinum Cobalt Unit
(PCU)
• Standard color solutions:
Potassium chloroplatinate
(K2PtCl6) tinted with
small amounts of cobalt
chloride.
• Color produced by 1 mg/L
of Pt plus ½ mg/L of
Cobalt = 1 standard color
unit
• Comparison tubes:
Nessler tubes
• tastes and odors.
• Tastes and odors in water are
caused by the presence of
decomposed organic material and
volatile chemicals and are
measured by diluting the sample
until the taste and odor are no
longer detectable by a human
test. Drinking water should be
practically free of color, tastes,
and odor.
• temperature
• The temperature of water is
important in terms of its intended
use, its treatment to remove
impurities, and its transport. The
temperature depends on the
source of the water. Groundwater
temperature will vary depending
on the depth and characteristics
of the aquifer from which the
water is drawn. Temperatures of
surface water drawn from a deep
reservoir also vary with depth.
• Visual Comparison Method
• Significance and Use
• The primary objective of
the visual method of Pt-
Co color measurement, is
to rate specific materials
for yellowness. This
yellowness is frequently
the result of the
undesirable tendency of
liquid hydrocarbons to
absorb blue light due to
contamination in
processing, storage or
shipping.
• Clear liquids can be rated
for light absorbing
yellowish or brownish
contaminants using scales
that simulate the long-
established visual-
comparison method.
 • Non-carbonated hardness is defined as the
total hardness in excess of the alkalinity. If the
alkalinity is equal to or greater than the total
hardness, then there is no noncarbonate
hardness.

• Noncarbonate hardness accounts for that

portion of the calcium and magnesium that is
associated with ions other than bicarbonate
Other water Qualåty Parameters
and carbonate, including sulfate, nitrate and
• Hardness chloride.

– is caused by divalent or multivalent

cations or positively charged metallic ions
principally Ca+2 and Mg+2, others include
Iron, Strontium, Manganese and Barium.

– Anions are bicarbonates, chlorides and

sulfates.

– Like alkalinity, it is expressed in terms of

mg/L of CaCO3

– Natural Process by which water becomes

hard

• Relationship between total hardness, carbonate

hardness, and noncarbonate hardness

– TH = Ca + Mg

– TH = CH + NCH

• Carbonate Hardness = hardness equal to the

total hardness or total alkalinity, whichever is
less; also called temporary hardness

Deionised Water and Distilled Water
Deionised water is not quite as pure as distilled water
Deionised water had all the dissolved ions in the
water removed
Distilled water has all the dissolved solids and
dissolved gases removed
F.O.G (Fats, Oil and Grease)
– A variety of organic substances including
hydrocarbons, fats, oils, waxes, and high-
molecular weight fatty acids are collectively
referred as FOG.
– Sources are animal and vegetable matter
– Objectionable because of the following:
• it adheres to sewer pipe.
• it is detrimental to the bacteria.
• it forms excessive scum in
sedimentation tanks
• it clogs filter media; it reduces
reaeration capacity of natural body of
water.
– DENR Standards is less than 5 mg/L;
– Instrument used:
– solution of methylene blue dye.
Soxhlet Extraction Apparatus
Organic Matter
– These solids are derived from both the animal
and plant kingdoms and the activities of man
as related to the synthesis of organic
compounds.
– Are normally composed of a combination of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and nitrogen
in some cases.
• Proteins – are the principal
constituents of the animal organism.
They are complex in chemical
structure and unstable, being subject
to many forms of decomposition.
When present in large quantities,
extremely foul odors are apt to be
produced by their decomposition.
• Carbohydrates – include sugars,
starches, cellulose and wood fiber.
• Organic Matter
– Surfactants – are large organic molecules
that are slightly soluble in water and
cause foaming in wastewater-treatment
plants and in the surface waters into
which the waste effluent is discharged.
Historical note:
Before 1965, ABS was typically present in synthetic
detergents. ABS – alkyl-benzenesulfonate is resistant
to biological decomposition.
LAS – linear-alkyl-sulfonate replaced ABS since it is
biodegradable.
• Surfactants – are determined by
measuring the color change in a standard
– - Methylene blue active substance
(MBAS)
• Organic Matter
– Phenols (C6H5OH) – cause taste
problems in drinking water,
particularly when the water is
chlorinated. They are produced
primarily by industrial operations.
– Phenols can be biologically oxidized at
concentrations up to 500 mg/L.
– Measurement of Organic Matter:
 – Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) DO vs Temp
– Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
– Total Organic Compound (TOC)
– Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD)

DO vs BOD

• Change in DO with tempt, salinity, elevation

• BOD Computation

Salinity

. As the salinity of
water increases, its
ability to

dissolve oxygen
decreases.

. Auto calibration u
sing conductivity
measurement

• Chemical Characteristics

• Nutrients

• Nitrogen

• Phosphorus

• Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals

• Effects of Nitrogen
 • Nitrogen is detrimental to a
receiving body for four reasons:

• In high concentration, ammonia in

its unionized form is toxic to fish
•
• Ammonia, NH3, in low
•
concentrations, and Nitrate, NO3,
serve as nutrients for excessive •
growth of algae
- Filters
• The conversion of NH4 to NO3
consumes large quantities of
dissolved oxygen

• During the common practice of

disinfecting wastewater effluent
using chlorination, the chlorine
and hypochlorous acid/
hypochlorite can react with any
ammonia present in the water, - Activated Carbon
forming chloramines.

• The chloramines, which are not

removed during dechlorination
prior to discharge, are more toxic
that either chlorine or
hypochlorous acid/ hypochlorite.

• Effects of Phosphorus

• Nitrogen is detrimental to a
receiving body for four reasons:

• serve as nutrients for excessive - Boiling Water

growth of algae

• When algae die, they become

oxygen-demanding organic
material as bacteria seek to
degrade them.

• How do we purify water?

• Larger-scale methods
- reverse osmosis - Contamination Sources
- ultra-filtration o leaking sewage
- electro-deionization o leaking underground fuel storage
• Smaller-scale methods tanks
- filters o pesticide and herbicide runoff
- boiling o landfills and dumps
- Reverse Osmosis o industrial waste
o and more...
- Sewage Spills - Pump-and-Treat

- Underground Storage Tanks

- Permeable Reactive Barrier

- Pesticides and Herbicides

- Nanoparticle Injection

- Industrial Waste Spills

Methods of Separating Mixtures

• Remediation Methods
. Magnet - A way of separating out a mixture of
chemicals, which are in gas or liquid form,
by letting them creep slowly past another
substance, which is typically a liquid or
solid.

. Filter

Decant

. Evaporation

- Partition Chromatography Definition

o the separation of components
between two liquid phases viz
original solvent and the film of
solvent used in column.
o This separation theory was
introduced in the year 1940s
which was published by Richard
Laurence Millington Synge and
Archer Martin. It is also known as
Liquid-liquid chromatography
(LLC). Or if gas is the mobile phase
. Centrifuge it is called Gas-liquid
. Chromatography chromatography (GLC)

. Distillation

• Biological