ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
CHAPTER 4: TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
CELL JUNCTIONS
• A gland is a single cell, or a mass of epithelial cells
• Cells can be held together in
several ways. These points of
• The secretions of endocrine glands enter the interstitial
contact between cells are called
cell junctions.
• The secretions of exocrine glands enter ducts that
1. TIGHT JUNCTIONS
- Weblike strands of
transmembrane proteins that
fuse together the outer surfaces
of adjacent plasma membranes
to seal of passageways between
adjacent cells. STOMACH,
INTESTINES and URINARY
BLADDDER.
-
2. ADHERENS JUNCTIONS
- Contains PLAQUE, a dense
layer of proteins on the inside of
the plasma membrane that
attaches both to membrane
proteins and MICROFILAMENTS
of the cytoskeleton. ADHESION
BELTS – extensive zones.
3. DESMOSOMES
- Contains plaque and
transmembrane glycoproteins
that extends into the
intercellular space between
adjacent cell membranes and
attach cells together.
- Attaches to INTERMEDIATE
FILAMENTS that consist of
PROTEIN KERATIN.
4. HEMIDESMOSOMES
- Resembles desmosomes, but
they do not like adjacent cells.
- Transmembrane glycoproteins
are INTEGRINS that attaches to
intermediate filaments. On the
outside of plasma membrane, it
attaches to the protein LAMININ
(basement membrane)
5. GAP JUNTIONS
- Membrane proteins called
CONNEXINS form tiny fluid-filled
tunnels called CONNEXONS that
connect neighboring cells.
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GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
adapted for secretion
fluid and diffuse into the bloodstream
empty onto the surface of a covering/lining epithelium
such as the skin surface or the lumen of the stomach
1. ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• Secretions (hormones) enter interstitial fluid and
then diffuse into bloodstream without flowing
through a duct.
o Location: Pituitary gland at the base of the
brain, pineal gland in the brain, thyroid and
parathyroid gland near larynx (voice box),
adrenal glands superior to kidneys, pancreas
near stomach, ovaries in pelvic cavity, testes in
scrotum, thymus in thoracic cavity.
• Hormones regulate many metabolic and
physiological activities to maintain homeostasis.
2. EXOCRINE GLANDS
• Secretory products are released into ducts that
empty onto surface of a covering and lining
epithelium, such as skin surface or lumen of
hollow organs.
o Location: Sweat, oil, and earwax glands of skin;
digestive glands such as salivary glands (secrete
into mouth cavity, and pancreas (secretes into
small intestines).
• Produce substances such as sweat to help lower
body, temperature, oil, earwax, saliva, or
digestive enzymes.
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF GLANDULAR
• UNICELLULAR – single cells
▪ Goblet cells
• MULTICELLULAR – composed of
many cells that form a distinctive
microscopic structure or
macroscopic organ
▪ Sweat glands
▪ Oil glands
▪ Salivary glands
(a) Simple Tubular – Glands in the Large Intestine
(b) Simple Branched Tubular – Gastric Glands
(c) Simple Coiled Tubular – Sweat Glands
(d) Simple Acinar – Glands of Penile Urethra
(e) Simple Branch Acinar – Sebaceous Glands
(f) Compound Tubular – Bulbourethral Glands
(g) Compound Acinar – Mamary Glands
(h) Compound Tubuloacinar – Acinar Glands of
Pancreas
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CHAPTER 4: TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM 2. Mucous
• Based on whether a secretion is a product of a cell or
consists of an entire or partial glandular cell.
1. MEROCRINE GLANDS
- Secretion is synthesized on
ribosomes attached to rough ER;
processed, sorted, and packaged
by Golgi Complex; and released
from the cell in secretory vesicles
via exocytosis. MATURE
2. APOCRINE GLANDS
1. Loose
- Accumulate their secretory
2. Dense
product at the apical surface of
3. Cartilage
the secreting cell. Then, that
4. Bone
portion pinches off by exocytosis
5. Blood
to release secretion.
(More Information on Set 2 Trans Page 2-3)
3. HOLOCRINE GLANDS
- Accumulate secretory product in MUSCULAR TISSUE
their cytosol. As the secretory cell • Muscle tissue consists of fibers that provide motion,
matures, it ruptures and becomes maintain posture, and produce heat
the secretory product. • Main characteristic is its ability to contract, or
shorten, making movement possible
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
SPECIAL FEATURES 3 TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
• Consists of two basic elements: SKELETAL MUSCLE TISSUE
1. Cells --------- Set 2 trans Page 5 • Location: Usually attached to bones by tendons
2. Extracellular matrix • Function: Motion, posture, heat production,
• Connective tissue cells do not have any free surfaces protection
• Connective tissue is highly vascularized and has a nerve CARDIAC MUSCLE TISSUE
supply • Location: Heart Wall
▪ Exceptions: tendons and cartilage • Function: Pumps blood to all parts of the body
CONNECTIVE TISSUE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE
• Location: Iris of eyes; walls of hollow internal
• Extracellular matrix is in the spaces between
structures such as blood vessels, airways to lungs,
connective tissue cells
stomach, intestines, gallbladder, urinary bladder,
• Extracellular matrix is composed of fibers and ground
and uterus.
substance
• Function: Motion (constriction of blood vessels and
CONNECTIVE TISSUE FIBERS
airways, propulsion of gastrointestinal tract,
• Fibers in the extracellular
contraction of urinary bladder and gallbladder).
matrix provide strength
and support to a tissue NERVOUS TISSUE
1. Collagen fibers • Two kinds of cells:
2. Elastic fibers 1. Neurons
3. Reticular fibers 2. Neuroglia
CLASSIFICATION OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE • Most neurons have a cell body, dendrites, and axons
▪ Neurons can carry sensory, or motor information
EMBRYONIC
and they can perform integrative functions
1. Mesenchyme
• Neuroglia protects and support neurons
FUNCTION: Exhibits sensitivity to various types of stimuli;
converts stimuli into nerve impulses (action potentials);
conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers
or glands.

EXCITABLE CELL
• Neurons and muscle fibers are considered excitable
cells because they exhibit electrical excitability
▪ Electrical excitability is the ability to respond to
certain stimuli by producing electrical signals, such

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 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

CHAPTER 4: TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

as action potentials, which travel along the plasma
membrane of a neuron or muscle fiber due to the
presence of specific voltage-gated channels

TISSUE REPAIR: RESTORING HOMEOSTASIS

TISSUE REPAIR
• Tissue repair is the process that replaces worn out,
damaged, or dead cells
▪ Epithelial cells are replaced by the division of
stem cells or undifferentiated cells
▪ Not all connective tissue cells had the ability to
repair
▪ Muscle cells can perform limited repair
▪ Some nervous cells can perform limited repair,
others cannot
• Fibrosis is the formation of scar tissue

AGING
• Younger bodies generally experience:
▪ A better nutritional state
▪ A better blood supply to tissues
▪ A faster metabolic rate
• Aging slows the process of tissue repair
• Aging also results in stiffening and loss of elasticity in
tissues

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCES
• Disorders of epithelial tissues tend to be specific to
individual organs, such as ulcers in the stomach
• Disorders of connective tissues tend to be
autoimmune in nature, such as lupus
• Disorders of muscular and nervous tissues will be
discussed in later chapters

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