SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
OF WATER

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

1. ALKALINITY AND WATER
Alkalinity is the buffering capacity of a water body; a measure of
the ability of the water body to neutralize acids and bases and
thus maintain a fairly stable pH level.

Alkalinity and Acid Neutralizing Capacity

Alkalinity is not a chemical in water, but, rather, it is a property of
water that is dependent on the presence of certain chemicals in
the water, such as bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydroxides. In
more simple terms, water with a high alkalinity will experience less
of a change in its own acidity, for instance, when acidic water, such
as acid rain or an acid spill, is introduced into the water body.
You might use this analogy—you and your friend are in separate
small rowboats in a lake. Both rowboats develop a leak, which
doesn't worry you, since both of you were wise enough to bring a
bailing bucket onboard just for this contingency. Except your
friend grabbed a gallon-sized bucket while all you have is a
smaller pint-sized bucket. You both start bailing water out of your
boat, but after a while your friend’s foot are barely wet while the
inside of your boat has water up to your knees. Your friend can
bail incoming water out as fast as it comes in, but you can't keep
up. Your friend has better "buffering capacity" than you have and
can neutralize the incoming water to a greater extent. In this
analogy, his boat would have a higher alkalinity than your boat
has.

Why alkalinity is important?

Although you don't often hear about the alkalinity of water in the
news, alkalinity can be important to the health and welfare of
water. The ecosystem and organisms that live in the water evolved
in water bodies that didn't change quickly. Before humans came
along water bodies were not subjected to chemical spills and acid
rain. Likely the pH and aquatic characteristics of a water did not
change much over the short term, which suited the fish in the
water bodies just fine.
In modern times, water bodies can be subjected to sudden inputs
of chemicals, such as those contained in acid rain and wastewater,
that can cause rapid changes in the acid/base balance of a
water—lowering the pH of the water, for instance. A sudden shift
in pH is not healthy for the fish and organisms living in the water.
Aquatic organisms benefit from stable pH values, and waters with
a high alkalinity are better able to maintain a fairly constant pH.

What affects alkalinity?

In a surface water body, such as a lake, the alkalinity in the water
comes mostly from the rocks and land surrounding the lake.
Precipitation falls in the watershed surrounding the lake and most
of the water entering the lake comes from runoff over the

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

landscape. If the landscape is in an area containing rocks such as

limestone then the runoff picks up chemicals such as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), which raises the pH and alkalinity of the water.
In areas where the geology contains large amounts of granite, for
instance, lakes will have a lower alkalinity.

Measuring Alkalinity
One common method for measuring alkalinity is to use a water
sample and to add acid to it while checking the pH of the water as
the acid is added. An initial pH reading of the water is taken and
then small amounts of acid are added in increments, the water is
stirred, and the pH is taken. This is done many times.
In the beginning, the acid added will be neutralized by
compounds in the water, such as bicarbonates. As more acid is
added, the bicarbonates get "used up", as it is also being
neutralized by the acid. Eventually all the acid-neutralizing
compounds are used up. After this point, any acid added to the
water will lower the pH in a linear fashion, and the scientist will be
able to see this reflection point by viewing a line chart of the
amount of acid added to the water and the resulting pH. The point Measuring a water sample in a lab to determine
alkalinity. Credit: Joseph Ayotte, USGS
at which the change in pH line becomes linear is used to
determine the water's alkalinity.

2.CONDUCTIVITY (ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTANCE) AND WATER
Water and electricity don't mix, right? Well actually, pure water is
an excellent insulator and does not conduct electricity. The thing
is, you won't find any pure water in nature, so don't mix electricity
and water.

Conductivity (Electrical Conductance) and Water

You're never too old to learn something new. All my life I've heard
that water and electricity make a dangerous pair together. And
pretty much all of the time that is true—mixing water and
electricity, be it from a lightning bolt or electrical socket in the
house, is a very dangerous thing to do.
But what I learned from researching this topic was that pure water
is actually an excellent insulator and does not conduct electricity.
Water that would be considered "pure" would be distilled water
(water condensed from steam) and deionized water (used in
laboratories), although even water of this purity can contain ions.
However, in our real lives, we normally do not come across any
pure water. If you read the discussion about the physical
property of water being the "universal solvent" you know that
water can dissolve more things than just about any other liquid.
Water is a most excellent solvent. It doesn't matter if the water
comes out of your kitchen faucet, is in a swimming pool, comes
out of the ground or falls from the sky, the water will contain
significant amounts of dissolved substances, minerals, and
chemicals. These things are the solutes dissolved in water.

Free Ions in Water Conduct Electricity

Water stops being an excellent insulator once it starts dissolving

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

substances around it. Salts, such as common table salt (sodium

chloride (NaCl)) is the one we know best. In chemical terms, salts
are ionic compounds composed of cations (positively charged
ions) and anions (negatively charged ions). In solution, these ions
essentially cancel each other out so that the solution is electrically
neutral (without a net charge) even a small number of ions in a
water solution makes it able to conduct electricity (so definitely
don't add salt to your "lightning-storm" bathwater). When water
contains these ions it will conduct electricity, such as from a
lightning bolt or a wire from the wall socket, as the electricity from
the source will seek out oppositely-charged ions in the water. Too
bad if there is a human body in the way.

Interestingly, if the water contains very large amounts of solutes

and ions, then the water becomes such an efficient conductor of
electricity that an electrical current may essentially ignore a human
body in the water and stick to the better pathway to conduct
itself—the masses of ions in the water. That is why the danger of
electrocution in sea water is less than it would be in bathwater.

3. DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND WATER

Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is a measure of how much oxygen is
dissolved in the water - the amount of oxygen available to living
aquatic organisms. The amount of dissolved oxygen in a stream or
lake can tell us a lot about its water quality.
Although water molecules contain an oxygen atom, this oxygen is
not what is needed by aquatic organisms living in natural waters. A
small amount of oxygen, up to about ten molecules of oxygen per
million of water, is actually dissolved in water. Oxygen enters a
stream mainly from the atmosphere and, in areas where
groundwater discharge into streams is a large portion of
streamflow, from groundwater discharge. This dissolved oxygen is
breathed by fish and zooplankton and is needed by them to
survive.

Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality

Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or large river,
tends to contain a lot of dissolved oxygen, whereas stagnant water
contains less. Bacteria in water can consume oxygen as organic
matter decays. Thus, excess organic material in lakes and rivers
can cause eutrophic conditions, which is an oxygen-deficient
situation that can cause a water body to "die”.
Aquatic life can have a hard time in stagnant water that has a lot
of rotting, organic material in it, especially in summer (the
concentration of dissolved oxygen is inversely related to water
temperature), when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low.
Water near the surface of the lake– the epilimnion– is too warm
for them, while water near the bottom–the hypolimnion– has too
little oxygen. Conditions may become especially serious during a
A eutrophic lake where dissolved-oxygen
period of hot, calm weather, resulting in the loss of many fish. You concentrations are low. Algal blooms can occur
may have heard about summertime fish kills in local lakes that under such conditions.
likely result from this problem.
(Source: A Citizen's Guide to Understanding and Monitoring Lakes and Streams)

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

Dissolved Oxygen, Temperature, and Aquatic Life

Water temperature affects dissolved-oxygen concentrations in a
river or water body.
The concentration of dissolved oxygen in surface water is affected
by temperature and has both a seasonal and a daily cycle. Cold
water can hold more dissolved oxygen than warm water. During
rainy season, when the water temperature is low, the dissolved
oxygen concentration is high. During summer, when the water
temperature is high, the dissolved-oxygen concentration is often
lower.
Dissolved oxygen in surface water is used by all forms of aquatic
life; therefore, this constituent typically is measured to assess the
"health" of lakes and streams. Oxygen enters a stream from
the atmosphere and from groundwater discharge. The
contribution of oxygen from groundwater discharge is significant,
however, only in areas where groundwater is a large component
of streamflow. Photosynthesis is the primary process affecting the
dissolved-oxygen/temperature relation; water clarity and strength
and duration of sunlight, in turn, affect the rate of photosynthesis.
One of the most common causes of cloudy dishes
4. HARDNESS OF WATER and glassware is hard water. Credit: Kinetico Water Systems

Water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium and

magnesium in the water. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals,
largely calcium and magnesium. You may have felt the effects of
hard water, literally, the last time you washed your hands.
Depending on the hardness of your water, after using soap to
wash you may have felt like there was a film of residue left on your
hands. In hard water, soap reacts with the calcium (which is
relatively high in hard water) to form "soap scum". When using
hard water, more soap or detergent is needed to get things clean,
be it your hands, hair, or your laundry.
Have you done a load of dishes in the dishwasher, taken out the
glasses, and noticed spots or film on them? This is more hardwater
residue – not dangerous, but unsightly.
Many industrial and domestic water users are concerned about
the hardness of their water. When hard water is heated, such as in
a home water heater, solid deposits of calcium carbonate can
form. This scale can reduce the life of equipment, raise the costs of
heating the water, lower the efficiency of electric water heaters,
and clog pipes. And, yes, mineral buildup will occur in your home
coffee maker too, which is why some people occasionally run
vinegar (an acid) through the pot. The acidity of vinegar helps to
dissolve mineral particles by making them charged. These newly
charged particles become attracted to the positive and negative
charges in water and can be washed away easily.
But hard water can have some benefits, too. Humans need
minerals to stay healthy, and the World Health Organization
(WHO) states that drinking-water may be a contributor of calcium
and magnesium in the diet and could be important for those who
are marginal for calcium and magnesium intake.

Measures of Water Hardness

Hardness is caused by compounds of calcium and magnesium,

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

and by a variety of other metals. General guidelines for

classification of waters are: 0 to 60 mg/L (milligrams per liter) as TYPES OF WATER CONCENTRATION
calcium carbonate is classified as soft; 61 to 120 mg/L as HARDNESS (mg/L)
moderately hard; 121 to 180 mg/L as hard; and more than 180
mg/L as very hard. (see Table 2) SOFT 0 – 60

Water systems using groundwater as a source are concerned with MODERATE 61 – 120
water hardness, since as water moves through soil and rock it
dissolves small amounts of naturally-occurring minerals and HARD 121 – 180
carries them into the groundwater supply. Water is a
great solvent for calcium and magnesium, so if the minerals are VERY HARD >180
present in the soil around a water-supply well, hard water may be
Table 2. Water Hardness
delivered to homes.

As the image of the inside of a water-supply pipe shows (see

Figure 15), long-term movement of hard water through a pipe can
result in what is called scale buildup. Just as in the human body
where blood vessels can be reduced in inside diameter due to
cholesterol buildup, water pipes can gradually close up resulting in
Figure 15. Lime scale build-up inside a water pipe.
less water movement through the pipe and a lowering of water
pressure.

TYPES OF WATER HARDNESS

a. HARD WATER
Water that contains large amounts of dissolved ions,
commonly bicarbonate, calcium and magensium ions, and
sometimes iron and aluminum. Soap is less effective and
prevented from lathering in hard water because it reacts to
form calcium or magnesium salt from the organic acids of
the soap. (See Figure 16)

Figure 16. Soap lathers more in soft water than in

There are two kinds of hard water. These are the temporary hard water. This due to the reaction of dissolved
ions in hard water with the organic acids of the soap
hard water and the permanent hard water.
forming salts of calcium and magnesium.

 Temporary Hard Water

Water with an excess of carbonates and bicarbonate ions.
Bicarbonate ions are formed when carbon dioxide reacts
with water to form Carbonic acid (found in carbonated
beverages). Temporary hardness is removed when water is
heated. This causes bicarbonates to precipitate out of
solution, forming scale on the heated surfaces. When
heated, this ion will breakdown into water (H2O) and
carbon dioxide (CO2). (See Figure 17)

Figure 17. Boiling removes the hardness of

temporary hard water, however it forms scales on
the heated surface.

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

 Permanent Hard Water

Hard water that contains calcium, magnesium, iron, and
sulfate ions. These ions cannot be removed by boiling;
they must be removed from water chemically.

Removal of Hardness of Water

Water hardness can be removed chemically using different
methods. Some of these methods include the Clark’s method
and the Ion-exchange method.
 Clark’s Method
In this method, a calculated amount of calcium
hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, is added to water. Due to reaction,
insoluble carbonates are obtained which are separated
by filtration.

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2  2 CaCO3 + 2 H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2 H2O

 Ion-exchange Method
In this method, sodium zeolite is used as ion-exchanger.
Na-zeolite is passed through the pipe containing hard
water. Sodium zeolite is converted into calcium-zeolite
or magnesium-zeolite. These are insoluble in water and
are separated from water by filtration. (see Figure 18)

Ca2+ + Na2-zeolite  Ca-zeolite + 2 Na+

Mg2+ + Na2-zeolite  Mg-zeolite + 2 Na+

b. SOFT WATER
Water with very low concentration of minerals. It has an ion Figure 18. An ion-exchanger such as sodium zeolite
concentration of between 0 to 60 mg/L. Rain water is is used to remove the hardness of water.
considered soft water but becomes hard as it travels through
the ground and absorb minerals. Soft water may have large
amounts of sodium ions and may also be unsuitable or even
dangerous to drink

5. pH and WATER
pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from
0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity,
whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. The pH of water
is a very important measurement concerning water quality. Not
only does the pH of a stream affect organisms living in the water,
a changing pH in a stream can be an indicator of increasing
pollution or some other environmental factor.

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

pH: Definition and Measurement Units

pH is a measure of how acidic/basic water is. The range goes from
0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pHs of less than 7 indicate acidity,
whereas a pH of greater than 7 indicates a base. pH is really a
measure of the relative amount of free hydrogen and hydroxyl
ions in the water. Water that has more free hydrogen ions is
acidic, whereas water that has more free hydroxyl ions is basic.
Since pH can be affected by chemicals in the water, pH is an
important indicator of water that is changing chemically. pH is
reported in "logarithmic units". Each number represents a 10-fold
change in the acidity/basicness of the water. Water with a pH of
five is ten times more acidic than water having a pH of six.

Importance of pH
The pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be
dissolved in the water) and biological availability (amount that can
be utilized by aquatic life) of chemical constituents such as
nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy metals
(lead, copper, cadmium, etc.). For example, in addition to affecting
how much and what form of phosphorus is most abundant in the
water, pH also determines whether aquatic life can use it.
In the case of heavy metals, the degree to which they are soluble
determines their toxicity. Metals tend to be more toxic at lower pH
because they are more soluble. (Source: A Citizen's Guide to
Understanding and Monitoring Lakes and Streams)

Measuring pH
pH is an important water measurement, which is often measured
both at the sampling site and in the lab. There are large and small
models of pH meters. Portable models are available to take out in DIAGRAM OF pH
the field and larger models are used in the lab. As this diagram shows, pH ranges from 0 to 14, with
To use the pH meter (see Figure 19), the water sample is placed in 7 being neutral. pHs less than 7 are acidic while pHs
greater than 7 are alkaline (basic). Normal rainfall
the cup and the glass probe at the end of the retractable arm is has a pH of about 5.6—slightly acidic due to carbon
placed in the water. Inside the thin glass bulb at the end of the dioxide gas from the atmosphere. You can see
probe there are two electrodes that measure voltage. One that acid rain can be very acidic, and it can affect
electrode is contained in a liquid that has a fixed acidity, or pH. the environment in a negative way.
Credit: robin_ph / stock.adobe.com
The other electrode responds to the acidity of the water sample. A
voltmeter in the probe measures the difference between the
voltages of the two electrodes. The meter then translates the
voltage difference into pH and displays it on the little screen on
the main box.
Before taking a pH measurement, the meter must be "calibrated."
The probe is immersed in a solution that has a known pH, such as
pure water with a neutral pH of 7.0. The knobs on the box are
used to adjust the displayed pH value to the known pH of the
solution, thus calibrating the meter.

Taking pH at Home or School

One of the most popular school science projects is to take the pH
of water from different sources. Chances are your school (and
certainly not you) does not have an electronic pH meter lying
around, but you can still get an estimate of pH by using litmus Figure 19. A portable electronic pH meter.
paper. Litmus paper, which can be found at pet-supply stores (to

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

check the pH of aquariums) is simply a strip of paper that, when a

sample of water is dropped onto it, turns a certain color, giving a
rough estimate of pH.

pH and Water Quality

Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of
water. High pH causes a bitter taste, water pipes and water-using
appliances become encrusted with deposits, and it depresses the
effectiveness of the disinfection of chlorine, thereby causing the
need for additional chlorine when pH is high. Low-pH water will
corrode or dissolve metals and other substances.

Pollution can change a water's pH, which in turn can harm animals
and plants living in the water. For instance, water coming out of an
abandoned coal mine can have a pH of 2, which is very acidic and
would definitely affect any fish crazy enough to try to live in it! By
using the logarithm scale, this mine-drainage water would be
100,000 times more acidic than neutral water.

6. SALINE WATER and SALINITY

In your everyday life you are not involved much with saline water.
You are concerned with freshwater to serve your life's every need.
But, most of Earth's water, and almost all of the water that people
can access, is saline, or salty water. Just look at the oceans and
remember that oceans comprise about 97% of all water on, in, and
above the Earth.

What is saline water?

First, what do we mean by "saline water?" Water that is saline
contains significant amounts (referred to as "concentrations") of
dissolved salts, the most common being the salt we all know so
well—sodium chloride (NaCl). In this case, the concentration is the
amount (by weight) of salt in water, as expressed in "parts per
Why is the ocean salty? Rivers discharge mineral-rich
million" (ppm). If water has a concentration of 10,000 ppm of water to the oceans is from outflow from rivers, which
dissolved salts, then one percent (10,000 divided by 1,000,000) of drain the landscape, thus causing the oceans to be
the weight of the water comes from dissolved salts. salty. Credit: NASA

Here are our parameters for saline water:

 Fresh water - Less than 1,000 ppm
 Slightly saline water - From 1,000 ppm to 3,000 ppm
 Moderately saline water - From 3,000 ppm to 10,000 ppm
 Highly saline water - From 10,000 ppm to 35,000 ppm
 By the way, ocean water contains about 35,000 ppm of salt.

Saline water is not just in the oceans

Naturally, when you think of saline water you think of the oceans.
But, hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean, the residents of
states such as Colorado and Arizona can "enjoy a day at the
beach" by just walking outside their house, for they may be right
next to saline water. Water in some area may have been left over
from ancient times and, as rainfall infiltrates downward into the
ground, it can encounter rocks that contain highly soluble
minerals, which turn the water saline. Groundwater can exist and
move for thousands of years and can thus become as saline as
ocean water.

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SORSOGON STATE COLLEGE | AS 211 – CHEMISTRY FOR TECHNOLOGISTS MODULE 2

Can saline water be used for anything?

So, with all of the water available on Earth and all that saline water
sitting offshore, how come we are worried about water shortages?
You can think of it as a water-quality situation rather than water-
quantity situation. In its raw state, saline water cannot be used for
many of the purposes we need water for, such as drinking,
irrigation, and many industrial uses.
Slightly saline water is sometimes used for similar purposes as
freshwater. For example, water having up to 2,500 ppm of salt is
used for irrigating crops. Normally, though, moderate to high
saline water has limited uses. After all, you don't drink salt water at
home; you don't use it to water your tomatoes or brush your
teeth; farmers don't usually irrigate with it; some industries can't
use it without damaging their equipment; and, carabao and cows
won't drink it.
If nothing else, saline water can be just plain fun. If you happen to
be one who has been to the Dead Sea in the Middle East, you
could have experienced the unique sensation of floating in the
extremely dense (and salty) water that apparently holds you up
like a mattress. The water is so dense that you truly do not sink, as
you do in normal, even ocean, water. So, what else can saline
water be used for, and can it be made more usable? There are two
answers—both "yes." Saline water is useful for some water-
use purposes, and saline water can be turned into freshwater, for
which we have many uses.

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