Biodiversity

Biodiversity
- Determine diversity of species using measures such as species richness, evenness, percentage cover,
percentage frequency and Simpsons diversity index
Species richness – The number of different species represented in an ecological community. (Does not take into
account the abundance of the species or their relative abundance distributions)
Species evenness – Refers to how close in numbers each species in an environment is. (Also known as diversity index)
Percentage cover – Method of determining relative abundance based on the amount of space they take up
Percentage frequency – The probability that a species will be found within a single quadrat
Simpsons diversity index – The probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to
different species. Simpsons index (D) needs to be calculated first then the SDI can be calculated.

- Use species diversity indices, species interactions and abiotic factors to compare ecosystems across
spatial and temporal scales
Species diversity indices - The probability that two individuals randomly selected from a sample will belong to
different species. Simpsons index (D) needs to be calculated first then the SDI can be calculated.
Species interactions – the effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on eachoter
Abiotic factors – Temperature, water, radiant energy, humidity, wind and air currents, Ph, mineral salts and trace
elements, water retentions, water currents, salinity, topography, shelter
Spatial scales – the order of magnitude of extent or size of a land area or geographical distance studied or described.
Temporal scales – a habitat lifespan relative to the generation time of the organism

- Explain how environmental factors limit the distribution and abundance of species in an ecosystem

Environmental factors – Abiotic and biotic factors

Distribution of species – Regions in which a species is found theses are affected by all biotic and abiotic conditions of
the environment
Abundance of species – number in a specific area at any time theses are affected by all biotic and abiotic conditions of
the environment

Classification process
- Recognise that biological classification can be hierarchical and based on different levels of similarity of
physical features, methods of reproduction and molecular sequences
Biological classification -
Hierarchical – The process of arranging various organisms into successive levels of the biological classification wither
in a decreasing or increasing order from kingdom to species.
Domain Don’t
Kingdom Kick
Phylum People
Class Cuz
 Order Our
Family Feet
Genus Get
Species Sore
Physical features – Homologues structures are similar structures with slightly different functions, indicating
shared ancestry
Analogous structure are similar functions but no structural relationship
Vestigial structure has no apparent function by may have had a function in an ancestral species
Methods of reproduction – Asexual reproduction is the production of genetically identical offspring from a single
parent
Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring that has genetic material from two parents
Molecular sequences – The identification of genetic material and the ability to sequence DNA has led to scientists
comparing the molecular sequences of different organisms.

- Describe the classification system for

o Similarity of physical features (the Linnaean system)
o Methods of reproduction (asexual, sexual – K and r selection)
o Molecular sequences (molecular phylogeny – also called cladistics)

The Linnaean system – Classifying based on similarities in obvious physical traits. Following the hierarchy
classification.
Asexual - Asexual reproduction is the production of genetically identical offspring from a single parent
Sexual - Sexual reproduction is the production of offspring that has genetic material from two parents
K selection – Characteristics – Long lived, tend to be larger in size, slow maturation, reproduce at a late age, produce
few offspring at a time, extensive parental care, strong completive for resource
R selection – Characteristics – Short lived, tend to be small in size, fast maturation, reproduce at early age, produce
many offspring, little care of offspring, not strongly completive
Molecular phylogeny (cladistics) – A method of grouping organisms that use evolutionary lines of decent rather than
structural similarities.

- Define the term clade

Clade – a group of organisms that is believed to comprise a common ancestor and all of its evolutionary descendants

- Recall that common assumptions of cladistics include a common ancestry, bifurcation and physical
change
Common assumption of cladistics – A method of classification bases purely on evolutionary lines rather than
structural similarity’s
Common ancestry – Shared common ancestor
Common bifurcation – the act of splitting something into two branches or an example of a situation where something
splits or there is a fork
Common physical change – Caused by organisms that have been faced with different selection pressures therefore
they have evolved with different physical changes.

- Interpret cladograms to infer the evolutionary relatedness between groups of organisms

Cladograms – There are 2 main types of cladograms, most analysis focuses on identifying groups showing a given
species and all of its direct descendants – clads – that do not include any other lineages.
Evolutionary relatedness – a term of recency to a common ancestor as well as the degree of relatedness of the terminal
nodes

- Analyse data from molecular sequences to infer species evolutionary relatedness

Molecular sequences - The identification of genetic material and the ability to sequence DNA has led to scientists
comparing the molecular sequences of different organisms.
Evolutionary relatedness -– a term of recency to a common ancestor as well as the degree of relatedness of the
terminal nodes

- Identify one example of an interspecific hybrid that does not produce fertile offspring

Interspecific hybrid – are progeny from the mating of individuals from different species and intraspecific hybrids are
hydrides from the mating of individuals within a species.
Infertile offspring examples – horse and a donkey breed they get a mule

- Explain the classification of organisms according to the following species interactions: predation,
competition, symbiosis, and disease
Species interactions – an effect that a pair of organisms living together in a community have on each other it can either
the same species or different species
Predation – occurs when one organism attacks and kills another living organism to obtain food.
Competition – occurs when resources such as food are limited
Symbiosis – a relationship in which two organisms live in close association over a long period of time
Disease – disorder of structure or function in a human, animal or plant especially one that produces symptoms or that
effect a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury

- Interpret data to classify and name ecosystems

Classify – arrange, distribute, or order in classes or categories according to shared qualities or characteristics
Ecosystems - consist of an interacting community of organism and their physical environment
Types of ecosystems - Natural, agricultural and urban

- Explain how the process of classifying ecosystems is an important step towards effective ecosystem
management
Process of classifying ecosystems – Holdridge life zone system – a system of classifying areas of land, encompassing
climate and ecological types.
Specht’s classification system- Uses the structural featured of the plant in an area by using the foliage cover by the
tallest plants in the area along with the height.
Effective ecosystem managements – Productive soils – the health of soil is linked to its ability to support the growth of
plants which in turn affects the consumer that eats the plants.
Coral reefs – Protect coastlines from the damaging effects of waves and storms which providing essential nutrients
shelter and habitats for marine organism

- Describe the process of stratified sampling in terms of

o Purpose
o Site selection
o Choice of ecological surveying techniques
 o Minimising bias
o Methods of data presentation and analysis

Stratified sampling - Stratified sampling is a type of sampling method in which the total population is divided into
smaller groups or strata to complete the sampling process.
Purpose
Site selection
Choice of ecological surveying techniques
Minimising bias
Methods of data presentation and analysis

Ecosystem dynamics
Functioning ecosystems
- Sequence and explain the transfer and transformation of solar energy into biomass as it follows through
an ecosystem, including
o Converting light to chemical energy
o Producing biomass and interacting with components of the carbon cycle

Transfer solar energy - Solar thermal converts sunlight into heat (also known as thermal energy), which can be used
for a variety of purposes including creating steam to drive an electricity generator. It uses a field of mirrors to reflect
sunlight onto a device called a receiver, which transfers the heat to a thermal energy storage system.
Transformation of solar energy - Solar energy is transformed into other energy forms for our use on Earth – energy for
food (chemical energy), electrical energy and heat energy. Energy from the Sun is transformed into chemical energy,
which is passed along in a food chain. Without the Sun, there would be no life on Earth.
Biomass – amount of organic matter in a system
Converting light to chemical energy
Carbon cycle – interwoven with the oxygen cycle. Photosynthesis incorporated carbon form the atmospheric carbon
dioxide into complex organic molecules and oxygen is released

- Analyse and calculate energy transfer and transformation within ecosystems, including
o Loss of energy through radiation, reflected and absorption
o Efficiencies of energy transfer between trophic levels
o Biomass

Energy transfer – less then six links in any food chain mainly around 3-4. Energy is lost to the surrounding
environment through the form of heat at each food chain level it states that only 5-20% if energy contained at one
level of the food chain can transfer to the next.
Energy transformation - Energy transformation is when energy changes from one form to another – like in a
hydroelectric dam that transforms the kinetic energy of water into electrical energy. While energy can be transferred
or transformed, the total amount of energy does not change – this is called energy conservation
Loss of energy through – Radiation
-Reflected
-Absorption
Tropic levels – Quaternary consumer
-Tertiary consumer
-Secondary consumers
-Primary consumers
-Producers
Biomass - amount of organic matter in a system
Energy transfer between trophic levels - The amount of energy at each trophic level decreases as it moves through an
ecosystem. As little as 10 percent of the energy at any trophic level is transferred to the next level; the rest is lost
largely through metabolic processes as heat.

- Construct and analyse simple energy-flow diagrams illustrating the movement of energy through
ecosystems, including the productivity of the various trophic levels
Energy flow diagrams
Movement of energy through ecosystems
Productivity of trophic levels

- Describe the transfer and transformation of matter as it cycles through ecosystems

Transfer of matter through the ecosystem – matter is transferred from one form to another, it refers to all of the living
and nonliving things in an environment. Primary source of energy is the sun, the sun can produce its own food in the
form of glucose. Primary producers are eaten by primary consumers who are in turn eaten by secondary consumers
and so one.
Transformation of matter through the ecosystem – Majority of energy that exists in food webs originates from the sun
and is converted into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis in plants.

- Define ecological niche

Ecological niche – the role and position a species has in its environment how it meets its needs for food and shelter
and how it survives and how it responds. A species niche includes all of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic
factors of its environment

- Analyse data to identify species or population occupying an ecological niche

Identify species occupying an ecological niche

- Define keystone species

A keystone species is an organism that helps define an entire ecosystem. Without its keystone species, the
ecosystem would be dramatically different or cease to exist altogether. Keystone species have low functional
redundancy.

- Analyse data to identify a keystone species and predict the outcomes of removing the species from an
ecosystem
What occurs when you remove key species – if key species are removed the ecosystem would dramatically different
or cease to exist altogether. Key species have low functional redundancy. This means that if the species were to
disappear from the ecosystem, no other species would be able to fill its ecological niche.
Population ecology
- Define the term carrying capacity

Carrying capacity - a species' average population size in a particular habitat. The species population size is limited by
environmental factors like adequate food, shelter, water, and mates.

- Explain why the carrying capacity of a population is determined by limiting factors

Limiting factors include a low food supply and lack of space. Limiting factors can lower birth rates, increase death
rates, or lead to emigration. ... Limiting factors determine the carrying capacity of a population. Recall that when
there are no limiting factors, the population grows exponentially.

- Calculate the population growth rate and change from data

Population growth rate – the rate of change in a population over a particular range of time – r=(b+i) –
(d+e)

- Use the Lincoln Index to estimate population size from data

Lincoln index – a method used to estimate the size of closed population in which random samples of the population
are captured marked and released to mingle with the general population for a period of time before subsequent
trapping

- Analyse population growth data to determine the mode of population growth

Population growth – increase in the size of a population in a particular habitat over time

- Discuss the effect of changes within population-limiting factors in the carrying capacity of ecosystem

Effect of change within population limiting factors – any factor that limits the growth of a population growth
Carrying capacity – a total population able to be supported by a particular environment

Changing ecosystem
- Explain the concept of ecological succession

Pioneer – Species of plants that colonise bare ground

Climax communities – A more or less stable plant community
Seres – Also know as a seral community is an intermediate stage found in ecological success in an ecosystem
advancing towards its climax community.
Ecological succession - a series of progressive changes in the species that make up a community over time. Ecologists
usually identify two types of succession, which differ in their starting points: In primary succession, newly exposed or
newly formed rock is colonized by living things for the first time.

- Difference between primary and secondary succession

Primary succession – Development and change in plant communities’ overtime, leading eventually from bare ground
to climax community
Secondary succession – Successive, natural change in plant communities in an area where a previous community has
been removed
 - Identify the features of pioneer species that make them effective colonisers

Features of a pioneer species - They can withstand harsh environments, They can germinate in a variety of
environments, They are strong light-demanders, They reach reproductive maturity very quickly, The produce large
number of seeds and have high dispersal rates, They can survive prolonged periods of dormancy.
Colonisers – A species spreads to new areas, often refers to successful immigration where populations becomes
integrated into a community, having resisted initial local extension

- Analyse data from the fossil record to observe past ecosystems and change in biotic and abiotic
components
Change in past ecosystem due to Biotic factors – Biotic factors such as animals and are participants in the food web,
they rely on each other for survival. Theses living organisms affect each other and influence the health of the
ecosystem
Change in past ecosystem due to Abiotic factors – Abiotic factors changes can result I extreme problems for some
organisms, it however can also be positive for example water can become more enriched with minerals. Overall, any
change of abiotic factors change effects the organisms survival directly.

- Analyse ecological data to predict temporal and spatial successional change

Ecological data – Basic deolocial research – proposing and testing hypotheses relating to ecological theories and
principles. – Ecological inventories – collection of data and samples to be used for reference – Environmental
planning – use of ecological information for proposing potential sites for preservation, management or other
environmentally sound uses. – Ecological resource management – collection of information needed for management
of population and for reclamation of disturbed habitats
Temporal successional – Occurs for a short amount of time
Spatial successional - the change in wither species composition structure or architecture of vegetation through time

- Predict the impact of human activity on the reduction of biodiversity and on the magnitude, duration
and speed of ecosystem change
Biodiversity – a variety of plants and animal life in the world or particulat habitat
Magnitude of ecosystem - The known and described number of species of all organisms on the earth is between 1.7
and 1.8 million, which is fewer than 15percent of the actual number. The predicted number of total species varies from
5 to 50 million and averages at 14 million.
Duration of ecosystem - Most of the time, change in ecosystems and their services is gradual and incremental. ... In
these cases, the ecosystem may change gradually until a particular pressure on it reaches a threshold, at which
point changes occur relatively rapidly as the system shifts to a new state.
Speed of ecosystem - The species of an ecosystem belong to different functional groups. ...
Threshold changes in ecosystems are not uncommon, but are becoming much more likely as human-induced pressures
on ecosystems are growing. For example, as human populations become more mobile, more and more species are
being introduced into new habitats.

Genetics
DNA Structure and replication
- Recall the structure of DNA, including nucleotide composition complementary base pairing and weak,
base-specific hydrogen bonds between DNA strands
Structure of DNA – consist of a ribose sugar – phosphate backbone with complementary nucleotides base bonded
together with hydrogen bonds
Nucleotide composition – Nucleotides in DNA consist of sugar, one of four bases and a phosphate. Cytosine and
thymine are pyrimidine bases while adenine and guanine are purine bases. When sugars and bases are together, they
are called nucleoside
Base pairing – is two chemical bases bonded to one another forming a “rung of the DNA ladder”. It consists of two
strands that wins around each other like a twisted latter.
Base – specific hydrogen bond
DNA strand – To for DNA strand nucleotides are linked into chains with the phosphate and sugar groups alternating.

- Explain the role of helicase and DNA polymerase in the process of DNA replication: refer to the
direction of replication
Role of helicase – DNA helicase unwinds DNA and separates the hydrogen bonds that join the double strands of DNA
DNA polymerase – They are enzymes that bond new nucleotides to the 3 strand end of an existing nucleotide
polymer.
Process of DNA - Helicase unzips DNA strand.
- Ssbp makes sure strand doesnt close again.
- DNA polymerase attaches new nucleotide.
- Subunit of DNA polymerase that proof reads DNA.
- DNA ligase seals strands together.
- DNA molecule winds up.

Cellular replication and variation

- Within the process of meiosis, I and II:
o Recognise the role of homologues chromosomes

Role of homologues chromosomes – are an important in the process of meiosis and mitosis. They allow for the
recombination and random segregation of genetic material for the mother and father into new cells
o Describe the process of crossing over and recombination and demonstrate how they contribute
to genetic variations
Process of recombination - During meiosis I homologous chromosomes often exchange chromosome tips in a process
called recombination (crossing over). Crossing over re-arranges the combination of alleles within a chromosome, thus
adding to the potential genetic variation found between individual
Genetic variation – refers to the diversity in gene frequencies. Refers to the differences between individuals or to the
difference between populations. Mutations can be a ultimate source of genetic variation along side sexual reproduction
and genetic drift.
o Compare and contrast the process of spermatogenesis and oogenesis

Spermatogenesis – formation of spermatozoa in animals (sperm cell – male)

Oogenesis – formation of oba in animals (egg cell – female)

- Demonstrate how the process of independent assortment and random fertilisation alter the variations in
the genotype of offspring
Independent assortment law – each allele pair segregates independently during gamete formation applies when genes
for two traits are located on different pairs of homologous chromosomes
Random fertilisation - Random fertilization refers to the fact that if two individuals mate, and each is capable of
producing over 8million potential gametes, the random chance of any one sperm and egg coming together is a product
of these two probabilities - some 70 trillion different combinations of chromosomes in a potential offspring
Genotype – the genetic makeup of an individual

Gene expression
- Define the terms genome and gene

Genome – the complete set of nucleotide sequences encoded int the total DNA of an organism
Gene – a distinct sequences of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the order of
monomers in a polypeptide or nucleic acid molecule which cell may synthesize

- Explain the process of protein synthesis in terms of

Protein synthesis – process which cells make proteins, it occurs in two stages transcription and translation
o Transcription of a gene into messenger RNA in the nucleus

Transcription – is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA in the nucleus. There are 3 steps initiation,
elongation and termination
Messenger RNA – also known as mRNA it is the RNA molecule formes during transcription
Nucleus – a membrane-bound organelle that contains genetic material (DNA) of eukaryotic organisms.
o Translation of mRNA into an amino acid sequence at the ribosome (refer to transfer RNA,
codons and anticodons)
Translation of mRNA into amino acid sequences at the ribosome – there are 3 steps initiation, elongation and
termination
Transfer RNA – has an anticodon tat is complementary to the mRNA codon. Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.
Codons – triplet of nucleotides on mRNA specifying an amino acid
Anticodons – a triplet of nitrogen bases found on tRNA

- Identify that there are factors that regulate the phenotypic expression of genes

Phenotypic expression of genes – it is a obvious, ovservable and measurable trait, it is the expression of genes in an
observable way. For example a phenotypic trait is a specific hair colour.
o During transcription and translation

Transcription – first step of gene expression in which a particular segment of DNA is copies into mRNA
Translation – production of a polypeptide sequence form a sequence of mRNA codons
o Through the products of other genes
o Via environmental exposure

Environmental exposure

Gene expression – the process by which the information encoded in a gene is used to direct the assembly of a protein
molecule. The cell reads the sequence of the gene in groups of tree bases.
Transcription factors – regulates differential gene expression, this controls cell differentiation for tissue formation and
morphology
Cell differentiation – is the process in which a cell changes from one cell type to another. Usually the cell changes to a
more specialised type
Tissue formation – a cellular organizational level between cells and complete organs, a tissue is an ensemble of
similar cells and their extracellular matrix from the same origin that together carrys out a specific function
Morphology – the study of size, shape and structure of animals, plants, and microorganisms and of the relationships of
their constituent parts. The term refers to the general aspects of biological form and arrangement of the parts of a plant
or an animal.

- Recall an example of transcription factor gene that regulates morphology and cell differentiation

Transcription factors – regulates differential gene expression, this controls cell differentiation for tissue formation and
morphology
Cell differentiation – is the process in which a cell changes from one cell type to another. Usually the cell changes to a
more specialised type.
Morphology – the study of size, shape and structure of animals, plants, and microorganisms and of the relationships of
their constituent parts. The term refers to the general aspects of biological form and arrangement of the parts of a plant
or an animal.

Mutations
- Identify how mutations in genes and chromosomes can result from errors in

Mutations – small permanent change in the DNA of an organism

Genes - a distinct sequence of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the order of
monomers in a polypeptide or nucleic acid molecule which a cell (or virus) may synthesize
Chromosomes - a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying
genetic information in the form of genes.
o DNA replication (point and frameshift mutation)

DNA replication – Occurs in 4 main steps

- Separation of DNA strands

- Initiation
- Elongation
- Termination

Point mutation – a change in a single nucleotide in the DNA code that my result in translation of one different amino
acid in a polypeptide sequence
Frameshift mutation – the deletion or insertion of a single or non-multiple of three nucleotides into the DNA
o Cell division (non-disjunction)

Cell division – process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. It usually occurs as part of a
larger cell cycle
Non-disjunction – is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell
division this will result in daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers
o Damage by mutagens (physical, including UV radiation, lonising radiation and heat and
chemical)
Mutagens – an agent, chemical or high energy radiation that changes genetic material by directly interacting with
DNA
Physical mutagens – ionising radiation, radioactive decay, solar radiation
Chemical mutagens – asbestos, benzopyrene, boric acid, nicotine, nitrous acid, most organic solvents, sodium
bisulphite

- Explain how non-disjunction leads to aneuploidy

Non-disjunction – is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell
division this will result in daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers
Aneuploidy – presence of an abnormal number of autosomal chromosomes

- Use a human karyotype to identify ploidy change and predict a genetic disorder from given data

Human karyotype - A karyotype is an individual's collection of chromosomes. The term also refers to a laboratory
technique that produces an image of an individual's chromosomes. The karyotype is used to look for abnormal
numbers or structures of chromosomes.
Ploidy – the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell, or in the cells of an organism
Genetic disorder - A genetic disorder is an illness caused by changes in a person's DNA. These mutations can be due
to an error in DNA replication or due to environmental factors, such as cigarette smoke and exposure to radiation,
which cause changes in the DNA sequence.

- Describe how inherited mutation can alter the variation in the genotype of offspring

Inherited mutation - Hereditary mutations are inherited from a parent and are present throughout a person's life in
virtually every cell in the body. These mutations are also called germline mutations because they are present in the
parent's egg or sperm cells, which are also called germ cells
Genotype – the genetic makeup of an individual

Inheritance
- Predict frequencies of genotypes and phenotypes using data from probability models and by taking into
consideration patterns of inheritance for the following types of alleles – autosomal dominant, sex linked
and multiple
Frequencies of a genotype
Patterns of inheritance
Alleles – a variant form of a gene. Some genes have a variety of different forms which are located at the same position
or genetic locus on a chromosome. When an organism is heterozygous at a specific locus and carries one dominant
and one recessive allele the organisms will express the dominant phenotype
Autosomal dominant – a pattern of inheritance in which an affected individual has one copy of a mutant gene
and one normal gene on a pair of autosomal chromosomes.
Sex linked – has to be found on the X chromosome therefore is from the male.
Multiple

- Define polygenic inheritance and predict frequencies of genotypes and phenotypes using three of the
possible alleles
Polygenic inherence
Alleles – a variant form of a gene. Some genes have a variety of different forms which are located at the same position
or genetic locus on a chromosome. When an organism is heterozygous at a specific locus and carries one dominant
and one recessive allele the organisms will express the dominant phenotype
Frequencies of genotypes

Biotechnology
- Describe the process of making recombinant DNA

Recombinant DNA – the deliberate modification of the characteristics of an organism or production of a new
organism by inserting or deleting genes into the DNA

- Recognise the application of DNA sequences to map species genomes and DNA profiling to identify
unique genetic information
DNA sequences – determining the order of the four chemical building blocks called bases that make up the DNA
molecule.
DNA profiling – fingerprinting is a chemical test that shows the genetic makeup of a person or other living things

- Explain the purpose of polymerase chain reaction and gel electrophoresis

Polymerase chain reaction - Polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, is a technique to make many copies of a specific
DNA region in vitro (in a test tube rather than an organism). PCR relies on a thermostable DNA polymerase,
Taq polymerase, and requires DNA primers designed specifically for the DNA region of interest.
Gel electrophoresis - Gel electrophoresis is a technique used to separate DNA fragments according to their size. DNA
samples are loaded into wells (indentations) at one end of a gel, and an electric current is applied to pull them through
the gel. DNA fragments are negatively charged, so they move towards the positive electrode

- Appraise data from an outcome of a current genetic biotechnology technique to determine its success
rate
Genetic biotechnology technique

Evolution
Evolution
- Define the terms evolution, microevolution, and macroevolution

Evolution – the process of which different kinds of organisms are believed to have developed from earlier forms
Microevolution – a change in gene frequency within a population over a succession of generations
Macroevolution – major evolutionary change at or above the level of species over geological time

- Determine episodes of evolutionary radiation and mass extinction from and evolutionary timescale of
life on earth
Evolutionary radiation - An evolutionary radiation is an increase in taxonomic diversity that is caused by elevated
rates of speciation, that may or may not be associated with an increase in morphological disparity
Mass extinction - An extinction-level event (also known as a mass extinction or biotic crisis) is a widespread and rapid
decrease in the biodiversity on Earth. Such an event is identified by a sharp change in the diversity and abundance of
multicellular organisms.
Evolutionary timescale - This timeline of the evolutionary history of life represents the current scientific theory
outlining the major events during the development of life on planet Earth. In biology, evolution is any change across
successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations
 - Interpret data to reveal phylogenetic relationships with an understanding that comparative genomics
involves the comparison of genomic features to provide evidence for the theory of evolution
Phylogenetic relationships – the relative times in the past that species shared common ancestors
Comparative genomics – researchers use a variety of tools to compare the complete genome sequences of different
species by carefully comparing characteristics that define various organisms’ researchers can pinpoint regions of
similarity and differences

Natural selection and microevolution

- Identity that the selection of allele frequency in a gene pool can be positive or negative

Allele frequency – represents the incidence of a gene variant in a population they can be represents as a decimal,
percentage or fraction, it is mainly using as a reflection of genetic diversity.
Gene pool – the stock of different genes in an interbreeding population

- Interpret data and describe the three main types of phenotypic selection: stabilising directional and
disruptive
Phenotypic selection – occurs when individuals with certain characteristics produce more surviving offspring than
individuals with other characteristics.
Stabilising – a type of natural selection in which the population mean stabilises on a particular non- extreme trait
value.
Directional – a mode of natural selection in which a single phenotype is favoured causing the allele frequency to
continuously shift in one direction
Disruptive – a mode of natural selection in which extreme values for a trait are favoured over intermediate values,
stabilising selection a type of natural selection in which genetic diversity decreases as the population stabilizes on a
particular trait value.

- Explain microevolutionary change through the main processes of mutation, gene flow and genetic drift

Microevolutionary change – the change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population. This
change is due to four different processes, mutation , selection, gene flow and genetic drift
Mutation - small permanent change in the DNA of an organism
Gene flow – the introduction of genetic material from one population of species to another therefore changing the
composition of the gene pool of the receiving population
Genetic drift – variation in the relative frequency of different genotypes in a small population, owing to the
change disappearance of particular genes as individuals die or do not reproduce

Speciation and macroevolution

- Recall that speciation and macroevolutionary changes result from an accumulation of
microevolutionary changes over time
Speciation – how a new kind of plant or animal species is creases within a group of species
Macroevolutionary change – the change of an evolutionary nature in a species. A species that splits into two or that
changes into another species over a given time are examples of macroevolution
 - Identify that diversification between species can follow one of four patterns: divergent, convergent,
parallel and coevolution
Diversification
Divergent – Evolution that leads to descendants becoming different in form from their common ancestor
Convergent – The independent development of similarities between species as a result of them having similar
ecological roles and selection pressures
Parallel – The independent evolution of similar traits starting from a similar ancestral condition. Frequently this is the
situation in more closely related lineages where several species respond to similar challenges in a similar way.
Coevolution – occurs when two species closely interact so that when one species evolves it exerts a selection pressure
on the other species to evolve in the same direction

- Describe the modes of speciation: allopatric, sympatric, parapatric

Allopatric – occurs when a population is divided by a permanent barrier

Sympatric – Occurs when two groups that share the same habitat become reproductively isolated
Parapatric – occurs when a population occurs over an area with different environmental conditions

- Explain how populations with reduced genetic diversity face and increases rick of extinction

Reduced genetic diversity – a population cannot evolve in response to changing environmental variables and as a
result my faced increased risk of extinction
Extinction – dying out or extermination of a species