FORCES

What is Force ?

Pushing, pulling, stretching and turning these are some of the things a force can do.

The push or pull on an object with mass that causes it to change its velocity.

A force arrow shows the direction of a force.

Forces happen when two objects interact with each other.

The unit of force

Unit ------- newtons.

Symbol------ N

This unit is named after Isaac Newton, an English scientist who explained how forces
affect the way things move.

What are the Effects of Force?

The Force has different effects and here are some of them.

 Force can make a body that is at rest to move.

 It can stop a moving body or slow it down.
 It can accelerate the speed of a moving body.
 It can also change the direction of a moving body along with its shape
and size.

Different Types Of Forces

Force can change the state of motion of any object or the dimensions. Different types
of Forces are contact force and non-contact force.

1.Contact forces

The contact forces are the forces which occurs when we apply some effort on an
object. Following is the classification of contact force:

Some examples of Contact forces: Spring force, applied force, air resistance force,
normal force, tension force and frictional force.
2.Non-Contact forces

The non-contact forces are the forces which occurs from a distance.

Following is the classification of non-contact forces:

Electromagnetic Force ,Gravitational Force ,Nuclear Force.

Balanced Force

When two forces are in opposite direction and possess equal magnitude then these
forces called are a balanced force.

Equal and opposite forces together acting on an object when it’s not in a motion is said
to be in equilibrium.

What are Balanced Forces?

If the resultant force of all the forces acting on a body sums up to zero, then the forces
acting on the body are known as balanced forces.
Unbalanced Force

The unbalanced force can be defined as when two forces acting on a body are of
unequal size.

What are Unbalanced Forces?

When the resultant force acting on a body is not equal to zero, the forces acting on
the body are known as unbalanced forces.

The ball moves from one place to another after it’s kicked. This is an example of an
unbalanced force.

Differences Between Balanced and Unbalanced Forces

Balanced Forces Unbalanced Forces

The forces are equal in magnitude. The forces are unequal in

magnitude.

It does not cause any change in the state of the object. Causes change in the state of
motion of the object.

Measuring forces
How can we measure forces?
We use an instrument called a forcemeter to measure a force. (Another name for this
is a newtonmeter.) The picture shows one type of forcemeter.
This is how you use it to measure the force needed to pull a block of wood along the
bench.
• Check that the forcemeter reads zero before you start.
• Attach the hook of the forcemeter to the block.
• Hold the ring at the other end of the forcemeter and pull the block.
• Read the value of the force from the scale.
How a forcemeter works .There is a spring inside a forcemeter.
The pulling force stretches the spring and this moves the indicator along the scale.
The bigger the force, the further the indicator moves.

How a forcemeter works ?

There is a spring inside a forcemeter. The pulling force stretches the spring and this
moves the indicator along the scale.The bigger the force, the further the indicator
moves.

Newton Laws of Motion- First law

Sir Isaac Newton published three laws in the 17th century. Newton’s first law of
motion is an introduction to motion of the object and the force acting on it. In other
words, it deals with the motion of an object and its relation to force. In this article, let
us learn in detail about Newton’s 1st law of motion.

When no net external force acts upon it, a particle at rest will remain at rest and a
particle in motion at a constant velocity will continue to move with the same
constant velocity.

In mathematical form,

In mathematical form ---------------- If then

→ →
F a
( = the net external force, = acceleration)
Notes: Newton’s first law is also called law of inertia.
Newton’s first law of motion states that

a body remains in the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless and until
an external force acts on it.

The first law of motion is sometimes also known as the law of inertia.

There are two conditions on which the 1st law of motion is dependent:

Objects at rest: When an object is at rest velocity (v= 0) and acceleration (a = 0) are
zero. Therefore, the object continues to be at rest.

Objects in motion: When an object is in motion, velocity is not equal to zero (v ≠ 0)

while acceleration (a = 0) is equal to zero. Therefore, the object will continue to be in
motion with constant velocity and in the same direction.

What is an external force?

An external force is defined as the change in the mechanical energy that is either the
kinetic energy or the potential energy in an object. These forces are caused by external
agents. Examples of external forces are friction, normal force and air resistance.

Inertia

The inertia of a body is its reluctance to start moving , and its reluctance to stop once it
has begun moving.

Inertia & Mass

o Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of

motion or of rest.

o The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. A force that is just enough to
cause a small cart to pick up a large velocity will produce a negligible change in
the motion of a train, because of train’s large inertia.
Newton’s Second Law of Motion

o What is Newton’s Second Law of Motion?

o Force is equal to the rate of change of momentum. For a constant mass, force
equals mass times acceleration.
o The acceleration of an object as produced by a net force is directly
proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same direction as
the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
o (or)
o The net external force acting upon a particle is equal to the product of the
mass and the acceleration of the particle.
→ →
F a
In mathematical from ………. =m
→ →
F a
( = the net external force , = acceleration , m = mass)
o F= force , m = mass of the body , a = acceleration of the body

o
o
o
 o
o What is a Net Force?
o A net force ΣF is the sum of all forces acting on a body. More precisely, it is the
vector sum of all forces acting on a body.
o

o Calculate the net force acting on a horse

o Consider two forces of magnitude 30 N and 20 N that are exerted to the right
and left, respectively on the horse shown in the picture.
o

Newton’s Third Law Of Motion

Newton’s third law of motion states that

“When one body exerts a force on the other body, the first body experiences a
force which is equal in magnitude in the opposite direction of the force which
is exerted”. ( OR )
Whenever two particles interact , the force exerted by the second on the first is
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted by the first on
the second .

In mathematical form------------ (or)

The above statement means that in every interaction, there is a pair of forces acting
on the interacting objects. The magnitude of the forces are equal and the direction of
the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second
object.
It is not a single force action by itself but a pair of forces acting simultaneously. This
pair of forces acting simultaneously. This pair of forces is action-reaction pair.
Action- reaction pair does not act on a single object but acts on two separate objects.
Action force and reaction force cannot cancel out each other.

One newton
A force that is acting on the 1 kg mass to give it an acceleration of 1 ms-2 is called 1
newton.
Weight – the pull of gravity

We live on the Earth. It is difficult to get away from the Earth. If you jump upwards,
you fall back down again. The Earth’s gravity pulls you downwards.
The Earth’s gravity causes a force that pulls any object downwards. This force is called
weight. Like any other force, weight is measured in newtons (N).

Gravity always pulls you towards the centre of the Earth. It doesn’t matter where you
are on the surface of the Earth.
When we draw a force arrow to represent an object’s weight, the arrow points towards
the centre of the Earth.
Falling through the floor
The Earth’s gravity is pulling on us all the time. It pulls us downwards,
but we don’t fall through the floor. Why not?
The floor pushes upwards on us with a force. This force is called the
contact force.

Mass and weight

Mass is the amount of matter in an object.

When you weigh yourself at home, the scales show the value in kg.

You might say, ‘I weigh 50kg’ However, in science, we would say that

your mass is 50 kg.

The mass of an object is measured in kilograms (kg).

It tells you the amount of matter the object is made of.

The Earth’s gravity pulls on each kg with a force of about 10 N. So, if

your mass is 50 kg, your weight on Earth is about 500 N.

Weight is measured in newton ( N ).

Imagine going to the Moon. The Moon’s gravity is weaker than the Earth’s. You weigh
a lot less up there. You can jump much higher on the Moon - but you still fall back
downwards. If you go far out into space, far from the Earth, Moon or any other object,
your weight is zero. Your mass stays the same, however - you are still made of 50kg of
matter.
Weight
The attracting force of the earth on a body is defined as the weight of the body.
(OR) Weight is the force of gravity on an object.
Weight is measured in newton ( N ).

w = weight of the body, m = mass of the body

g = acceleration due to gravity
Notes: since weight is the attracting force of the earth, units of weight is the same to
unit of force.
Friction

Friction is a force that acts when two surfaces are in contact with each other.

The direction of friction Friction acts to oppose motion.

Are there Different Types of Frictional Force?

Yes, there are different types of frictional forces. The friction that takes place
between solid surfaces is classified as Static, Kinetic, Rolling, and Sliding
Friction.
The friction that takes place between fluids and gases are termed as fluid
friction.
Fluid Friction
Fluid Friction is the force that obstructs the flow of fluid. It is a situation where the fluid provides
resistance between the two surfaces.
Differences of mass and weight
Mass
- Mass is a scalar
- Mass is a measure of inertia.
- Mass is always a constant.
Weight
- Weight is a vector.
- Weight is the attracting force of the earth.
- Weight can change according to its position.

Air resistance

• Air resistance is a force that acts on objects moving through air.

• A streamlined shape reduces air resistance.
Air resistance and friction
Air resistance is like friction. It tends to slow down anything that is moving.
A large area gives a lot of air resistance.
The aircraft in the photograph is designed to move easily through the air. A shape like
this is described as streamlined.

If you drop something, it falls to the ground. Its weight - the pull of the Earth’s gravity
- makes
it fall. The photograph shows some parachutists falling.
Eventually, they will reach the Earth’s surface. The parachutists will not be travelling
very fast
when they hit the ground. This is because they are falling through the air. This means
that there is
another force acting on them. This extra force is the force of air resistance.
This slows them down to a safe speed.
1 Name the two forces that act on a parachutist who is falling towards the ground. Give
the direction of each force.

2 Explain why a parachute would be useless if you went to the Moon.

A falling object speeds up as it falls, provided there is no air resistance to balance its
weight.
NEWTON,S LAW OF GRAVITATION

Everybody attracts every other body in the universe. The gravitational force between
the two bodies is directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

m1 m2 m1 m2
F α r2
, F=-G r2

In vector form ,

F = the gravitational force between the masses m1 and m2

G = a constant =6.67 x 10-11 m3/kg/s-2
r = the distance between two masses

Application of Newton’s law of gravitation

(a) Tides
The attraction of the moon and the sun upon water of the earth cause tides.
(b) Orbits of satellites round the earth
Satellites can be launched from the earth’s surface to circle the earth. They are
kept in their orbit by the gravitational attraction of the earth.
Four fundamental forces
1. There are four types of fundamental forces. They are………..
(i) Gravitational force, (ii) Weak interaction
(ii) Electromagnetic force, and (iv) nuclear force
2. The strongest force is the nuclear force and the weakest force is gravitational
force. Electromagnetic force is the second strongest force.
Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force acting normally per unit area.
Force
area
Pressure =
In symbols,
Units of pressure
SI = pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 Nm-2

Example 1. A force of 6 N acts on an area of 2 m 2 . What force acts on each square

metre ? What is the pressure on the surface ?
2. A hammer hits a nail with a force of 200 N.The point of the nail has an area of
0.5mm2 touching a piece of wood.Calculate the pressure on the wood.

Average pressure
The ratio obtained by dividing the total magnitude of the normal forces by the
surface area is called average pressure.
total magnitude of the normal forces
surface area
Average pressure =
Note - Generally, gases and liquids are together called “fluids”.

Distribution of pressure
 Force acting on a smaller area applies more pressure than the same force acting on a larger
area.
 Examples: Porters place a round cloth on their heads to increase surface area and reduce
pressure.
 A sharp knife cuts better as more pressure is exerted over a smaller area.
A big force acting on a small area creates a higher pressure.

Pressure in fluids
The pressure exerted by a fluid(gases or liquids) in a container is transmitted undiminished in all direction
on the walls of the container.

Liquids and gases can cause cause pressure.

The weight of water above presses down on them. The greater the depth they go, the
more water there is above them pressing down and so the pressure is greater.
The pressure of a gas or liquid is caused by its weight pressing downwards.
The particles of a gas or liquid collide with the walls of its container; this causes the
pressure.
Atmospheric pressure
 Our atmosphere extends to several kilometres above sea level. The weight of the air acts as
pressure known as atmospheric pressure.
 The pressure in our body balances the atmospheric pressure and that is why we do not feel it.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure is 1 atmosphere ( 1 atm ).

Different Units of Pressure

1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 760 millimetre mercury ( 760 mmHg )

1 atm = 1.013 h Pa = 1 013 millibar ( 1 013 mb )
1 hPa = 100 Pa = 1 mb
1 Pa = 1.45x 10-4 lb in-2 (psi)
1 psi = 6.90 x 103 Pa

The Turning Effect of a Force

A force has a turning effect when it causes an object to turn about a pivot.
How can you tell from the photograph that the weights are heavier than the apples ?

The Principle of Moments

The diagram represents the seesaw. It shows the pivot and the two forces action
downwards on the beam.

Does the girl’s weight turn the beam clockwise or anticlockwise ?

How can the children balance the seesaw ?
The girl can do this by moving towards the pivot. Then her weight less turning effect ,
because it will be closer to the pivot. ( Balancing up )

Moment of a Force
The turning effect of a force depends on two things:
-The greater the force, the greater its turning effect.
- The further the force is from the pivot, the greater its turning effect.
 Moment = force x distance from pivot
The bigger the moment of a force , the greater its turning effect.
The principle of Moments
For a beam to be balanced, the clockwise moment acting on it must equal the
anticlockwise moment acting on it.

Example: 1(a) In the diagram, which force has a clockwise moment (turning effect) ?
(b) Calculate the moment of this force.
(c) Calculate the moment of the other force.
(d) Is the beam balanced ? Explain how you can tell.

Example:2 Calculate the force F shown in the diagram.

Momentum
The momentum of a body is the product of the mass of the body and its velocity.
→
p
Equation ……………….. ( =momentum)
(m = mass)
→
v
= velocity
Units ……… CGS system = gcms-1 (gram centimetre per second)
MKS / SI = kgms-1 (kilogram metre per second)
 FPS system = slfts-1 (slug foot per second)

p α mv
Remarks ………… Momentum of a body is directly
→ → proportional to the mass and velocity of
P=m v body

→ →
pαv

Note :- Another important concept in mechanics is momentum.

Law of conservation of momentum

If there is no net external force acting on a system consisting of two bodies, the
sum of the momentum of the two bodies will remain constant.
In symbols
When two bodies of masses mA and mB collide.

= velocities of the masses before collision

= velocities of the masses after collision

8. One fundamental law of physics is the law of conservation of momentum.

The law of conservation of momentum is a general law and is true not only for
ordinary - sized objects but also for very small elementary particles such as
protons and electrons.
The Idea of Density

Everyone knows that lead is heavier than feathers, but that is not the right answer.
The answer is that a tonne of feathers is just as heavy as a tonne of lead.
The reason is that a tonne of anything weighs same- it as a mass of one tonne,
or 1000kilograms.

Question; 1(a) The mass of an object tells us how much matter it is made of. What is
the unit of mass ?
(b) Which has more mass , 1 kg of water or 1 kg of air ?

In science we don’t say that lead is heavier than feathers. We say that lead has a greater
density than feathers.
The density of a material tells us the mass of 1 cubic centimetre (1cm3) of the material.
This is like a fair test, a way of comparing two materials.For each material we find the
mass of 1 cm3.
A’heavier’ material is more dense than a ‘lighter’ material. It has a greater density.
In the picture, each cube has a volume of 1 cm3 ,but the cubes have different masses.
We state the density of a material like this:
Density of water = 1.0 g/cm3
This tells us that 1cm3 or water has a mass of 1.0 g. The unit of density is g/cm 3(grams
per centimetre cubed). Density can also be given in kg/m 3 ( kilograms per metre
cubed).

Question : Look at the picture of different materials on the previous page.

(a) What is the density of gold ?
(b) Which is denser, water or ice ?

Density
The density of a liquid is defined as the ratio of its mass to volume.
mass
Density = volume

m
ρ=
In symbols V (OR)

= density of the liquid

m = mass of the liquid
V = volume of the liquid
Units MKS / SI - kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3)
CGS - gram per cubic centimetre (g cm-3)
FPS - slug per cubic feet (sl ft-3)
Note ;
The density of water at 4°C is 1 gcm-3 or 103kgm-3 or 1.94 slft-3.
 Relative Density or Specific Gravity
The ratio of the density of a body to the density of water at 4°C is called relative
density or specific gravity.
density of a body
density of water at 4C
Relative density =
Relative density can also be defined by the following relation.
mass of certain volume of substance
mass of equal volume of water
Relative density =
Since the mass of an object is directly proportional to its weight,
weight of body having a certain volume
weight of equal volume of water
Relative density =
Note
- The value of relative density can be measured more accurately than that of the
density because it is necessary to measure only the mass and not the volume.
- The study of liquids at rest is called hydrostatics.
- The study of liquids in motion is called hydrodynamics.
- The density and relative density concepts are not only important in mechanics of
liquids but also very useful in practice.
- Density and pressure are not only non- vectors, they are also free from
geometrical restrictions.
- The density of water is 1 g cm -3 in CGS units, then density of substance can be
taken as the relative density.
The density of aluminium is 2.7 gcm -3 and so relative density of aluminium is
2.7.
Example: The relative density of sulphur is 2 . Find the volume of 1 kg of sulphur.
( density of water = 1 000 kg m-3)