Department : Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Name : Dr. Natwar Singh Rathore

Designation : Assistant Professor
Semester : III
Topic : Experience in using Measuring Instruments
 Measurement & Instrumentation
• UNIT I
Electrical Measurements: Measurement system, Characteristics of
instruments, Methods of measurement, Errors in Measurement &
Measurement standards, Review of indicating and integrating
instruments: Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter.
• UNIT II
Measurement of Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance: Measurement
of low, medium and high resistances, insulation resistance measurement,
AC bridges for inductance and capacitance measurement.
• UNIT III
Instrument Transformers: Current and Potential transformer, ratio and
phase angle errors, design considerations and testing.
8/20/2021 2
 Cont…
• UNIT IV
Electronic Measurements: Electronic instruments: Voltmeter, Multimeter,
Wattmeter & energy meter. Time, Frequency and phase angle measurements
using CRO; Storage oscilloscope, Spectrum & Wave analyzer, Digital counter,
frequency meter, and Digital Voltmeter.
• UNIT V
Instrumentation: Transducers & sensors, classification & selection of sensors,
Measurement of force using strain gauges, Measurement of pressure using
piezoelectric sensor, Measurement of temperature using Thermistors and
Thermocouples, Measurement of displacement using LVDT, Measurement of
position using Hall effect sensors. Concept of signal conditioning and data
acquisition systems, Concept of smart sensors and virtual instrumentation.
8/20/2021 3
 BOOKS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. A K Sawhney, “Electrical & Electronic Measurement & Instrument”,
Dhanpat Rai & Sons, India
2. BC Nakra& K. Chaudhary, “Instrumentation, Measurement and
Analysis,” Tata McGraw Hill 2ndEdition
3. Purkait, “Electrical & Electronics Measurement & Instrumentation”,
TMH
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. Forest K. Harris, “Electrical Measurement”, Willey Eastern Pvt. Ltd. India
2. M. Stout , “Basic Electrical Measurement”, Prentice Hall of India
3. WD Cooper, “Electronic Instrument & Measurement Technique”,
Prentice Hall International
4. EW Golding & F.C. Widdis, “Electrical
Measurement &Measuring Instrument”, AW
8/20/2021 4
INTRODUCTION TO
MEASUREMENT
❑Measurement: The measurement of a given quantity is an act or
the result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude
is unknown) & a predetermined (predefined) standard.
• It is the process by which one can convert physical parameters into
a meaningful number or quantitative terms.
• Eg. Air, Water, oil, sand etc.
❑ Significance of Measurement:
• To calculate the distance between to points.
• To know the weight of quantities.
• To make estimations (greater/smaller/brighter/lighter/faster)
• To know the time.
8/20/2021 • To check the temperature of any substance etc.6
❑Measuring Systems: Measurement is done with help of any
instruments or tool are called as Measuring systems.
Eg. Stopwatch, thermometer, weighing machine, rulers etc.

❑Measurand: Physical parameter or variable to be measure

(Unknown).
❑Standard: A quantity of the same kind chosen as a unit or basis
for comparison of quantitative value to be measure (Known). Eg.
Ruler, Thermometer, weights
Eg. Calculating the distance between two points.
8/20/2021 7
❑Requirements for Measurement: In order to maintain the
measurements in meaningful manner, there are some
requirements.
• The standards used for the comparison purpose must be
accurately defined by some agency and commonly acceptable.
• The standard must be of the same character as the measurand
(Unknown).
• The apparatus used and the method adopted for the comparison
must be provable.

8/20/2021 8
❑Methods of Measurements: It is the act or the result of
comparison between an unknown quantity and known quantity.
1.Direct Methods
2.Indirect Methods
❑Direct Methods: Unknown quantity is directly compared with
standard. Eg. Length, mass, time (Not accurate due to human
error ).
• Deflection Methods: The value of the unknown quantity is
measured with help of calibrated scale indicating the quantity
directly.
8/20/2021 9
• Comparison Methods: The value of the unknown quantity is
measured with help of comparison with a standard of the given
quantity.
• Eg. Comparison of an unknown emf with known emf.
❑Indirect Methods: In this methods, the physical parameters of
the quantity are measured by the direct methods, and then the
numerical value of the quantity is determined by the
mathematical relationship.
Eg. By using Ohm’s Law
V=IR
R=V/I
8/20/2021 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTRUMENTS
❑Characteristics of instruments: The measurement system characteristics
can be divided into categories:
1. Static characteristics (Constant or change is very small/slow)
2. Dynamic characteristics (Differential Eq. b/w i/p and o/p)
• Static characteristics :
i. Accuracy v. Drift
ii. Precision vi. Static Error
iii. Sensitivity vii. Dead Zone
iv. Reproducibility

8/20/2021 12
❑Accuracy: It is the closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
• The accuracy of a measurement indicates the nearness to the
actual/true value of the quantity.
➢ Percentage of Full scale Deflection accuracy (% of fsd)=
( Measured value – True value )
100
Maximum Scale value
➢ Percentage of True value accuracy (% of TV)=
( Measured value – True value )
100
True value

8/20/2021 13
❑Precision: The term “Precise” means clearly or sharply defined.
• Precision is defined as the ability of instrument to reproduce a certain
set of readings within given accuracy (in a group of measurements).
• Precision is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
• Indication of Precision: It is composed of two characteristics:
➢ Conformity: The error created due to the
limitation of the scale reading is a
precision error.
➢ Number of significant figures: More
significant number imply greater precision
of the instrument.
8/20/2021 14
➢ Number of significant figures: It is an indication of the precision of the
measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures in
which it is expressed.
➢ Eg. 1. Voltage expressed as 150 V, So its value my be either 149 V or
151 V. But if we express the voltage as 150.0 then it may be either
149.9 V or 151.1 V. So, more significant nos. imply more precision.
➢ Eg. 2. Find the significant figure of the
following numbers.
(i) 302 A (ii) 302.10 V (iii) 0.00030 Ω
(iv) 0.00003 M Ω (v) 5.01×104

8/20/2021 15
❑Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the
measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as
the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in
the value of the input to be measured. Mathematically it is expressed
as,
Infinitesimal change in output  qo
Sensitivity = =
Infinitesimal change in input  qi
 qi
❑Inverse Sensitivity or deflection factor =  qo

➢The Sensitivity of Instrument should be high.

8/20/2021 16
❑Resolution: The resolution or discrimination of any instrument is the
smallest change in input signal which is detected by the instrument.
• It may be expressed as actual value or % of full scale value.
• It is some time called as the sensitivity.

❑Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with which a given value

may be repeatedly measured.
• It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given period of time.
❑Repeatability: It is defined as the variation
of scale reading and random in nature.

8/20/2021 17
❑Drift: Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift.
• No drift means that with a given input the measured values does not
vary with time.
➢ It is classified in 3 categories
(i) Zero Drift
(ii) Span Drift or Sensitivity drift
(iii) Zonal Drift

8/20/2021 18
❑Zero Drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage,
permanent set, or due to undue warming up of electronic tube
circuits, zero drift sets in.
❑Span Drift: If there is proportional change in the indication all along
the upward scale, the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift.
❑Zonal Drift: In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an
instrument, it is called zonal drift.

8/20/2021 19
❑Dead Zone: The largest change of input quantity for which there is no
output of the instrument is called as dead zone.
• Eg. Dead zone due to friction

❑ Static Error: It is defined as the difference between the measured

value (Am) and the true value (At)of the quantity.
 A = Am − At

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❑Dynamic Characteristics: Dynamic characteristics describe its behavior
between the time measured quantity changes value and until the time
when instrument output attends a steady state value.
• It is represented by the differential equation b/w i/p and o/p.
The various dynamic characteristics are:
• i) Speed of response
• ii) Fidelity
• iii) Lag
• iv) Dynamic error

8/20/2021 21
➢ i) Speed of response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a
measurement system responds to changes in the measured quantity.
• It gives the information about how fast the system reacts with the
change in input.

➢ ii) Fidelity: It indicates how much faithfully the system reproduces the
change in the input.
Eg.: It is ability of a an instrument to produce
a wave shape identical to wave shape of
input w.r.t. time.

8/20/2021 22
➢ iii) Lag: Every system take some time, whatever small be, to respond
to the change in the measured variable. This retardation or delay in
the system is called as lag.
• Retardation lag: Response begin immediately after change
• Time Delay: Response begin after a dead time.

iv) Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the

true value of the quantity changing with time &
the value indicated by the measurement system if
no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error.
8/20/2021 23
ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENT OF
INSTRUMENTS
❑Essential Requirement of Instruments : In indicating instruments, it is
essential that the moving system is acted upon by three distinct torque (or
forces) for satisfactory working.
1. Deflecting or operating Torque, Td
2. Controlling Torque, Tc
3. Damping Torque, Tv
1. Deflecting or operating Torque: It causes the moving system of the
instrument to move from zero position.
Eg. Due to magnetic effect, electromagnetic
effect, induction effect, heating effect, etc.

8/20/2021 25
2. Controlling Torque: This torque/force must act in the opposite sense
to the deflecting torque/force, and the movement will take up an
equilibrium or definite position when the deflecting and controlling
torque are equal in magnitude.
• It brings back the moving system to its zero position where quantity
being measured is removed or made zero.

(i) Spring Control

(ii) Gravity Control

8/20/2021 26
(i) Spring Control:
•Hair spring usually of phosphor bronze, attached to
the moving system is used.
•With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is
twisted in the opposite direction.
•This twist in the spring produces restoring torque
which is directly proportional to the angle of
deflection of the moving system. Tc  

• The pointer comes to a position of rest

(or equilibrium) when (Td) and (Tc) are
equal. Hence scale is linear.
8/20/2021 27
(ii) Gravity Control:
•Gravity control is obtained by attaching a
small adjustable weight to some part of
the moving system such that the
deflecting torque produced by the
instrument has to act against the action of
gravity.

8/20/2021 28
3. Damping Torque:
•A damping torque/force is required to act in a
direction opposite to the movement of the moving
system.
•This brings the moving system to rest at the
deflected position reasonably quickly without any
oscillation or very small oscillation.
➢The damping Torque produced by following
methods.
i) Air friction damping
ii) Fluid friction damping
iii) Eddy current damping

8/20/2021 29
(i) Air friction damping :
•When the pointer oscillates in clockwise
direction, the piston goes inside and the cylinder
gets compressed.
•The air pushes the piston upwards and the
pointer tends to move in anticlockwise direction
(ii) Fluid friction damping :

8/20/2021 30
(iii) Eddy Current Damping Torque:
•When a conductor moves in a magnetic
field an emf is induced in it and if a closed
path is provided, a current (known as eddy
current) flows. This current interacts with
the magnetic field to produce an
electromagnetic torque which opposes the
motion. This torque is proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field and the
current produced.

8/20/2021 31
PMMC INSTRUMENTS
 Types of Instruments
➢ Types of Instruments : Used as Ammeter and voltmeter

1. PMMC (DC Only)

2. Moving iron (AC/DC)
3. Electro-dynamometer (AC/DC)
4. Hotwire (AC/DC)
5. Thermocouple (AC/DC)
6. Induction (Ac Only)
7. Electrostatic (AC/DC)
8. Rectifier (AC/DC)

8/20/2021 33
 PERMANENT MAGNET MOVING COIL (PMMC)
❑ PMMC INSTRUMENTS
•Most accurate for DC measurements
➢Working Principle: D’Arsonval Principle provided with pointer and scale.
•When current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic filed produced by the permanent
magnet, the coil experiences a force and moves.
•The amount of force experienced by the coil is directly proportional to the current
passing through the coil.

➢Construction of PMMC Instruments

1. Moving Coil
2. Magnet System
3. Control Spring
4. Damping
8/20/2021 5. Pointer and Scale 34
 Construction of PMMC Instruments

❑ Moving Coil
• The moving coil can freely moves
between the two permanent
magnets in vertical position as shown
in the figure. The coil is wound with
many turns of copper wire and is
placed on rectangular aluminium
which is pivoted on jeweled bearings.
• Highly Sensitive due to iron core
deflection.

8/20/2021 Fig: Construction of PMMC Instrument[1]

35
 Construction of PMMC Instruments

❑ Magnet System
•U shaped permanent magnet made of Alcomax or Alnico is widely use in PMMC
instruments.
•Smaller moving coil reduces the size of the instrument.
❑ Control System
•The controlling torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs mounted
on the jewel bearing.
❑ Damping System
•Damping torque is provided by eddy current
damping. When a close path is provided a current
(eddy current) flows, this current interacts with
magnetic field to produce a electro-magnetic torque
8/20/2021 which oppose the motion. 36
❑ Pointer and Scale
•The pointer is linked with the moving coil. The pointer notices the deflection of
the coil, and the magnitude of their deviation is shown on the scale.
•The pointer is made of the lightweight material, and hence it is easily deflected
with the movement of the coil.
•A balancing weight is present to balance the pointer deflection.
•Sometimes the parallax error occurs in the instrument which is easily reduced by
correctly aligning the blade of the pointer.

8/20/2021 37
 Working

❑ Torque Equation
•It follows the basic law of electro-magnet Torque.

➢The deflecting torque is given by:

Where,
Td = NBIL*D=NBIA
B = Flux density, Wb/ m2
•Td = GI
N = No. of turns
Where, G is the constant
I = Current
G =NBLD=NBA
L = Length of moving coil
d = Breadth of moving coil

8/20/2021 38
➢The Controlling torque is provided by spring:
Tc ∝ θ Where,
• Tc = Kθ K = Spring Constant, Nm/rad or Nm/deg
θ = Angle of deflection
➢ At Steady state or equilibrium
Tc =Td
GI =Kθ
θ =(G/K)I
• θ∝ I

8/20/2021 39
 Advantages Of The PMMC Instruments

➢Linear and uniform scale .

➢Simple and cheap.
➢Can be constructed with very high sensitivity.
➢Consume low power
➢High accuracy
➢Extension of instrument range is possible.
➢No effect of external magnetic filed
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTS
 Types of Instruments
➢ Types of Instruments : Used as Ammeter and voltmeter

1. PMMC (DC Only)

2. Moving iron (AC/DC)
3. Electro-dynamometer (AC/DC)
4. Hotwire (AC/DC)
5. Thermocouple (AC/DC)
6. Induction (AC Only)
7. Electrostatic (AC/DC)
 HOT WIRE INSTRUMENTS
❑ The instruments which use the
heating effect of the current for
knowing their magnitude such type of
instrument is known as the hot wire
instrument.
❑ Principle: It works on the principle
that the length of the wire increases
because of the heating effect of the
current flow through it. (AC/DC)

Fig: Construction of Hot Wire Instrument[2]

❑ Working of Hot Wire Instruments
When the current passes through the platinum iridium wire, it gets heated and expands. The
heat increases the sag of the wire. The wire regains their original position with the help of
the spring. The expansion and contraction of the thread rotate the pulley due to which the
pointer deflects. The expansion of the thread is equal to the square of the RMS value of the
current.
❑ Advantages
➢ It is a transfer-type instrument i.e. the calibration is same for both AC/DC.
➢ Free from the stray magnetic field.
➢ Construction is very simple and cheap.
❑ Disadvantages
➢ It gives the slow response.
➢ The instability occurs in the instruments because of the stretching
of the wire.
➢ Consumes more power.
➢ Not able to withstand under overload and mechanical shock.
 THERMO-ELECTRIC INSTRUMENTS
❑ When two metals having different
work functions are placed together, a
voltage is generated at the junction
which is nearly proportional to the
temperature.
❑ Principle: The junction is called the
Thermocouple. This principle is used
Fig: Construction of Thermo-electric to convert heat energy to electric
Instrument[2] energy at the junction of two
conductors. (AC/DC)
 Principle of operation

❑ Seeback Effect
The thermal emf developed in the circuit composed of two dissimilar metals with junction
at absolute temperature T1 and T2 (T1 <T2)
Which is written as
𝐸 = 𝑎(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) + 𝑏 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 2

Where, a and b are constant, and their value depends on the properties of metal used in
the thermocouple.
• Let = ΔT temperature difference between hot and cold junction. Thus their temperature
is expressed as 𝐸 = 𝑎(𝛥T) + 𝑏 𝛥𝑇 2
• The value of b is very small as compare to a, Therefore, 𝐸 ≈ 𝑎(𝛥𝑇)
•The rise in temperature is proportional to the heat produces by the heating
element.
𝛥𝑇 ∝ 𝐼 2 𝑅
𝛥𝑇 = 𝐾1 𝐼 2 𝑅

•The EMF is fed to PMMC millivoltmeter which gives deflection proportional to the
EMF generated.

Therefore, deflection follows the current square low

 Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages
➢Indicates the RMS value of voltage and current on the waveform.
➢Free from the stray magnetic field.
➢The thermic electric element is used for a wide range of current
measurement.
➢High sensitivity
➢It is useful for the calibration of the potentiometer with the help of the
standard cell.
Disadvantages
➢ The overload capacity is less as compared
to the other element.
 INDUCTION TYPE INSTRUMENTS
❑ Principle: When a disc or drum of a
non-magnetic conducting material is
placed in a rotating magnetic field,
eddy currents are induced in disc or
drum. The torque produces with the
reaction of rotating magnetic field
and eddy current.
❑ Use for AC only
❑ Generally used as Wattmeter's and
Energy meters

Fig: Construction of Induction Type

Instrument[3]
 Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages
➢ A full scale deflection of over 300 degrees can be obtained.
➢ Good damping.
➢ Less effect of stray magnetic fields as the operating fields are large.

Disadvantages
➢ Errors are caused due to changes in frequency and
temperature.
➢ Non-uniform scale.
➢ Large power consumption and high cost.
➢ Can be used for AC only.
ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS
Fig: Principle of Electrostatic
Instrument[3]
❑ It uses static electrical field to
produce the deflecting torque.
❑ These types of instrument are
generally used for the measurement
of high voltages but in some cases
they can be used in measuring the
lower voltages and powers of a given
circuit.
❑ The two possible conditions:
➢ When one of the plates is fixed and other
plate is free to move
➢ There may be force of attraction or
repulsion or both, due to some rotary of
plate.
MEASUREMENT OF MEDIUM
RESISTANCES
 Classification of Resistances
1. Low Resistance: 1 Ω or less then 1 Ω
2. Medium Resistance: 1 Ω – 100 kΩ
3. High Resistance: > 100 kΩ or 0.1 M

❑ Measurement of Medium Resistance

➢ Ammeter-Voltmeter Method
➢ Wheatstone Bridge Method
➢ Substitution Method
➢ Carey- Foster Bridge Method
➢ Ohmmeter Method
 Ammeter-Voltmeter Method
❑ It uses one ammeter to measure
current, I and one voltmeter to
measure voltage, V and we get the
value of resistance as
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
❑ Most common and simple
❑ Two possible connections of ammeter
and voltmeter
 Ammeter-Voltmeter Method
❑ In Fist case,
➢ Measured value of Resistance
𝑉𝑎 + 𝑉𝑟 𝐼𝑅𝑎 + 𝐼𝑅
𝑅𝑚1 = = = 𝑅𝑎 + 𝑅 (1)
𝐼 𝐼
➢ True value of Resistance
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚1 − 𝑅𝑎 (2)
𝑅𝑎
➢ Relative Error
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚1 1 − (3) 𝑅𝑚1 − 𝑅 𝑅𝑎
𝑅𝑚1 𝜀𝑟1 = =
𝑅 𝑅
➢ Hence for 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚1 (True=Measured)
Only if 𝑅𝑎 = 0 ➢ Error will be small if 𝑅 >> 𝑅𝑎
➢ Hence, it is suitable for High
Resistance Measurement
 Ammeter-Voltmeter Method
❑ In Second case,
➢ The Ammeter Measures the sum of
current through voltmeter and resister
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉 𝑅
𝑅𝑚2 = = = =
𝐼 𝐼𝑣 + 𝐼𝑟 𝑉 𝑉 𝑅
+ 1 +
𝑅𝑣 𝑅 𝑅𝑣
➢ Relative Error
➢ Now, Measured< True 𝑅𝑚2 − 𝑅 𝑅
➢ True value of Resistance 1 𝜀𝑟2 =
𝑅
≈−
𝑅𝑣
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚2
𝑅
1 − 𝑅𝑚2 ➢ Error will be small if 𝑅 ≪ 𝑅𝑣
➢ Hence, for 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑚2 𝑣
➢ Hence, it is suitable for Low
Only if ,
𝑅𝑣 = ∞ or Resistance Measurement
𝑅𝑣 >> 𝑅𝑚2
❑ Division Point
The division point between the two circuits is the resistance for which the two relative error
are equal: 𝑅𝑎 𝑅
=
𝑅 𝑅𝑣

𝑅= 𝑅𝑎 𝑅𝑣

Advantages
➢ Simple
➢ Low Cost ❑ Disadvantages
➢ Rough Method.
➢ Low accuracy
 Substitution Method
❑ Working: First the switch is place at
position 1 and the ammeter is made
to read a certain amount of current
by varying r. The value of ammeter
reading is noted. Now, the switch is
moved to position 2 and S is varied in
❑ R= Unknown Resistance
order to achieve the same ammeter
S =standard variable resistance and
r = regulating resistance
reading as it read in the initial case.
The value of S for which ammeter
reads same as in position 1, is the
value of unknown resistance R,
provided the EMF source has constant
value throughout the experiment.
 Wheatstone Bridge Method
❑ Most Widely used method for medium Resistance
❑ The value of unknown resistance is determined
by comparing it with the known resistance.
❑ Principle: It works on the principle of null
deflection, i.e. the ratio of
their resistances are equal, and no current
flows through the galvanometer.
➢ When bridge is balanced, the value of P, Q & S are
❑ P, Q, S= Known Resistance so adjusted that the deflection of galvanometer
R =Unknown Resistance shows nil (Zero current or no deflection).
G = Galvanometer
 Wheatstone Bridge Method
❑ Balance Condition:
➢ At Balance condition The current 𝐼1 is same
for P & Q branch, similarly, 𝐼2 is same for R
and S i.e. voltage drop across a to b is same
as a to d and voltage drop across b to c is
same as c to d.
➢ Hence 𝐼1 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 (1)
❑ P, Q, S= Known Resistance 𝐼1 𝑄 = 𝐼2 𝑆 (2)
R =Unknown Resistance
𝑃 𝑅
G = Galvanometer =
𝑄 𝑆
𝑃
𝑅= 𝑆
𝑄
 Errors in Wheatstone Bridge
➢ The difference between the true and the measured value of the three resistances
can cause the error in measurement.
➢ The galvanometer is less sensitive. Thus, inaccuracy occurs in the balance point.
➢ The resistance of the bridge changes because of the self-heating which generates
an error.
➢ The thermal emf cause serious trouble in the measurement of low-value
resistance.
➢ The personal error occurs in the galvanometer by taking the reading or by finding
the null point.
➢ The error can be reduced by using the best qualities resistor
and galvanometer.
➢ The error because of self-heating of resistance can minimize
by measuring the resistance within the short time.
➢ The thermal effect can also be reduced by connecting the
reversing switch between the battery and the bridge.
MEASUREMENT OF HIGH
RESISTANCES
 Classification of Resistances
1. Low Resistance: 1 Ω or less then 1 Ω
2. Medium Resistance: 1 Ω – 100 kΩ
3. High Resistance: > 100 kΩ or 0.1 MΩ

❑ Measurement of High Resistance

➢ Direct Deflection Method
➢ Loss of Charge Method
➢ Megohm Bridge Method
➢ Meggar
 Direct Deflection Method
❑ Application: Insulation resistance of
cables.
❑ Galvanometer G measures current 𝑰𝑹
between the conductor and metal
sheath.
❑ Leakage current 𝑰𝑳 over the insulating
material is carried by guard wire
wound on the insulation.
❑ Insulation resistance of cable, R=V/ 𝐼𝑅
Loss of Charge Method
❑ Unknown resistance R is connected in
parallel with a capacitor C and electrostatic
voltmeter.
❑ The capacitor is initially charged with a
battery of voltage V and then allowed to
discharge through the unknown resistance
R.
❑ The terminal voltage is observed during
discharge:
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑒 (−𝑡/𝑅𝐶)
Loss of Charge Method
➢ If resistance R is very large, then process
❑ Disadvantages
becomes time consuming and Errors
➢ It requires a capacitor of a high
occurs leakage resistance as compared to
➢ So, Difference between voltage (𝑉 − 𝑣) the unknown resistance for the
is calculated measurement of high resistance.
➢ Now, 𝑅 = 0.434𝑡 ➢ Do not measure the true value of the
𝑉 resistance
𝐶 log10 𝑉 − 𝑒

e= small difference between the (𝑉 − 𝑣)

Megohm Bridge Method

❑ The effect of leakage paths is

removed by guard circuit.
❑ It can be observed that we actually
obtain the resistance which is parallel
combination of R and RAG. Although
this causes very insignificant error.
Meggar

➢ The working principle is based on

the working of moving coil
instruments, which states that
when current carrying coil placed in
mag. field, a mechanical force is
exerted.
➢ If the resistance of insulation is
high, the pointer deflects towards
infinity, and if it is low than it
indicates zero resistance.
MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE
USING AC BRIDGES
1. De Sauty‘s bridge
2. Schering Bridge
De Sauty‘s Bridge
❑ DeSauty's Bridge is the simplest
method of comparing two
capacitances.
❑ Here, C1=Unknown capacitance
C2=Standard capacitance
R1 & R2 =No-inductive known Resisters
At Bridge balance condition,
𝑍1 𝑍4 = 𝑍2 𝑍3 ⇒
De Sauty‘s Bridge
❑ The balance is obtained by varying either
R3 or R4.
❑ Advantage:
➢ Simple and easy method.

❑ Disadvantage:
➢ It is impossible to obtain balance if both
the capacitors are not free from dielectric
loss.
➢ Suitable for air capacitor only.
➢ Remedy: to overcome the problem with
dielectric loss , the bridge is modified.
Modified De Sauty‘s Bridge
➢ Use for the Measurement of imperfect
capacitors.
Modified De Sauty‘s Bridge
➢ Dissipation factors for the capacitors are :
D1 = tan δ1 = ωC1r1 and
D2 = tan δ2 = ωC2r2
Schering Bridge
Schering Bridge