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CHARACTERIZATION OF ENVIRONMENT FOR WATER AVAILIBILITY

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 ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
B.A. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
ANAND – 388110

AN ASSIGNMENT ON

CHARACTERIZATION OF ENVIRONMENT FOR WATER AVAILIBILITY

Agron 702, Dry Farming (2+1=3)

SUBMITTED TO

Dr. K.M. GEDIYA,

ASSISTANT PROFFESOR

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY,

B.A.C.A., AAU, ANAND

SUBMITTED BY

DIVESH CHOUDHARY
M. Sc. (Agri.) 2nd sem,
Reg. No: 04-0922-09
DEPT. OF AGRIL. METEOROLOGY

DEPT. OF AGRONOMY

B.A. COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE

ANAND AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

ANAND -388 110

CHERECTARIZATION OF ENVIRONMENT FOR WATER
AVAILIBILITY

Introduction

The movement of water between the land surface, oceans and atmosphere
is called the hydrologic cycle. Water in the atmosphere is transported to the land
surface and oceans as precipitation (rain, snow or sleet). Upon reaching the land
surface, water may immediately become stream flow, or it may infiltrate into
the soil where it may later be taken up by plants or it can percolate to the ground
water. Surface stream flow and groundwater flow move water from the land
surface to lakes and the ocean. Water re-enters the atmosphere as vapour either
via evaporation from surface waters (ocean, lakes, etc) or transpiration from
plants. This cyclical movement of water is driven by solar energy. An increase
in net solar radiation or temperature will effectively speed up the processes
within this cycle.

Due to complex interactions of changes in the hydrological cycle with

global circulation patterns and local weather patterns, an increase in energy in
the hydrological cycle does not necessity translate into an increase in
precipitation in all geographic regions? It is difficult to predict future changes in
regional precipitation patterns. Predicting regional changes in stream flow and
groundwater recharge due to climate change also remains challenging,
particularly because of the uncertainty in regional projections of how
precipitation may change.

Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns and snowmelt can have

impacts on water availability. Temperature is predicted to rise in most areas, but
is generally expected to increase more in inland areas and at higher latitudes.
Higher temperatures will increase loss of water through evaporation. The net
impact on water supplies will depend on changes in precipitation (including
changes in the total amount, form, and seasonal timing of precipitation).
Generally speaking, in areas where precipitation increases sufficiently, net
water supplies may not be affected or they may even increase. In other areas
where precipitation remains the same or decreases, net water supplies would
decrease. Where water supplies decrease, there is also likely to be an increase in
demand, which could be particularly significant for agriculture (the largest
consumer of water) and also for municipal, industrial and other uses.
 Increases in temperature can affect the amount and duration of snow
cover which, in turn, can affect timing of stream flow. Glaciers are expected to
continue retreating, and many small glaciers may disappear entirely. Peak
stream flow may move from late spring to early spring/late winter in those areas
where snowpack is important in determining water availability. Changes in
stream flow have important implications for water and flood management,
irrigation, and planning. If supplies are reduced, off-stream users of water such
as irrigated agriculture and in-stream users such as hydropower, fisheries,
recreation and navigation could be most directly affected.

Fresh water is distributed around the world as follows: 76.7 percent in

Glaciers and ice tables; 22.1 percent in water tables and 1.2 percent in surface in
surface waters. Given that water needs in this part of the world are severe and
even though there are difficulties in the acquisition of data as outlined above, it
is surprising that so little attention has been directed to the hydrologic regimen
of ephemeral channels and relevant aspects related to trans-boundary
cooperation, among others between the Palestinians and Israelis. Though only
few and scattered data have been available until lately on the hydrology and on
the dynamics of dry land rivers, exceptions are the long-lasting effort of
hydrologic and sediment data collection at the hyper-arid Nahal Yael (e.g., near
Elat (Akaba) and the world renown hydrologic investigations at Walnut Gulch,
Arizona and other south-western sites.

Figure: - Lake cunara’ and Parinacota volcano in northern Chile

Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface

water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through
discharge to the oceans, evaporation, and sub-surface seepage.
 Although the only natural input to any surface water system is
precipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at
any given time is also dependent on many other factors. These factors include
storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability of
the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the
watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of
these factors also affect the proportions of water lost.

Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on

these factors. Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs
and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans often increase runoff quantities
and velocities by paving areas and channelizing stream flow.

The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important

consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For
example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no
water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water
system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year
and release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous need for
water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a
power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage
capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a
watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water
from that watershed.

Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from

another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially
augmented from any of the other sources listed here; however in practice the
quantities are negligible. Humans can also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e.
become unusable) through pollution.

Brazil is the country estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in
the world, followed by Russia and Canada.
 Figure: - Hydrological cycle

Where Our Water Comes From

The average rainfall of west central Florida is 53 inches a year, making it

one of the rainiest regions in North America. However, much of the rainfall
occurs in June through September, and most is lost to evaporation or provides
for runoff. The remainder replenishes the region’s ground waters. Ground water
is rainwater that has soaked into the ground to an aquifer, an area of
underground rock and sand, where it is “stored.” Surface water refers to water
on the surface of the earth, such as lakes, rivers and streams.
 Of the approximately 14 inches of rainfall that remains after evaporation
has taken its toll, about 9 inches go to surface waters, leaving only an average of
5 inches to resupply Florida’s underground water reserves. Water users in the
area regulated by the District use more than 1 billion gallons of water daily.
More than 80 percent of this water comes from ground water in the Floridan
aquifer, the deepest and most productive of the three aquifers found within west
central Florida.

In some areas of the District, aquifers are connected with the lakes, rivers
and wetlands above them. If too much water is withdrawn from the aquifers, the
water level of the lake or river above may decline. Excessive groundwater
withdrawals could also cause the salt water that surrounds the Floridan aquifer
to move or intrude into freshwater areas, which decreases the amount of fresh
water available and increases the cost for providing clean, potable water to
residents.

It’s expected that ground water will always be a source of drinking water,
but access to other sources is essential. The balance of the region’s water supply
comes from surface water. The use of surface water will most likely increase in
the future because the ability of the groundwater system to satisfy an ever–
growing need for fresh water is limited. But there are limits to surface water as
well. It is anticipated that by 2020, about 400 million gallons of additional water
may be necessary each day to supplement current water resources to meet the
projected water demand of all the current and future water users within the
District.

Water Resources

All regions of the world show an overall net negative impact of climate
change on water resources and freshwater ecosystems. Areas in which runoff is
projected to decline are likely to face a reduction in the value of the services
provided by water resources. The beneficial impacts of increased annual runoff
in other areas are likely to be tempered in some areas by negative effects of
increased precipitation variability and seasonal runoff shifts on water supply,
water quality and flood risks.

The future effects of climate change on water resources in the U.S. and
other parts of the world will depend on trends in both climatic and non-climatic
factors. Evaluating these impacts is challenging because water availability,
quality and stream flow are sensitive to changes in temperature and
precipitation. Other important factors include increased demand for water
caused by population growth, changes in the economy, development of new
technologies, changes in watershed characteristics and water management
decisions.

In addition to the typical impacts on water management, climate change

introduces an additional element of uncertainty about future water resource
management. Water resources in the United States are heavily managed and
supplies are scarce in some regions of the country. Strategies have been
developed and continue to evolve to address these issues. Implementation of
adaptation measures, such as water conservation, use of markets to allocate
water, and the application of appropriate management practices will have an
important role to play in determining the impacts of climate change on water
resources.

The U.S. Global Change Research Program Synthesis and Assessment

Product 4.3 (SAP 4.3) addresses the effects of climate change on agriculture,
land resources, water resources (water quantity and quality), and biodiversity.
The primary goal of the report is to enhance understanding and ability to
estimate impacts of future climate change on these systems.
SURFACE WATER RESERVOIRS

Surface water reservoirs are commonly used in dry lands, primarily so for
irrigation rather than flood mitigation or power supply. This is also the case of
Wadi Besor, draining an area surpassing 2,200 km2 to the Mediterranean with
more than 100 ponds (capacity < 10,000 m3) locally termed Limans that serve
to increase local forage of seasonal as forage for livestock, as well as the of
trees, whether for soil conservation or for tourism. These have all but filled with
sediment. A handful of reservoirs with a larger capacity (< 100,000 m3) have
also been constructed in the past 5 decades, but these have either silted (e.g.,
Yeruham), or else their earth dam has failed (e.g., Revivim). Although it is
maintained that the combined storage of these reservoirs has considerably
decreased flood volumes reaching the lower Besor, the extent of this decrease
and the effect of soil conservation-afforestation measures in the Lahav-Yatir
uplands have not been determined.

The Commonwealth Environmental Water Holder has allocated 1,904

mega litres (ML) of environmental water for use at Mercedes Swamp and Twin
Bridges Wetlands in Yanga National Park on the Lowbidgee Floodplain in
southern NSW. This water n is a significant co-contribution to a watering action
announced by the NSW Government. The sites to receive environmental water
were selected by the Commonwealth Environmental Water Holder (CEWH)
based on input from NSW and advice from the Environmental Water Scientific
Advisory Committee. State delivery partners will manage the watering at each
site and undertake the monitoring of the ecological responses. Providing
environmental water to protect or restore the environmental assets of the
Murray- Darling Basin is an important part of Water for the Future, the
Australian Government’s 10-year, $12.9 billion plan to secure the long-term
water supply for all Australians, including supporting healthy rivers. Watering
at Yanga National Park brings the volume returned to the environment under
this plan to almost 13 billion litres.

Water in its different forms has always been a source of wonder, curiosity
& practical concern for everywhere. Water is essential for life – to drink, bathe,
cook, clean, grow food, fuel engines, support ecosystems. But water is not
easily accessible to all. For some of the poorest people in the world, a drink or a
pot of soup means getting up before dawn and Walking, often for miles, to fetch
a bucket of water. Over one billion people share that plight. Without ready
access to safe water, the poor – especially women and girls – spend much of
their time scavenging for it. In some places water scarcity is accompanied by
deteriorated water quality due to pollution and environmental degradation. Poor
water supply and sanitation lead to high rates of water-related diseases, limited
economic development options and political and civilization. In short, without
water, growth is stunted. There is a strong and increasing recognition of the
crucial role of water in sustainable development, but meeting competing
demands will require coordinated action and considerable funding. To respond
to needs, governments, international Organizations, local communities, civil
society and businesses around the world are working on innovative projects that
prove that these obstacles can be overcome. The challenge is often how to
generate the funding and know-how, with the right combination of outside
support and local participation, to bring these efforts to scale. In addition to
providing policy guidelines, technical advice and a forum for sharing lessons
learned, the United Nations is a key partner in many of these projects.
Following in some of the action on the ground.
Water stress

Figure: - Best estimate of the share of people in developing countries with

access to drinking water 1970–2000.

The concept of water stress is relatively simple: According to the World

Business Council for Sustainable Development, it applies to situations where
there is not enough water for all uses, whether agricultural, industrial or
domestic. Defining thresholds for stress in terms of available water per capita is
more complex, however, entailing assumptions about water use and its
efficiency. Nevertheless, it has been proposed that when annual per capita
renewable freshwater availability is less than 1,700 cubic meters, countries
begin to experience periodic or regular water stress. Below 1,000 cubic meters,
water scarcity begins to hamper economic development and human health and
well-being.

Water in atmosphere

On account of the short residence time and mobility of water vapour in

air, the lower atmosphere is one of the critical pathways in the global
hydrological cycle; it transports water & energy around the globe without
regard to continental boundaries & thus links the continents, upper atmosphere,
& the oceans. The transport & distribution of water vapour in the lower
atmosphere, where it is most abundantly present, are among the main factors
controlling precipitation & evaporation from the surface; these processes, in
turn, determine soil & groundwater storage & the different runoff phenomena.

The global amount of water vapour contained in the air is roughly

equivalent with a layer of liquid water covering the earth, with a thickness of
around 25 mm on average. The thickness of this layer, which is the total liquid
equivalent of water vapour in the atmospheric column at a given location, is
also called the precipitation water.
This quantity of water vapour is not distributed uniformly & it can greatly
vary over a wide range of scales in space & in time. For instance, the water
vapour content of the atmosphere, just like the temperature, generally tends to
decrease with increasing latitude. Available data show that the perceptible water
is more likely to be well below 5 mm near the Poles, & close to 50 mm near the
Equator. But this is not always the case; at similar latitudes there can be huge
regional variations the most extreme example being the warm dry deserts of the
world. Most of the atmospheric water vapour is found relatively close to the
ground, &at any given location water vapour decreases sharply with height;
typically, about half the total water vapour in the atmospheric column can be
found below a height of 1 or 2 km.
Because the global annual evaporation is around E=1m, the average
atmospheric residences time of water vapour Wp /E is only about 9 days. This
time scale governs the hydrologic interactions and transfers between the
atmosphere and the other two compartments of the global system, the oceans
and the continents. This time scales especially fundamental to the transport of
atmospheric water vapour from its source regional mainly evaporation from the
oceans to sinks in precipitating weather systems. Indeed, the excess
precipitation on the continents, which does not evaporate, ultimately runs off to
the seas and oceans of the world. A balance is maintained in the global system
by the fact that over the oceans the situation is reversed and that evaporation is
generally larger than precipitation, allowing the excess oceanic water vapour to
be transported back to the continents. This transport of water from the oceans to
the land areas, also called advection, takes place mostly in the form of water and
not as cloud; actually in the atmosphere the total amount of water in the liquid
and ice phases is less than 0.5% of the water in the vapour phase.

But beside its central role in the hydrological cycle, water vapour
strongly affects other aspects of the Earth’s weather and climate as well. It is
one of the main agents in the overall energy budget of the atmosphere in a
number of ways. Globally, the phase changes from liquid and solid to vapour
are the main energy transfer mechanisms from the Earth’s surface to the
atmosphere; the subsequent condensation of the vapour in the air furnishes a
large portion of the energy needed for the circulation of the atmosphere. Thus,
the large scale transport of water vapour as latent heat is one of the main
redistributation mechanisms for the uneven radiactive input from the Sun. In
addition, the concentration and spatial distribution of the atmospheric water
vapour are major factors controlling the amount and type of cloud, which in turn
determine the solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. Finally, as the most
abundant greenhouse gas, water vapour absorbs and thus “traps” terrestrial
infrared irradiative energy, and then re-emits it at lower temperature.

Because the entire hydrological cycle is basically driven by it,

precipitation has to be considered the main component. Indeed, it is a truism
that wherever there no precipitation, there is also not much of a hydrologic
cycle. The detailed study of precipitation and of all its aspects is properly the
domain of meteorology. In hydrology, precipitation is primarily of interest after
it reaches the ground surface, and this reflected in the organization. To gain a
better understanding of the occurrences and distribution of precipitation and its
temporal and spatial scales, it is also useful to have knowledge of at least some
elementary aspects of its generation mechanisms and of its major types.

1) Evaporation:- In terms of the water quantities transported on a global

basis, evaporation is the second most important component of
hydrological cycle, after precipitation. The general climatology of the
hydrologic cycle indicates that over the land surfaces of the Earth
evaporation amounts on average to approximately 60% to 65% of the
averages precipitation. But this estimate provides only an idea of order of
magnitude to be expected; the actual evaporation rate at any given time
pace is likely to be quite different from the climatologically means, and
more thorough analysis is often called for.
2) Water on the surface: - Owing to the irregular topography of the Earth’s
continents, surface runoff, that is the flow of water land, takes place in
many different ways. When for some reason, such as rainfall, snowmelt,
the overtopping of small depressions, or the emergence of groundwater at
a source, surface flow is initiated, it may at first proceed as a thin sheet
flow; however, as a results of local irregularities, the flow soon gathers in
small gullies and rills, which in turn join to form rivulets in the fashion of
a tree like network. Eventually these merge with others to become larger
rivers, which finally end up in some lake or in the ocean. Thus the flow
system consists of an intricate combination of many different types of
flow regimes, in channels of different geometries and sizes. For purpose
of analysis, to describe between two major types of free surface flow;
these are first, sheet flow or overland flow which is most likely to occur
under condition of heavy precipitation in source areas where runoff is
 being generated which feeds into streams; and second, the flow that
occurs in larger permanent open channels. Both types of flow are usually
unsteady and spatially varied. The general principles are then applied to
overland flow and to channel flow and steam flow routing.
3) Over land flow: - This type of flow, also variously called sheet flow, is
likely to occur in the initial stages of surface runoff. It is usually observed
on surfaces with low permeability and in areas with a saturated soil
profile and with water table close to the surface. Overland flow has been
one of the central problems in urban hydrology and it has been the subject
of much research. Interest in this phenomenon has been largely the the
result of its relevance in the design of small engineering structures for
roads, highways, airports, and other urban and industrial setting and also
in also in the design of some surface irrigation systems.

Water below the surface

The great majority of all near surface geologic formations, in which

water is stored and transported, and unconsolidated porous rock made up of
particles of different sizes. This type of formation is usually referred to as a soil
close to the surface, and as an aquifer at greater depths. However, the terms soil
and aquifer material are often used interchangeably. Many of these formations
consist of alluvial and colluvial deposits, which as riparian aquifers are major
contributors to stream flow. Although in some regions under lain by limestone
of karst formations, large quantities of water can be transported through solution
channels and caves, globally they are of much less importance. Formations
consisting of volcanic rock, shale and clay layers, which are porous but which
transmit water relatively slowly, are often considered impermeable for
hydrologic purposes; as such they are referred to as aquicludes.
 Figure: - Sub-Surface water travel time

The flow of water in the partly saturated zone of the near surface soil, and
with the transfer through the atmosphere – soil interface. At local scale, as
participated water reaches the ground surface, infiltration into the soil takes
place. In between precipitated events, the atmosphere exerts its drying effect,
and the water in the soil profile may move to the surface by vapour diffusion
and liquid capillary rise, where its evaporates.

A small decrease in water content below saturation can cause a

significant decrease in conductivity, so that in most soils the difference in
hydraulic conductivity above and below water table can be large. At an
interface between soils with different conductivities, the stream lines are known
to exhibit a pronounced refraction; therefore, in many situations unsaturated
flow above the water table can be assumed to be nearly vertical, whereas the
saturated flow below the water table can be assumed to be more horizontal or
parallel to underlying impervious layers.

A major portion of the precipitation that percolates into the soil profile
eventually finds its way into creeks, rivers, lakes and other open water bodies.
After the precipitation or other input has ceased for some time, the entire stream
flow can be assumed to consist of the cumulative outflow from all upstream
phreatic aquifers. The prediction of base flow is of some practical importance
because it is the rate of flow, which a given river basin can sustain in the
absence of precipitation and in the absence of artificial storage works.
Accordingly, this type of flow is variously known as base flow, drought flow,
low flow and sustained or fair weather runoff. In engineering such flow have
been studied in connection with problems of water supply and water quality in
rivers during drought periods, and general basin and agricultural drainage.

Frozen water:-

Figure: - An iceberg as seen from Newfoundland

Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water

source, however to date this has only been done for novelty purposes. Glacier
runoff is considered to be surface water.

The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain
some of the most extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as the
greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia’s
largest rivers flow from there and more than a billion people’s livelihoods
depends on them. To complicate matters, temperatures are rising more rapidly
here than the global average. In Nepal the temperature has risen with 0.6 degree
over the last decade, whereas the global warming has been around 0.7 over the
last hundred years.

Recreation:-

Figure: - White-water rapids

Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of

total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir
is kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation, then the water retained
could be categorized as recreational usage. Release of water from a few
reservoirs is also timed to enhance white-water boating, which also could be
considered a recreational usage. Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature
enthusiasts and swimmers.

Recreational usage is usually non-consumptive. Golf courses are often

targeted as using excessive amounts of water, especially in drier regions. It is,
however, unclear whether recreational irrigation (which would include private
gardens) has a noticeable effect on water resources. This is largely due to the
unavailability of reliable data. Additionally, many golf courses utilize either
primarily or exclusively treated effluent water, which has little impact on
potable water availability.
 Some governments, including the Californian Government, have labelled
golf course usage as agricultural in order to deflect environmentalists’ charges
of wasting water. However, using the above figures as a basis, the actual
statistical effect of this reassignment is close to zero. In Arizona, an organized
lobby has been established in the form of the Golf Industry Association, a group
focused on educating the public on how golf impacts the environment.

Recreational usage may reduce the availability of water for other users at
specific times and places. For example, water retained in a reservoir to allow
boating in the late summer is not available to farmers during the spring planting
season. Water released for white water rafting may not be available for
hydroelectric generation during the time of peak electrical demand.

A Sustainable Water Supply

Because water is such a necessary part of our lives, ensuring an adequate

supply must be a priority. The mission of the Southwest Florida Water
Management District is to ensure a sustainable water supply to meet public
demand, while protecting the environment and the water resources.

With a population increase of approximately 44 percent for the period

between 1980 and 1995, and predictions of more than 1,100 new permanent
residents each week through 2010, achieving that balance becomes more
difficult.

Steps to Sustainability

In those areas where existing or the implementation of reasonably

anticipated sources of water and conservation efforts will not be adequate to
meet current or future water supply needs, the District has prepared a Regional
Water Supply Plan (RWSP) to further investigate conservation and water
resource and supply development opportunities. The RWSP covers a 10–county
region of the central and southern portions of the District.

Conservation – Conservation can be the most cost–effective “new” water

source available.

Reclaimed water – Reclaimed water is defined as “water that has received at

least secondary treatment and is reused after flowing out of a wastewater
treatment facility.” Reclaimed water is currently used for agricultural irrigation,
groundwater recharge, industrial processes, and the irrigation of lawns,
landscapes, cemeteries and golf courses. Reuse saves fresh water for drinking
and other daily needs and relieves the stress on the environment by reducing the
demand for water from ground and surface waters.

Aquifer storage and recovery – Aquifer storage and recovery (ASR) involves
the withdrawal of water from a river or other surface water source during our
rainy season, when water is more plentiful, and the storage of this water
underground for later use. The water is treated and pumped into a confined zone
of the underground aquifer, and when it is needed, it can be recovered, treated
and pumped into water supply systems. ASR helps balance our demand for
water, which is highest during spring months, with our water supply, which is
replenished during our summer rainy months.

Offstream reservoirs – During our rainy season, water can be skimmed from
the high flows of rivers and stored for later use in off stream reservoirs.

Desalination – Desalination is a process that removes salt from seawater or

from brackish (slightly salty) water to produce fresh, drinking–quality water.
The process would allow us to benefit from the vast quantities of water
available in the Gulf of Mexico. Until recently, obstacles to seawater
desalination have been the costs of producing the water and environmental
concerns over the disposal of the concentrated salt by–product. Estimated costs
of seawater desalination continue to decrease and are now comparable to other
alternative sources. Recent studies have indicated no significant environmental
impacts from the process. Environmental monitoring will measure any impacts.

Land acquisition – Another key to a sustainable water supply is land

acquisition and management. Three legislative acts — Save Our Rivers,
Preservation 2000 and Florida Forever — have given the water management
districts the important responsibility of acquiring lands necessary for water
management, water supply and the conservation and protection of the water
resources. The District has acquired more than 370,000 acres in the public
interest for a number of water resource protection and management projects.
Substantial acreage of both wetlands and uplands has been acquired.

Wetland and upland health play an important role in a sustainable water supply.
Wetlands contribute to water supplies, especially in areas that rely on surface
waters. Wetlands also help filter out impurities from storm water runoff and
contribute significantly to ecosystem health by providing habitat for fish and
wildlife. Close to 50 percent of the lands acquired by the District are uplands.
Uplands are important water resource areas, especially because of their potential
to recharge the Floridan aquifer.
 Water is crucial to the quality of life that has attracted so many people to
Florida. Demand for water continues to grow. Safe, cost–effective, sustainable
and environmentally friendly water sources are needed. If we are to preserve the
environment that makes Florida unique, then the District, local governments, all
user segments, and residents must work together to sustain west central
Florida’s water resources.
 References:-

1) Dr. Wilfried and Dr. Brutsaert; Hydrology- an introduction; pub.- Cambridge

university Press; pp.- 1, 27, 79, 117, 161, 198, 216, 249, 307, 366.
2) A. Boumgartner and E. Reichel; The World Water Balance- Mean Annual Global,
Continental & Maritine Precipitation, Evaporation & Runoff; pub.- Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company; pp.- 104, 109, 120.
3) R.W. Herschy; Hydrometry- Principles & Prectices; pub.- British Library Cataloguing
in Publication Data; pp.- 143, 161, 227.
4) www.mawari.net
5) B. E. Ryden (1976). Water Availibility to Some Arctic Ecosystem. Nodic Hydrology
vol. 7 , 1976, pp.- 73, 76.
6) www.environment.gov.au/water/environmental/cewh

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