Charles Dayne L.

Dofeliz BSRT 1 – C
CHAPTER 3: MEDICAL RADIATION SCIENCES
Medical Radiation Sciences

Radiation is energy that is transmitted by waves through space or through a medium (matter).
Radiation has permeated the universe since the beginning of time and is a natural part of our lives.

Radiography is the making of records, known as radiographs, of internal structures of the body
by passage of gamma rays or x-rays through the body to act on specially sensitized film or digital
imaging plate or system.

Medical radiation science involves the study of the use of radiation throughout medicine.
Because many lay people assume that the terms radiation and ionizing radiation are used
interchangeably, the term imaging sciences has been preferred to the term radiation or radiologic
sciences in areas that medical sonography and MRI. And, because radiation therapy is primarily
involved in treatment and not imaging, the term imaging sciences alone is not encompassing
enough.

HISTORY OF MEDICINE

Prehistoric and Primitive Medicine

Primitive medicine men learned how to splint, but probably not set, bone fractures. They also
performed a type of brain surgery that we today call trephination. Trephination was done by using
stone instruments to bore or grind holes in the skull. Researchers do not know if it was done to
relieve demon spirits, treat skull fractures, or remove bone splinters.

These signature treatments included things like drinking the blood of a warrior to increase
strength or eating leaves shaped like body organs to cure a disease. The medicine men, or shamans,
would pass the information to the next generation of priests. Digitalis, morphine, quinine, and
ephedrine are all modern medicines that have been passed down to us from prehistoric signature
practice.

Eqyptian Medicine

The most famous of the Eqyptian physicians was Imhotep, who lived about 2800 BC. Imhotep is
also famous as the architect of the great Step Pyramid of Saqqarah. Eqyptian priest-physicians
specialized in treating different parts of the body, because they believed different parts of the body
were governed by different gods. They used special religious incantations to treat patents for
specific ailments.

Egyptologists have found two large medical documents, written on papyrus, that tell much
about medical practice. They developed surgical techniques that are still used today including using
direct compression to stop bleeding. These documents define a variety of diseases and conditions,
identify their symptoms, explain what other healers should look for during examinations, suggest
specific therapies, and describe how to develop a prognosis.

There was an official “Lady Director of Lady Physicians” who supervised the work of the female
practitioners who specialized in minor surgery and bloodletting as well as obstetrics and gynecology.
Some historians think that the modern day Rx pharmacy symbol has its origin in the Egyptian Eye of
Horus.

Classical Medicine

In Ancient Greece, people believed that the art of healing was originally taught to Aesculapius
by the gods Apollo and Chiron. In the temples of Aesculapius, the sick were treated by priests with a
combination of rest, exercise, diet and magic.

Hippocrates, the most famous of all ancient physicians, was born on the island of Cos, in 460 BC.
He and his students wrote over 70 books that tell much about ancient Greek healthcare and the
beginning of professional medicine.

The Greeks believed that physicians should not work for personal gain but for love of mankind,
and many of their professional standards can be traced back to the Hippocratic School. Greek
physicians believed that the entire person was affected as a result of an imbalance between the four
“humors”—blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile—their associated conditions--hot, cold, moist,
and dry—and the four “elements”—earth, air, fire, and water. Their simple treatments included
prescriptions, careful diet, and very minor surgery.

Romans did not value medicine as much as the Greeks. In fact, most of the physicians who
practiced in Rome came from Greece. Army surgeons were far more proficient than the Greek
physicians. They developed specialized instruments to remove arrows, and they could suture
wounds or blood vessels as well as treat bladder stones, hernias, and cataracts. Hospital were
commonly found in military camps.

The most influential physician of the Roman era was Galen, who served the emperor Marcus
Aurelius. Galen learned much about trauma care while serving as the principal physician to the best
professional gladiators. Galen also wrote 500 books on medicine, many designed to teach the
medical arts to new practitioners. His works were used as standard medical references until the end
of the Middle Ages.

Arabic Medicine

From the fall of Rome until the European Renaissance of the 15 th century, the Islamic world was
the center of medical knowledge.

Many herbs and spices like nutmeg, cloves, and mace were not originally valued as cooking
ingredients, but as medicines, and many Arabic medicinal terms—drug, syrup, alcohol, alkali, etc.—
remain in western languages. The Arabs improved many Greek and Roman medical, especially
ocular, techniques.
 They also developed first class civilian hospitals and used them not only to care for the blind,
crippled, and chronically ill, but to also train medical personnel. After several malpractice scandals in the
10th century, doctors were required to pass formal tests before being allowed to practice on their own.

Medieval Medicine

Western medicine advanced very little in Europe during the Middle Ages. Many theologians
considered disease and injury to be the result of supernatural intervention and insisted that cures were
only possible through prayer. No new medical research was conducted, and no new practices were
created. Physicians simply perpetuated the church approved classical techniques developed by Galen
and others that were preserved in ornately decorated, hand copied texts produced by monks.

Although medicine and surgery were related, medieval practitioners drew a distinct line
between them. Generally, physicians treated problems inside the body, and surgeons dealt with
wounds, fractures, dislocations, urinary problems, amputations, skin diseases, and syphilis. They also
bled patients when directed by physicians.

During this period, medicine began to be recognized as a profession based upon formal
education, standardized curriculum, and legal regulation. In some regions, physicians were required to
pass examinations before beginning practice. Untrained physicians were subject to prosecution and
fines, and state licensing became common.

Women practitioners commonly treated female patients, and although scorned by the educated
physicians, uneducated surgeons and self-taught lay doctors, or "leeches", were permitted to work on
both men and livestock.

Renaissance Medicine

The Renaissance stimulated medical practice just as it did all other European intellectual
pursuits. Many began to research human anatomy. Their discoveries corrected many of the errors that
had gone undetected for centuries and were rapidly disseminated through the new invention of
printing. Andreas Vesalius was the premier anatomist of this age and published many illustrations of his
discoveries. Arabic pharmaceutical practices were studied and improved, and medicines-like laudanum-
were developed to stop or reduce pain. Surgical procedures were also modernized, Amboise Pare
revolutionized surgery when he began to use ligatures to stop bleeding wounds instead of cauterizing
them with boiling oil or red-hot pokers.

17th and 18th Century Medicine

Medical practice began to greatly improve during the 17th and 18th centuries. Medical
researchers made some astounding discoveries. William Harvey determined how blood circulated
through the body. Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope and discovered red blood cells, bacteria
and protozoa. Edward Jenner invented vaccination after discovering the relationship between cowpox
and smallpox.
 Clinical practice was revolutionized by Thomas Sydenham who developed a treatment
procedure that recognized the importance of environmental considerations and included careful,
detailed observation and record keeping. health recognized. Vitamins were discovered and their
importance to health recognized. New drugs, including digitalis, were developed, and vaccination was
perfected by Edward Jenner. Giovanni B Margagni founded pathologic anatomy, and Marie Francois
Bichat created the field of histology.

19th Century Medicine

The scientific basis for current medical practice was developed during the 19th century, and all
of the disciplines-except anatomy-that make up the first two years of medical school were founded.
Jakob Henle linked the study of anatomy with the study of biological functions and created physiology.
Robert Virchow created the field of cellular pathology. Louis Pasteur's experiments, including his famous
study of hydrophobia-rabies, evolved into the field of microbiology and when Robert Koch discovered
the bacteria that created anthrax, tuberculosis and cholera, he created the field of bacteriology. Joseph
Lister proved that surgery could be made safer by disinfecting surgical equipment, and William Morton
developed anesthesia techniques that made surgery painless.

20th Century Medicine

Antibiotics were invented by Paul Ehrlich during his effort to conquer syphilis and advanced by
Alexander Fleming and Selman Waksman as they developed penicillin and streptomycin. Care of the
mentally ill shifted from hostility, to caretaking, to treatment, and the professions of psychiatrist,
psychologist, and counselor were created. Chemotherapy grew out of a World War I study on the toxic
effects of mustard gas, and radiography and radiotherapy have stemmed from early research conducted
by Marie Curie and her husband, Pierre. Specialization now become the norm. Medical practice today
requires advanced knowledge in areas like cardiology, gastroenterology, hematology, oncology,
genetics, obstetrics, gynecology, pediatrics, neurology, ophthalmology, orthopedics, and many. many
more.

TWENTY-FIRST (21ST) CENTURY MEDICINE

The second millennium AD continues with a rapid of technology and information. The
accumulation of knowledge accelerates at unprecedented pace, doubling every 15 to 18 months.
Balancing this technologic explosion in medicine, a trend has emerged toward a more personal aspect of
health care. Research into genetics has greatly expanded our knowledge about heredity. The entire DNA
code has now been deciphered and this has opened a new era in the treatment and prevention of
disease. Biotechnology has opened frontiers in treatment that were unimagined when this text was first
published. Increasing number of surgeries and other interventional procedures are being made obsolete
by the introduction of biotechnology into mainstream health care.
 The electrical conduction system of the heart has now been mapped. The International Space
Station (ISS) is staffed full time and, as a result, new ongoing research is taking place in the fields of
human physiology and pharmacology that will have extensive applications back on Earth.

HISTORY OF RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY

The field of Radiologic Technology has emerged from the time when Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen
discovered x-rays. It was on November 8, 1895 when Roentgen, while working with a cathode-ray tube
in his laboratory, observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a table near his tube. Roentgen shielded the
tube with heavy black paper, and discovered a green colored fluorescent light generated by a material
located a few feet away from the tube.

He concluded that a new type of ray was being emitted from the tube. This ray was capable of
passing through the heavy paper covering and exciting the phosphorescent materials in the room. He
found that the new ray could pass through most substances casting shadows of solid objects.

Throughout the twentieth century, the use of x-rays advanced significantly to include the
imaging of almost all aspects of the human body and the treatment of diseases with radiation therapy.
In addition, radioactive substances came into use for both imaging and treatment. By the 1970s, imaging
had further advanced to include diagnostic medical sonography, computed tomography (CT) and
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

OPPORTUNITIES IN RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY

Radiologic Technology is the technical science that deals with the use of x-rays or radioactive
substances for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes in medicine. Radiologic technologist is a general term
is applied to persons qualified to use x-rays (radiography) or radioactive substances (nuclear medicine)
to produce images of the internal parts of the body for interpretation by a physician known as a
radiologist. Radiologic technology also involves the use of x-rays or radioactive substances in the
treatment of disease (radiation therapy).

Radiologic Technology Fields of Specialization

Radiography

A radiologic technologist specializing in the use of x-rays to create images of the body is known
as a radiographer. Radiographers perform a wide variety of diagnostic x-ray procedures, including
examinations of the skeletal system, the chest and the abdomen. They also assist the radiologist during
more specialized contrast media procedures, such as those used to visualize the spinal cord
(myelography) and the joint spaces (arthrography)

Cardiovascular Interventional Technology

Radiographers can specialize in performing radiologic examinations of the cardiovascular

system, a discipline called cardiovascular interventional technology (CVIT). These procedures involve the
injection of iodinated contrast media for diagnosing diseases of the heart and blood vessels.
Angiography is the term for radiologic examination of the blood vessels after injection of contrast
medium. Coronary arteriography is an extremely valuable tool in diagnosing atherosclerosis, which can
block the coronary arteries ad cause heart attack (myocardial infarction). CVIT involves the use of highly
specialized equipment and complex procedures. This specialization of equipment and supplies has
resulted in a need for radiographers to be specially prepared in this advanced technology. Most of this
advanced education occurs through continuing education training.

Mammography

Radiographers can specialize in performing radiologic examination of the breast, a procedure

called mammography. Mammography is valuable diagnostic tool for early detection of the breast
disease, especially breast cancer.

Nuclear Medicine

The branch of radiologic technology that involves procedures that require the use of radioactive
materials for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes is nuclear medicine technology. Nuclear medicine
procedures usually involve the imaging of a patient's organs such as the liver, heart or brain after the
introduction of a radioactive material known as radiopharmaceutical. Radiopharmaceuticals are usually
administered intravenously but can be administered orally or by inhalation.

Radiation Therapy

A radiation therapy technologist, or radiation therapist, is a person who administers radiation

treatments to patients according to the prescription and instruction of physician, known as radiation
oncologist. Radiation oncology involves the use of high-energy ionizing radiation to treat primarily
malignant tumor (cancer).

Bone Densitometry

Bone densitometry (BD) is most often used to diagnose osteoporosis, a condition that is often
recognized in menopausal women but can also occur in men. Osteoporosis involves a gradual loss of
calcium, causing the bones to become thin, fragile and prone to fractures.

Computed Tomography

Computed tomography (CT) is the recording of predetermined plane in the body using an x-ray
beam that is measured, recorded and then processed by a computer for display on a monitor. This
technology allows physicians to visualize patient anatomy in various sectional planes.

Diagnostic Ultrasonography

Diagnostic ultrasonography is the visualization of structures of the body by recording the

reflections of pulses of high-frequency sound (ultrasound) waves directed into the tissue.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses a large magnet and radio waves to look at organs and
structures inside your body.
EDUCATION

Individuals who have an interest in teaching any of the specific disciplines can find opportunities
in hospitals, colleges and universities. Careers include clinical instructor, didactic faculty member, clinical
coordinator and program director.

CHAPTER 4: RADIOLOGY: HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

PIONEERS OF RADIOLOGY

The development of radiology is in large measure a story of the development of technical

hardware. The work of early scientists and crafts workers made possible the production of x-rays.

Archimedes

 Explained the reaction of solids when they are placed in liquids

Democritus

 Described materials as being composed of ultimate particles

 Formulated the first atomic theory.
 Considered to be the father of modern science.

Thales

 Discovered some of the effects of electricity

Evangelista Torricelli

 Produced the first-recognized vacuum when he invented a barometer in 1643.

Otto van Guericke

 Invented an air pump that was capable of removing air from a vessel or tube in 1646. This
experiment was repeated in 1659 by Robert Boyle and in 1865 by Herman Sprengel.

William Gilbert of England

 Studied electricity and magnetism.

 noted for inventing a primitive electroscope.

Robert Boyle

 His experiments with electricity earned him a place among the serious investigators.

Isaac Newton

 Built and improved the static generator.

Abbe Jean-Antoine Nollet

 Made a significant improvement in the electroscope, a vessel for discharging electricity under
vacuum conditions.

Benjamin Franklin

 Conducted many electrical experiments and should be mentioned in any discussion of the
pioneers in electricity.

William Watson

 Demonstrated a current of electricity by transmitting electricity from a Leyden jar through wires
and a vacuum tube.

William Morgan

 Noticed the difference in color of partially evacuated tubes. He noted that when a tube cracked
and some air leaked in, the amount of air in the tube determined the coloration.

Michael Faraday

 Induced an electric current by moving a magnet in and out of a coil in 1831. From this
experiment evolved the concept of electromagnetic induction, which led to the production of
better generators and transformers and high voltages for use in evacuated tubes.

Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff of Paris

 Made the most significant improvement on induction coils.

Johann Wilhelm Hittorf

 Conducted several experiments with cathode rays, which are streams of electrons emitted from
the surface of a cathode.

William Crookes

 Furthered study the cathode rays and demonstrated that matter was emitted from the cathode
with enough energy to rotate a wheel placed within a tube
 Hittorf's works were repeated and further developed by Crookes.

Philipp Lenard

 Furthered the investigation of the cathode rays.

 He found that cathode rays could penetrate thin metal and would project a few centimeters into
air.
 Lenard did a tremendous amount of research with cathode rays and determined their energies
by measuring the amount of penetration.
  He also studied the deflection of rays as a result of magnetic fields.

William Goodspeed

 Produced a radiograph in 1890.

 His achievement was recognized only in retrospect and after the discovery of x-rays by Wilhelm
Conrad Roentgen.
 Goodspeed was not credited with the discovery of x-rays.

Johann Heinrich Schulze

 Produced the first photographic copy of written material in 1727.

Richard Leach Maddox

 Produced a film with a gelatin silver bromide emulsion that has remained the basic component
for film.

George Eastman

 Produced and patented roll-paper film

Thomas Alva Edison

 Patented a system for electricity distribution in 1880, which was essential to capitalize on the
invention of the electric lamp. On December 17, 1880, Edison founded the Edison Illuminating
Company.
 The company established the first investor-owned electric utility in 1882 on Pearl Street Station,
New York City.
 It was on September 4, 1882, that Edison switched on his Pearl Street generating station's
electrical power distribution system, which provided 110 volts direct current (DC) to 59
customers in lower Manhattan.
 Earlier in the year, in January 1882 he had switched on the first steam generating power station
at Holborn Viaduct in London.

Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen

 Born on March 27, 1845 in Lennep, Germany

 1888 he was offered employment at the University of Wurzburg.
 He discovered x-rays on November 8, 1895.

Michael Idvorsky Pupin

 Produced radiograph 2 weeks after Roentgen discovered x-rays

Pierre Curie

 Noticed that the radium killed diseased cells, which was the first suggestion of the medical utility
of radioactivity.
  In 1880, Pierre and his older brother Jacques (1856-1941) demonstrated that an electric
potential was generated when crystals were i.e. piezoelectricity.

Henri Becquerel

 In 1896 Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in
their penetrating power.

Marie Curie

 Refined the knowledge of radioactivity and purified the radium metal.

 In 1911, she received Nobel Prize for her work in chemistry.
 She continued to study radioactivity until she became acquainted with Albert Einstein and
resumed her experiments with radium.
 She was the first person honored with two Nobel Prizes in Physics and Chemistry
 She was the first female professor at the University of Paris, and in 1995 became the first
woman to be entombed on her own merits in the Panthéon in Paris
 Her achievements included a theory of radioactivity, techniques for isolating radioactive
isotopes, and the discovery of two elements, polonium and radium. Under her direction, the
world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of neoplasms, using radioactive
isotopes. She founded the Curie Institutes in Paris and Warsaw, which remain major centers of
medical research today.

Ernest Lawrence

 Invented cyclotron in 1932.

 The cyclotron is a chamber that made it possible to accelerate particles to high speeds for use as
projectiles.
 The cyclotron first made radioisotopes available in large quantities.

Enrico Fermi

 Made a significant breakthrough when he induced a successful chain reaction in a uranium pile
at the University of Chicago in 1942.
 The results breakthrough was first demonstrated when atomic devices were detonated
experimentally in 1945 at White Sands, New Mexico
 Shortly thereafter, these devices were introduced as weapons when atomic bombs were
dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.