E N G G 4 1 2 :

4
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G
Chapter

Fracture Toughness and Fatigue

and Engineering materials
Intended Learning Outcomes

After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1. Determine the fracture testing, fatigue testing and destructive testing.
2. Briefly describe the process involved in each type of test.
3. Conduct an experiment in this type of test.

This chapter presents the fracture toughness, fatigue and different types of material testing in
connection with the engineering materials. Materials testing such as impact test, destructive test, and
fatigue testing will be discussed in this chapter. These material testing are used to determine the
properties of materials such fatigue strength, toughness, service life etc. The equipment and processes
involved in conducting the test will also be discussed. The data thus obtained in this test can be used
in specifying the suitability of materials for various applications.

Fracture

Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an
imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at temperatures that
are low relative to the melting temperature of the material. Fracture can also occur from fatigue
(when cyclic stresses are imposed) and creep (time-dependent deformation, normally at elevated
temperatures). Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of different types of fracture depends on
the type of material used, (a) Highly ductile fracture in which the specimen necks down to a point.
(b) Moderately ductile fracture after some necking. (c) Brittle fracture without any plastic
deformation.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 1

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 1. Different types of Fracture

Adapted from Fig. 8.1, Callister 9e

Types of Fracture Mode in Metal

Classification is based on the ability of a material to experience plastic deformation.

Ductile Fracture
Ductile fracture is characterized by extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of an
advancing crack. Furthermore, the process proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is
extended. Such a crack is often said to be stable— that is, it resists any further extension unless
there is an increase in the applied stress. In addition, there typically is evidence of appreciable
gross deformation at the fracture surfaces (e.g., twisting and tearing). Ductile fracture is almost
always preferred to brittle fracture for two reasons:
1. Brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any warning; this is a
consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack propagation. However, for ductile fracture, the
presence of plastic deformation gives warning that failure is imminent, allowing preventive
measures to be taken.
2. More strain energy is required to induce ductile fracture inasmuch as these materials
are generally tougher. Under the action of an applied tensile stress, many metal alloys are ductile,
whereas ceramics are typically brittle, and polymers may exhibit a range of behaviors.
Figure 2 shows the stages in the cup-and-cone fracture. (a) Initial necking. (b) Small cavity
formation. (c) Coalescence of cavities to form a crack. (d) Crack propagation. (e) Final shear
fracture at a 45 angle relative to the tensile direction.

Figure 2. Stages in the cup-and-cone fracture

Adapted from Figure 8.2, Callister 9e
Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 2
E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Brittle Fracture
For brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little accompanying
plastic deformation. Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and crack propagation, once started,
continues spontaneously without an increase in magnitude of the applied stress. Brittle fracture
takes place without any appreciable deformation and by rapid crack propagation. The direction of
crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied tensile stress and yields
a relatively flat fracture surface. Fracture surfaces of materials that fail in a brittle manner have
distinctive patterns.
For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the successive and
repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic planes); such a process is
termed cleavage. This type of fracture is said to be transgranular (or transcrystalline because the
fracture cracks pass through the grains.
Figure 3 shows Illustration of the specimen after fracture a) Cup-and-cone fracture in
aluminum. (b) Brittle fracture in a mild steel

Figure 3. Specimen after Fracture

Adapted from Figure 8.3,Callister 9E
Fracture Toughness (Kc)
Fracture toughness is a property that is a measure of a material’s resistance to brittle
fracture when a crack is present. It has the unusual units of 𝑀𝑝𝑎√𝑚 or 𝑝𝑠𝑖 √𝑖𝑛 or 𝑘𝑠𝑖 √𝑖𝑛. It can
be determined using the formula below:

K c = Yσc √πa
Where :
Y= dimensionless parameter or function that depends on both crack and specimen sizes
and geometries as well as on the manner of load application.
Y= 1.0 for a plate of infinite width having a through-thickness crack
𝑌 ≅ 1.1 for a plate of semi-infinite width containing an edge crack
σc = Critical stress and can be determine using the formula below:
2𝐸𝛾𝑠 1/2
𝜎𝑐 = ( )
𝜋𝑎
E= modulus of elasticity
𝛾𝑠 = specific surface energy
a = represents the length of a surface crack, or half of the length of an internal crack

Fracture Toughness Testing

A number of different standardized tests have been devised to measure the fracture
toughness values for structural materials. In the United States, these standard test methods are
developed by the ASTM. For each test type, the specimen (of specified geometry and size)
Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 3
E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

contains a preexisting defect, usually a sharp crack that has been introduced. The test apparatus
loads the specimen at a specified rate, and also measures load and crack displacement values.
Data are subjected to analyses to ensure that they meet established criteria before the fracture
toughness values are deemed acceptable. Most tests are for metals, but some have also been
developed for ceramics, polymers, and composites.

Impact testing
The purpose of impact testing is to measure an object's ability to resist high-rate loading.
It is usually thought of in terms of two objects striking each other at high relative speeds. A part,
or material's ability to resist impact often is one of the determining factors in the service life of a
part, or in the suitability of a designated material for a particular application. Impact resistance
can be one of the most difficult properties to quantify. The ability to quantify this property is a great
advantage in product liability and safety.
Impact tests are used in studying the toughness of material. A material's toughness is a
factor of its ability to absorb energy during plastic deformation. Brittle materials have low
toughness as a result of the small amount of plastic deformation that they can endure. The impact
value of a material can also change with temperature. Generally, at lower temperatures, the
impact energy of a material is decreased. The size of the specimen may also affect the value of
the Izod impact test because it may allow a different number of imperfections in the material,
which can act as stress risers and lower the impact energy.
Impact Testing most commonly consists of Charpy and IZOD Specimen configurations.
Impact test specimen types include notch configurations such as V-Notch, U-Notch, Key-Hole
Notch, as well as Un-notched and ISO (DIN) V-Notch, with capabilities of impact testing subsize
specimens down to ¼ size.
Energy requires to fracture the specimen is determined by measuring the height from
which the pendulum is allowed to swing prior to contracting the specimen and the height the
pendulum rises after it has fractures the specimen. Figure 4 shows the different types of notches
in the specimen and figure 5 shows the equipment used in impact testing.

Figure 4. Type of Notches of Specimen in Impact Testing

Source: Westmoreland Mechanical Testing & Research

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 4

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 5. Impact Test Machine

Adapted from Figure 8.12, Callister 9E

Types of Impact Testing

Izod Impact Test

The Izod impact testing is an ASTM standard method of determining the impact resistance
of materials. It consists of a pendulum with a determined weight at the end of its arm swinging
down and striking the specimen while it is held securely in a vertical position. The impact strength
is determined by the loss of energy of the pendulum as determined by precisely measuring the
loss of height in the pendulum's swing.
The Izod impact test was named for english engineer Edwin Gilbert Izod.and was modified
by Georges Charpy to hold the specimen in a horizontal rather than a vertical position. This is the
primary difference between the Izod and the Charpy impact test. The Izod impact test differs also
in that the notch is positioned facing the striker.
The specimen size and shape vary with the Izod impact test according to what materials
are being tested. Specimens of metals are usually square, and polymers are usually rectangular
being struck perpendicular to the long axis of the rectangle.
The Izod impact test, like the Charpy impact test, is also used to test materials at low
temperature to try to simulate conditions that may occur in the actual use of the material.
The Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature may be obtained by testing a number of
identical specimens at different temperatures, and then plotting the impact energy as a function
of temperature, the ductile-brittle transition becomes apparent as the resulting curve shows a
rapid decline in impact strength as the temperature increases. This is essential information to
obtain when determining the minimum service temperature for a material.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 5

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 6. Specimen used for Izod impact tests

Adapted from Figure 8.12, Callister 9E

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l20kF6fhScA

Charpy Impact Test

The Charpy Impact Test was invented in 1900 by Georges Augustin Albert Charpy (1865-
1945). The Charpy impact test measures the energy absorbed by a standard notched specimen
while breaking under an impact load. The Charpy impact test continues to be used as an
economical quality control method to determine the notch sensitivity and impact toughness of
engineering materials.
The Charpy Impact Test is commonly used on metals, but is also applied to composites,
ceramics and polymers. With the Charpy impact test one most commonly evaluates the relative
toughness of a material, and as such, it is used as a quick and economical quality control device.
The Charpy Impact Test consist of striking a suitable specimen with a hammer on a
pendulum arm while the specimen is held securely at each end. The hammer strikes opposite the
notch. The energy absorbed by the specimen is determined by precisely measuring the decrease
in motion of the pendulum arm.

The standard Charpy Impact Test specimen consist of a bar of metal, or other material,
55x10x10mm having a notch machined across one of the larger dimensions.

• V-notch: 2mm deep, with 45° angle and 0.25mm radius along the base
• U-notch and keyhole notch: 5mm deep notch with 1mm radius at base of notch
Important factors that affect the toughness of a material include: low temperatures, high
strain rates (by impact or pressurization), and stress concentrators such as notches, cracks and
voids. By applying the Charpy Impact Test to identical specimens at different temperatures, and
then plotting the impact energy as a function of temperature, the ductile-brittle transition becomes
apparent. This is essential information to obtain when determining the minimum service
temperature for a material.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 6

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 7. Specimen used for Charpy Impact Tests.

Adapted from Figure 8.12, Callister 9E

Video Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tpGhqQvftAo&t=3s

Fatigue

Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating
stresses (e.g., bridges, aircraft, machine components). Under these circumstances, it is possible
for failure to occur at a stress level considerably lower than the tensile or yield strength for a static
load. The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period
of repeated stress or strain cycling. Fatigue is important inasmuch as it is the single largest cause
of failure in metals, estimated to be involved in approximately 90% of all metallic failures; polymers
and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to this type of failure. Furthermore, fatigue
is catastrophic and insidious, occurring very suddenly and without warning.
Fatigue failure is brittle-like in nature even in normally ductile metals in that there is very
little, if any, gross plastic deformation associated with failure. The process occurs by the initiation
and propagation of cracks, and typically the fracture surface is perpendicular to the direction of
an applied tensile stress.

CYCLIC STRESSES
The applied stress may be axial (tension–compression), flexural (bending), or torsional
(twisting) in nature. In general, three different fluctuating stress–time modes are possible.

Reversed Stress Cycle

• alternating from a maximum tensile stress (σmax) to a minimum compressive stress
(σmin) of equal magnitude. Figure 8 shows the illustration of reversed stress cycle.

Figure 8. Reversed Stress Cycle

Adapted from Figure 8.17, Callister 9E

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 7

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Repeated Stress Cycle

• the maxima and minima are asymmetrical relative to the zero-stress level. Figure
9 shows the illustration of repeated stress cycle.

Figure 9. Repeated Stress Cycle

Adapted from Figure 8.17, Callister 9E

Fluctuating
• the stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and frequency. Figure 10 shows
the illustration fluctuating stress cycle.

Figure 10. Fluctuating

Adapted from Figure 8.17, Callister 9E

Mean Stress (𝜎𝑚 )

Mean stress id defined as the average of the maximum and minimum stresses in the
cycle or can be computed using the formula below:

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑚 =
2
Range of Stress (𝜎𝑟 )
Range of stress is the difference between maximum and minimum stress or can be
calculated using this formula:

𝜎𝑟 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

Stress amplitude
Stress amplitude (𝜎𝑎 ) is one-half of this range of stress.
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑎 =
2

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 8

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Stress Ratio (R)

The stress ratio is the ratio of minimum and maximum stress amplitudes:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅=
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛

Fatigue limit
Fatigue Limit is sometimes called the endurance limit. This fatigue limit represents the
largest value of fluctuating stress that will not cause failure for essentially an infinite number of
cycles. For many steels, fatigue limits range between 35% and 60% of the tensile strength

Fatigue Strength
Fatigue Strength is defined as the stress level at which failure will occur for some specified
number of cycles

Fatigue Life (Nf)

Fatigue life is the number of cycles to cause failure at a specified stress level

Example Problem:

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 9

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Fatigue Testing
A fatigue test helps determine a material’s ability to withstand cyclic fatigue loading
conditions. By design, a material is selected to meet or exceed service loads that are anticipated
in fatigue testing applications. Cyclic fatigue tests produce repeated loading and unloading in
tension, compression, bending, torsion or combinations of these stresses. Fatigue tests are
commonly loaded in tension – tension, compression – compression and tension into compression
and reverse.
To perform a fatigue test, a sample is loaded into a fatigue tester or fatigue test machine
and loaded using the pre-determined test stress, then unloaded to either zero load or an opposite
load. This cycle of loading and unloading is then repeated until the end of the test is reached. The
test may be run to a pre-determined number of cycles or until the sample has failed depending
on the parameters of the test.

Figure 11. Schematic illustration of the equipment and specimen used in Fatigue Testing
Adapted from Figure 8.18, Callister 9E

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o-6V_JoRX1g

Types of fatigue tests

There are several common types of fatigue testing as well as two common forms:

1. Load Controlled High Cycle

High-cycle fatigue (HCF) tests are often conducted on smooth bar specimens in load,
force or stress control. The goal of the test is to determine the number of cycles to fracture for
each specimen. Nominal stress levels in high cycle fatigue tests are relatively low and significantly
below the metals yield strength.
Applicable Testing Standards
ASTM E466 covers the standard practices for conducting force controlled constant
amplitude axial fatigue tests of metallic materials. The test is used to determine the fatigue
strength of metallic materials.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 10

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Testing Procedure
Place the specimen securely in the grips of the testing machine. Specimens can be round
or flat. Take care to adjust the specimen symmetrically to distribute the load uniformly over the
cross section. This avoids complications that prevent the true strength of the material from being
evaluated. Take care to properly align the specimen. Refer to ASTM E466 for rate of machine
movement (0-100 Hz). Start the machine. Continue sinusoidal cycles to failure. Record the load
at the time of failure. Figure 12 shows the sample machine used for High-cycle fatigue test.

Figure 12. 800 Series Fatigue Test Machine

Source: Test Resources
2.Strain Controlled Low Cycle Fatigue
For low cycle fatigue testing (LCF), the test is run in strain control with the load as a
dependent variable. LCF is characterized by high amplitude, low-frequency plastic strains. Low
cycle fatigue can be particularly useful in industries that rely on materials in temperature-varying
and cyclic conditions including aerospace, architecture, automotive, oil and gas, and power
generation industries.

Stages of Low Cycle Fatigue Testing

There are three stages to low cycle fatigue testing.
• The first stage is designed to detect crack initiation on a polished specimen.
• The second stage is propagation life, which occurs after initiation.
• The third stage is failure, which is usually determined by some percentage of load drop
from a stable condition.
• Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhUclxBUV_E

Destructive Testing

Prolonged endurance testing under the most severe operating conditions, continued until
the component, equipment, or product specimen fails (is broken or destroyed). The purpose of
destructive testing is to determine service life and to detect design weaknesses that may not show
up under normal working conditions.
• In destructive testing (or destructive physical analysis, DPA) tests are carried out to the
specimen's failure, in order to understand a specimen's performance or material behavior
under different loads.
Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 11
E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

• These tests are generally much easier to carry out, yield more information, and are easier
to interpret than nondestructive testing.
• Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for objects which
will be mass-produced, as the cost of destroying a small number of
specimens is negligible
• It is usually not economical to do destructive testing where only one or very few items are
to be produced.
• Destructive tests are used for welder qualification and certification, as well as welding
procedure qualifications. In large production runs, destructive tests are often made by
pulling apart sample units. It is often less expensive to scrap a part to make a destructive
quality test than to test the parts using more expensive nondestructive tests.

Commonly used methods of destructive testing of material

1. Tensile Test
2. Hardness Tests
3. Impact Tests
4. Creep
5. Fatigue
6. Other Mechanical Tests

Hardness Testing

Hardness testing measures a material’s strength by determining resistance to penetration.

The indenter is pressed into the metal. Softer materials leave a deeper indentation.

Rockwell Hardness Tests

The Rockwell tests constitute the most common method used to measure hardness
because they are so simple to perform and require no special skills. Several different scales may
be used from possible combinations of various indenters and different loads a process that
permits the testing of virtually all metal alloys (as well as some polymers).
Indenters include spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters of 1/16, 1/8, 1/4,
and 1/2 in. as well as a conical diamond (Brale) indenter, which is used for the hardest materials.
Two Types of Tests
1. Rockwell
For the Rockwell test, the minor load is 10 kg, whereas major loads are 60, 100, and 150
kg. Each scale is represented by a letter of the alphabet; several are listed with the corresponding
indenter and load in Tables 6.5 and 6.6a
2. Superficial Rockwell
For superficial tests, 3 kg is the minor load; 15, 30, and 45 kg are the possible major load
values. These scales are identified by a 15, 30, or 45 (according to load), followed by N, T, W, X,
or Y, depending on the indenter. Superficial tests are frequently performed on thin specimens.
Table 6.6b presents several superficial scales

When specifying Rockwell and superficial hardnesses, both hardness number and scale
symbol must be indicated. The scale is designated by the symbol HR followed by the appropriate
scale identification.14 For example, 80 HRB represents a Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B scale,
and 60 HR30W indicates a superficial hardness of 60 on the 30W scale. The Hardness number
can be determined using this formula:

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 12

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

ℎ2 − ℎ1
𝐻𝑅𝑋 = 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑀 −
0.002
Where: M= 100 for A, C and D scales
M= 130 for other scales

Figure 13. Principle of Rockwell

Source: Aybu.edu.tr

Specimen thickness should be at least 10 times the indentation depth, whereas allowance
should be made for at least three indentation diameters between the center of one indentation
and the specimen edge, or to the center of a second indentation. Table 1.0 shows the Rockwell
hardness scales while table 2.0 shows the superficial Rockwell hardness scales. Using these
scales, we can determine the type of indenter to be used and the major load to be applied.

Table 1.0
Rockwell Hardness Scales

Adapted from Table 6.6a, Callister 9E

Table 2.0
Superficial Rockwell Hardness Scale

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 13

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Adapted from Table 6.6b, Callister 9E

The two most common indenters are Rockwell B (ball) used for soft materials and
Rockwell C (cone) uses diamond cone for hard materials.

Figure 14. Rockwell Hardness Indenter

Adapted from Table 6.5, Callister 9E

The modern apparatus for making Rockwell hardness measurements is automated and
very simple to use; hardness is read directly, and each measurement requires only a few seconds.
This apparatus also permits a variation in the time of load application. This variable must also be
considered in interpreting hardness data.

Brinell Hardness Tests

In Brinell tests, as in Rockwell measurements, a hard, spherical indenter is forced into the
surface of the metal to be tested. The diameter of the hardened steel (or tungsten carbide)
indenter is 10.00 mm (0.394 in.). Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg
increments; during a test, the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and
30 s). The indenter use for Brinell Hardness is shown in Figure15. The Brinell hardness number
can be determined using the formula below:

𝑃
𝐵𝐻𝑁 =
𝜋𝐷
[𝐷 − √𝐷 2 − 𝑑 2
2

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 14

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Where:
P = test load in kg
D= diameter of the ball in mm
d= the average diameter of indentation in mm

Figure 15. Brinell Principle

Source: Aybu.edu.tr
Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond
indenter, in the form of a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between
opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to 100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15
seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in the surface of the material after removal of
the load are measured using a microscope and their average calculated. The area of the sloping
surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness can be determined using this
formula:
1360
2𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝐹
𝐻𝑉 = or 𝐻𝑉 = 1.854 approximately
𝑑2 𝑑2

Where: F= load in kgf

d= arithmetic mean of the two diagonals
HV= Vickers Hardness

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 15

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 16. Vicker Principle

Source: Aybu.edu.tr
Figure 16 shows the Vicker principle. The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800
HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force. The
advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely accurate readings can be taken, and
just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface treatments. Although
thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under
varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is more expensive than the Brinell
or Rockwell machines.

Microindentation Hardness Tests

Two other hardness-testing techniques are the Knoop and Vickers tests (sometimes also
called diamond pyramid). For each test, a very small diamond indenter having pyramidal
geometry is forced into the surface of the specimen. Applied loads are much smaller than for the
Rockwell and Brinell tests, it is ranging between 1 and 1000 g. The resulting impression is
observed under a microscope and measure. This measurement is then converted into a hardness
number. The Knoop and Vickers hardness numbers are designated by HK and HV, respectively,
and hardness scales for both techniques are approximately equivalent. The Knoop and Vickers
techniques are referred to as micro indentation-testing methods on the basis of indenter size.
Both are well suited for measuring the hardness of small, selected specimen regions; furthermore,
the Knoop technique is used for testing brittle materials such as ceramics.

Knoop Hardness

The Knoop hardness number HK is the ratio of the load applied to the indenter, P (kgf) to
the unrecovered projected area A (mm2). KHN can be determined using the formula below:

𝐹 𝑃
𝐻𝐾 = =
𝐴 𝐶𝐿2

Where: F=applied load (kgf)

A=the unrecovered projected area of the indentation (mm 2 )

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 16

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

L=measured length of long diagonal of indentation (mm)

C = 0.07028
= Constant of indenter relating projected area of the indentation to the square of the
length of the long diagonal.

Comparing the indentations made with Knoop and Vickers Diamond Pyramid indenters
for a given load and test material:

• Vickers indenter penetrates about twice as deep as Knoop indenter

• Vickers indentation diagonal about 1/3 of the length of Knoop major diagonal
• Vickers test is less sensitive to surface conditions than Knoop test
• Vickers test is more sensitive to measurement errors than knoop test
• Vickers test best for small rounded areas
• Knoop test best for small elongated areas
• Knoop test good for very hard brittle materials and very thin sections

Figure 17. Knoop Hardness Indenter Indentation

Source: Aybu.edu.tr

Vickers Diamond pyramid Hardness

The Vickers Diamond Pyramid hardness number is the applied load (kgf) divided by the
surface area of the indentation (mm2) or can be calculated using the formula below. Figure 18
shows the Vickers pyramid indenter.

1360
2𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐹
2
𝐻𝑉 = or 𝐻𝑉 = 1.854 approximately
𝑑2 𝑑2

Where: F= load in kgf

d= arithmetic mean of the two diagonals
HV= Vickers Hardness

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 17

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 18. Vickers Pyramid Diamond Indenter Indentation

Source: Aybu.edu.tr

Hardness Conversion

The facility to convert the hardness measured on one scale to that of another is most
desirable. However, because hardness is not a well-defined material property, and because of
the experimental dissimilarities among the various techniques, a comprehensive conversion
scheme has not been devised. Hardness conversion data have been determined experimentally
and found to be dependent on material type and characteristics. The most reliable conversion
data exist for steels, some of which are presented in Figure 19 for Knoop, Brinell, and two
Rockwell scales; the Mohs scale is also included.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 18

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 19. Comparison of Several Hardness Scale

Adapted from Figure 6.18, Callister 9E

Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength

Both tensile strength and hardness are indicators of a metal’s resistance to plastic
deformation. Consequently, they are roughly proportional, as shown in Figure 20, for tensile
strength as a function of the HB for cast iron, steel, and brass. The same proportionality
relationship does not hold for all metals, as Figure 20 indicates. As a rule of thumb, for most
steels, the HB and the tensile strength are related according to TS(MPa) = 3.45 * HB (6.20a)
TS(psi) = 500 * HB

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 19

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

Figure 20. Relationship between hardness and tensile strength

Adapted from Figure 6.19, Callister 9E

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 20

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

CHAPTER TEST

Directions: Answer the following question comprehensively. Write your answer on the space
provided.

Questions

1. What are the reasons why?

2. Why do we need to conduct the impact, fatigue and destructive testing? Cite reasons relative
to materials science and engineering.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 21

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

3. A fatigue test was conducted in which the mean stress was 70 MPa (10,000 psi), and the stress
amplitude was 210 MPa (30,000 psi).
(a) Compute the maximum and minimum stress levels.
(b) Compute the stress ratio.
(c) Compute the magnitude of the stress range.

4. (a) Calculate the Knoop hardness when a 500-g load yields an indentation diagonal length of
100 m. (b) The measured HK of some material is 200. Compute the applied load if the indentation
diagonal length is 0.25 mm.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 22

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

5. The following tabulated data were gathered from a series of Charpy impact tests on a tempered
4340 steel alloy.

(a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.

(b) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature corresponding to the
average of the maximum and minimum impact energies.
(c) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as the temperature at which the impact
energy is 50 J.

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 23

E N G G 4 1 2 :
M A T E R I A L S S C I E N C E A N D E N G I N E E R I N G

REFERENCES

1. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction, 9th Edition, William D. Callister, Jr.
Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah with special contributions by
David G. Rethwisch The University of Iowa.

2. UNSW Sydney.2013. Material Testing. Viewed August 18, 2020. Available at:
http://www.materials.unsw.edu.au/tutorials/online-tutorials/1-fatigue-testing

3. Westmoreland Mechanical Testing & Research. Impact Testing. Viewed August 18, 2020.
Available at: https://www.wmtr.com/en.impact-testing.html

4. Test Resource.2020. Fatigue Test Viewed August 19, 2020. Available at:
https://www.testresources.net/applications/test-types/fatigue-test/

5. Aybu.edu. Hardness Testing. Viewed August 19, 2020. Available at:

https://aybu.edu.tr/muhendislik/makina/contents/files/HARDNESS%20TEST(1).pdf

Module No. 4 – Fracture Toughness and Fatigue and Engineering materials 24