Protocol

A defined set of standards that computers must follow in order to

communicate properly.

Computer Networking
The full scope of how computers communicate with each other.

TCP/IP Five-Layer Network Model

1. Physical layer
Represents the physical devices that interconnect computers.
2. Data Link layer
Also known as Network Access layer. Responsible for defining a
common way of interpreting these signals so network devices
can communicate.
The most common is the Ethernet. The Ethernet standards also
define a protocol responsible for getting data to nodes on the
same network or link.
3. Network layer
Also called the Internet layer. Allows different networks to
communicate with each other through devices known as routers.
The protocol used at this layer is IP (internet Protocol).
Internetwork: A collection of networks connected together
through routers, the most famous of these being the Internet.
4. Transport layer
Sorts out which client and server programs are supposed to get
the data. The protocol used at this layer is TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol).
5. Application layer
Cables
Connect different devices to each other, allowing data to be
transmitted over them. Cables can be specified into two categories:
Copper and Fibre.
The most common type of cabling used to connect the computers is
known as ‘twisted pair cable’.

The most common forms of copper twisted-pair cables used in

networking are Cat5, Cat5e and Cat6 cables.

These cables allow for Duplex communication: the concept that

information can flow in both directions across the cable. Opposite
to this is a process called Simplex communication which is
unidirectional.
The most common plug for these cables is the RJ45 port.
These ports have to indicator lights;
one is Link LED (yellow) and the other
is Activity LED (green).
The Link LED will be lit when the cable
is properly connected to two devices
that are both powered on.
The Activity LED would flash when data
is actively transmitted across the
cable.
Crosstalk
When an electrical pulse on one wire is accidently detected on
another wire. This problem presides in Cat5 or older cables.

Fibre cables short for Fibre Optic cables, individual optical

fibres, which are tiny tubes made out of glass about the width of a
human hair.

Hubs and Switches are the primary devices used to connect computer
on a single network, usually referred to as a LAN, or Local Area
Network.

Hub
A hub is a physical layer device that allows for connections from
many computers at once. If a computer sends data to another computer
over a hub, the hub will redirect that data to every computer
connected to the hub. It’s up to the other computer to check if the
data sent is for them or not.
This creates a Collision domain: a network segment where only one
device can communicate at a time. If multiple systems try sending
data at the same time, the electrical pulses sent across the cable
can interfere with each other.

Network Switch
Also known as a Switching Hub. It is very similar to a hub since you
can connect many devices at once. The difference is that a hub is a
physical layer device whereas a switch is a data link layer device.
It can inspect the data and send the data to only that computer
which the data is intended for. This solves the problem of collision
domain.

Router
A device that knows how to forward data between independent
networks. A router is a network layer device. Its work is to take
the traffic from home or office LAN and forward it along the ISP
(Internet Service Provider).
Routers share data to each other via a protocol know an BGP (Border
Gateway Protocol), which lets them learn about the most optimal
paths to forward traffic.

Bit
The smallest representation of data that a computer can understand;
it’s a one or a zero.
Modulation
A way of varying the voltage of the charge moving across the cable.
The kind of modulation used for computer networks is called ‘Line
coding’.

Ethernet and MAC Address

Ethernet is a protocol used to send data across individual data
links. Ethernet uses a technique known as carrier sense multiple
access with collision detection, abbreviated as CSMA/CD.
CSMA/CD
It is used to determine when the communications channels are clear,
and when a device is free to transmit data.
Media Access Control Address (MAC)
A globally unique identifier attached to an individual network
interface. It’s a 48-bit number normally represented by six
groupings of two hexadecimal numbers (total 6 octets are there in a
MAC address). It is used because we need to know which node was the
data actually meant for.
A MAC Address is split into two sections;
The first three octets of a MAC address are called Organizationally
Unique Identifier (OUI).
The last three octets can be assigned by the manufacturer as its
choice with condition that each possible MAC address is assigned
once.
Ethernet uses MAC address to ensure that the data it sends has both
an address for the machine that sent the transmission, as well as
the one the transmission was intended for.

Unicast frame
A unicast transmission is always meant for just one receiving
address. If the leas significant bit in the first octet of
destination address is set to zero, it means that ethernet frame is
intended for only the destination address. This means the data will
be sent to all the devices on the network but received by only those
devices which the data was intended for.
Multicast frame
Similarly, if the least significant bit in the first octet is set to
one, it means you’re dealing with a multicast frame.
Broadcast frame
In this frame data is sent to every device on the network. This is
accomplished by a special address known as Broadcast address:
FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF, it is all Fs.

Data packet
An all-encompassing term that represents any single set of binary
data begin sent across a network link.
Data packet at the ethernet level are called Ethernet frames. An
Ethernet frame is a highly structured collection of information
presented in a specific order.

Preamble
8 bytes (or 64 bits) long, and can itself be split into two
sections; the first 7 bytes are a series of alternating ones and
zeroes, the last byte is known as SFD (start frame delimiter). SFD
signals to a receiving device that the preamble is over and that the
actual frame contents will now follow.
Destination address
Also know as destination MAC address, the hardware address of the
intended recipient.
Source address
Also known as source MAC address, where the frame originated from.
Ether type field
16 bits long and used to describe the protocol of the contents of
the frame.
You can also find VLAN (Virtual LAN) header instead of Ether type
field. VLAN header indicates that the frame itself is what’s called
a VLAN frame. If a VLAN header is present, the ethernet type field
follows it.
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
A technique that lets you have multiple logical LANs operating on
the same physical equipment.
Payload
In networking terms, is the actual data being transported, which is
everything that isn’t a header.
Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
A 4-byte (or 32-bit) number that represents a checksum value for the
entire frame. This checksum value is calculated by performing what’s
known as a cyclical redundancy check against the frame. A cyclical
redundancy check (CRC) is an important concept for data integrity,
and is used all over computing, not just network transmissions.
The Network Layer
On a local area network or LAN, nodes can communicate with each
other through their physical MAC addresses. But this only works for
small scale only.
IP Address
IP address are 32-bit long numbers made up of four octets and each
octet is described in decimal numbers.

12.34.56.78
00001100.00100010.00111000.01001110
8 bits of data or a single octet can represent all decimal values
from 0 to 255. The above example is a valid IP address. The format
is called dotted decimal notation.
Fact: IBM owns every single IP address that has the number 9 as the
first octet.
Note that, IP addresses belong to networks, not to the devices
attached to those networks.
So, IP addresses are assigned automatically by the LAN which you
connect to. On many new networks IP addresses are assigned through a
technology known as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). An
IP address assigned this way is called Dynamic IP address. Opposite
to this is a Static IP address which must be configured manually. In
most cases, static IP address are reserved for servers and network
devices, while dynamic address are reserved for clients.
IP datagram
Under the IP protocol a packet is referred to as IP datagram. IP
datagram is a highly structured series of fields that are strictly
defined.
The two primary sections of a IP datagram are header and the
payload.

The first 4 bits represents what version of protocol is being used.

The most common version of IP is version 4, or IPv4. After that
another 4 bits denotes the header length (how long the header is).
It is almost always 20 bytes in length when dealing with IPv4. Next
8 bits represent Service Type field which is used to specify details
about quality of service (QoS). The next field is total length field
of 16 bits. It indicates the total length of the IP datagram it’s
attached to.
If the total amount of data that needs to be sent is larger than
what can fit in a single datagram, the IP layer needs to split this
data up into many individual packets.
The flag field is used to indicate if a datagram is allowed to be
fragmented, or to indicate that the datagram has already been
fragmented.
Fragmentation: The process of taking a single IP datagram and
splitting it up into several smaller datagrams.
Time to Live (TTL) field
An 8-bit field that indicates how many routers hops a datagram can
traverse before it’s thrown away.
Protocol field
8-bit field that contains data about what transport layer protocol
is being used. The most common transport layer protocols are TCP and
UDP. The difference between TCP and UDP is that UDP is
connectionless.
Header checksum field
A checksum of the contents of the entire IP datagram header.
Source and Destination IP address are each 32-bit long.
IP option field
An optional field and is used to set special characteristics for
datagram primarily used for testing purpose.
Padding field
A series of zeroes used to ensure the header is the correct total
size.

IP Address classes
IP address can be split into two sections: the network ID and host
ID.
The network ID is the first octet and host ID is the rest of octets;
second, third and fourth.
Address class system
A way of defining how the global IP address space is split up. It
has three types; Class A, Class B and Class C.
Class A addresses are those in which the first octet is used for
network ID and the last three are used for host ID.
Class B address are those in which the first two octets are used for
network ID and the second two are used for host ID.
Class C address are those in which the first three octets are used
for network ID and the last octet is used for host ID.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

A protocol used to discover the hardware address of a node with a
certain IP address.
ARP table is a list of IP address and MAC address associated with
them. These tables generally expire after a short amount of time to
ensure changes in the network are accounted for.
IP address don’t reveal much about you it can only reveal your
service and near address.

Subnetting
The process of taking a large network and splitting it up into many
individual and smaller subnetworks, or subnets.
Subnet IDs are calculated by subnet masks: 32-bit numbers that are
normally written out as four octets in decimal. It is a way for a
computer to use AND operators to determine if an IP address exists
on the same network.
A single 8-bit number can represent 256 different numbers, or more
specifically, the numbers 0-255.
The zeros at the end of the subnet mask in binary form means how
many bits are free for host ID or more specifically 2 n where n is
the number of zeros.
The /n which is written at end of IP address is the number of ones
in the subnet mask.
Basic binary math
Base ten: ten numerals to represent any number (0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10)
Base two: known as binary, uses two numerals to represent numbers (0
1)
If you have 8-bit number you can do 2 8 to get 256 (0-255) which
means a 8-bit number can represent 256 base ten numbers.

Binary addition
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1
1 + 1 = 10 (carry the 1)
OR and AND operator
In computer logic, a 1 represents true and a 0 represents false.

CIDR
Short for Classless Inter-Domain Routing.
Demarcation point
To describe where one network or system ends and another one begins.
The /n notation which is in IP address is known as CIDR notation.
Remember we always loose two host IDs per network.

Routing
A router is a network device that forwards traffic depending on the
destination address of that traffic. It is a device which has at
least two network interfaces means it has to be connected two
different networks to perform its job.
Remember that IP address belong to networks not individual nodes on
a network.

Routing tables
It has four columns:
Destination network – networks which router knows about
Next hop – IP Address of the next router
Total hop – the total numbers of routers in the shortest path
Interface – to which interface should the router forward the data

Routing protocols
These are special protocols that routers use to speak to each other
in order to share information. Routing protocols fall into two main
categories: interior gateway protocols and exterior gateway
protocols.
Interior gateway protocols are further split into two categories:
Link state routing protocols and distance-vector protocols.
Interior gateway protocols
Used by routers to share information within a single autonomous
system. In networking terms an autonomous system is a collection of
networks that all fall under the control of a single network
operator.
In distance-vector protocol a router basically just takes its
routing table then the router sends this list to every neighbouring
router. In computer science, a list is known as a vector.
In link state routing protocol, each router sends it state to every
other router so each router knows about the other router.
Exterior gateway protocols
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) is a non-profit
organization that helps manage things like IP address allocation.
Along with managing IP address allocation, the IANA is also
responsible for ASN, or Autonomous System Number allocation. ASNs
are numbers assigned to individual autonomous systems. Like IP
address they are 32-bit numbers but unlike IP address they referred
to as a single decimal number. Reason for this is that IP address
need to represent network ID and host ID which is done by splitting
the number in four sections and ASNs don’t need to do these things.
Secondly, ASNs are not much looked by us like IP address.

In 2017 IPv4 standard didn’t even have enough IP address available

for every person on the planet. That’s why there exists non-routable
address space. These are ranges of IPs set aside for use by anyone
that cannot be routed to.

The Transport Layer

The transport layer has the ability to multiplex and demultiplex.

The transport layer handles multiplexing and demultiplexing through

ports.
A Port is a 16-bit number that’s used to direct traffic to specific
services running on a networked computer. Ports are denoted with a
colon after the IP address, for example: 10.1.1.100:80. When written
this way is known as socket number of socket port.
An IP datagram encapsulates a TCP segment. A TCP segment is made up
of a TCP heather and a data section. TCP heather has two parts:
source port and destination port. The destination port is port of
the service the traffic is intended for. A source port is high-
numbered port chosen from a special section of ports known as
ephemeral ports.
The third part is Sequence number: a 32-bit number that’s used to
keep track of where in a sequence of TCP segments this one is
expected to be.
Next is acknowledgement number which is a lot like sequence number.
It is the number of the next expected segment.
Next field is Data offset field which is a 4-bit number that
communicates how long the TCP header for this segment is.
Then we have 6-bits of control flags.
Next is TCP windows of 16-bit. It specifies the range of sequence
numbers that might be sent before and acknowledgement is required.
Next is a 16-bit checksum field. It operates just like the checksum
fields at the IP and ethernet level.
Urgent pointer field, used in conjunction with one of the TCP
controls flags to point out particular segments that might be more
important than others.

Control flags

First is URG (urgent), value of one here indicates that the segment is considered urgent and that the
urgent pointer field has more data about this.

The second flag is ACK (acknowledgement), a value of one in this field means that the
acknowledgement number field should be examined.

The third flag is PSH (push), means the transmitting device wants the receiving device to push
currently-buffered data to the application on the receiving end as soon as possible.
The fourth flag is RST (reset), which means one of the side in a TCP connection hasn’t been able to
properly recover from a series of missing or malformed segments.

Next is SYN (synchronize), which is used when first establishing a TCP connection and makes sure
the receiving end knows to examine the sequence number field.

The last flag is FIN (finish), when this flag is set to one, it means the transmitting computer doesn’t
have any more data to send and the connection can be closed.

A handshake is a way for two devices to ensure that they’re speaking the same protocol and will be
able to understand each other.

The four-way handshake is for closing the TCP connection.

Socket

The instantiation of an end-point in a potential TCP connection. An instantiation is the actual

implementation of something defined elsewhere.

LISTEN: A TCP socket is ready and listening for incoming connections.

SYN_SENT: A synchronization request has been sent, but the connection hasn’t been established
yet.

SYN-RECEIVED: A socket previously in a LISTEN state has received a synchronization request and
sent a SYN/ACK back.
ESTABLISHED: The TCP connection is in working order and both sides are free to send each other
data.

FIN_WAIT: A FIN has been sent, but the corresponding ACK from the other end hasn’t been received
yet.

CLOSE_WAIT: The connection has been closed at the TCP layer, but that the application that opened
the socket hasn’t released its hold on the socket yet.

CLOSED: The connection has been fully terminated and that no further communication is possible.

Connection oriented and Connection Protocols

A connection-oriented protocol, establishes a connection, and uses this to ensure that all data has
been properly transmitted.

Firewalls

A device that blocks traffic that meets certain criteria. Firewalls can operate at many levels. It blocks
access to specified ports.

The Application layers

For webservers the application layer protocol is HTTP.

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection). The OSI Model has seven layers, it introduces two new
layers between the transport layer and application layer; presentation and Session layers.

The Session Layer is responsible for facilitating the communication between actual applications and
the transport layer. It’s the part of the operating system that takes application layer data and hands
it off to the presentation layer.

The Presentation Layers is responsible for making sure that the unencapsulated application layer
data is able to understood by the application in question.
Introduction to Network Services
DNS: Domain Name System

DNS is a global and highly distributed network service that resolves strings of letters into IP
addresses for you. So, you don’t have to remember the IP address you just need to remember the
website address.

Domain Name

The term used for something that can be resolved by DNS.

Whenever the IP changes for some reason the end user doesn’t even know it, they just need to
remember the website address. So basically, DNS is a system that converts domain name into IP
address.

The process of using DNS to turn Domain Name into an IP address is called Name Resolution.

There are five primary types of DNS servers:

1. Caching name servers

2. Recursive name servers
3. Root name servers
4. TLD name servers
5. Authoritative name servers

Caching and Recursive name servers are generally provided by an ISP or your local network. There
purpose is to store known domain name lookups for a certain amount of time. Recursive name
servers perform full DNS resolution requests.

All domain names in the global DNS system have a TTL (Time to Live): A value, in seconds, that can
be configured by the owner of a domain name for how long a name server is allowed to cache an
entry before it should discard it and perform a full resolution again.

Anycast

A technique that’s used to route traffic to different destinations depending on factors like location,
congestion, or link health.

TLD (Top Level Domain): for example; www.facebook.com. Here TLD is .com.

TCP take 44 packets and UDP takes 8 packets to lookup.

Resource Record Types

An A record is used to point a certain domain name at a certain IPv4 IP address.

Another record type is AAAA – Quad A. It is similar to A record but it returns IPv6 instead of IPv4.

Another type is CNAME record. It is a used to redirect traffic from one domain name to another.

Another is MX record – mail exchange.

SRV record – service record. To define location of various services.

TXT record – text. Only for text associated.

Anatomy of a Domain Name
Any domain name has three primary parts, they all serve specific purposes.

www.google.com
here the three parts are separated by a period. The last part of the domain name is called TLD. In
this case it is .com. The second part is known as domain, in this case it is google. Domains are used
to demarcate where control moves from a TLD name server to an authoritative name server. The
www part is known as subdomain. When combined all these parts together we have a fully qualified
domain name (FQDN).

DNS can technically support up to 127 levels of domain in total for a single fully qualified domain
name.

DNS Zones

Allow for easier control over multiple level of a domain. Zones are configured by zone files, which
are simple configuration files that declare all resource record for a particular zone.

Start of authority (SOA): Declares the zone and the name of the name server that is authoritative for
it.

Reverse lookup zone files: These let DNS resolvers ask for an IP and get the FQDN associated with it
returned.

DHCP
Stands for “Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol”. It is an application layer protocol that automates
the configuration process of hosts on a network. It is helpful when configuring the network setting
for every desktop is not possible. It provides IP address to devices connected to network. It can work
in three ways:

1. Dynamic Allocation: A range of IP address is set aside for client devices and one of these iPs
is issued to these devices when they request one.
2. Automatic Allocation: A range of IP address is set aside for assignment purpose.
3. Fixed allocation: Requires a manually specific list of MAC address and their corresponding
IPs.

Network time protocol (NTP) servers are used to keep all computers on a network synchronized in
time.

The process by which a client configured to use DHCP attempts to get network configuration
information is called DHCP discovery.
NAT (Network Address Translation)
It is a technique. Different operating systems and devices have different NAT. it takes one IP address
and translates it into another.

At its most basic level, NAT is a technology that allows a gateway, usually a router or firewall, to
rewrite the source IP of an outgoing IP datagram while retaining the original IP in order to rewrite it
into the response.

IP masquerading is the process of hiding IP of one computer from another.

Port preservation is the technique where the source port chosen by a client is the same port used by
the router.

Port forwarding is a technique where specific destination ports can be configured to always be
delivered to specific nodes.

VPNs and Proxies

Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

A technology that allows for the extension of a private or local network to hosts that might not be on
that local network.

Proxy servers

A server that acts on behalf of a client in order to access another service. It can be used to block
connections to access specified websites. It acts as a intermediary between client and server.

Reverse proxy

A service that might appear to be a single server to external clients, but actually represents many
servers living behind it.

Connecting to the Internet

A dial-up connections uses POTS for data transfer, and gets its name because the connection is
established by actually dialling a phone number. Transferring data through dial-up connections is
done by Modems (Modulator/Demodulator).

A baud rate is the measurement of how many bits can be passed across a phone line in a second.

Broadband is used for any connectivity technology that isn’t dial-up internet.

T-carrier technologies were originally invented by AT&T in order to transmit multiple phones calls
over a single link.

Digital subscriber lines they also use MODEMS called digital subscriber line access multiplexers. The
most common DSL are ADSL and SDSL; ADSL (Asymmetrical digital subscriber line) features different
speed for outbound and incoming connections. Generally faster download speed and slower upload
speed. And SDSL (Symmetric digital subscriber line) is same like ADSL but here uplink and downlink is
same.

WANs (Wide Area Network Technologies)

It acts like a single network, but spans across multiple physical locations. Internet is the largest WAN.

An alternative to WAN is Point-to-point VPN.

Wireless Networking
A way to network without wires.

IEEE 802.11 standards are a set of specifications for wireless networking known as Wi-Fi. In this
device communicate with each other through radio waves. The 802.11 family operates at different
bands. It works at both physical and data link layers.

A Frequency band is a certain section of the radio spectrum that’s been agreed upon to be used for
certain communications.

An 802.11 frame has a number of fields. First is frame control field. This field is 16-bit long and
contains a number of subfields that are used to describe how the frame itself should be processed.
Next is Duration field. It specifies how long the total frame is, so the receiver knows how long it
should expect to have to listen to this transmission. After this there are four address fields. And then
there is Sequence control field. It is a 16-bit long and mainly contains a sequence number used to
keep track of the ordering of frames. And then there is the Data payload section, it has all of the
data of the protocols further up the stack. Finally, we have Frame check sequence field, which
contains a checksum used for a cyclical redundancy check, just like how ethernet does it.

A wireless access point is a device that bridges the wireless and wired portions of a network.

There are many network configurations; In an ad-hoc network, there isn’t really any supporting
network infrastructure. Another is WLAN, which consists of one or more access points. And there is
mesh network, which are kind of like ad-hoc network but they form mesh like structure.

Channels are individual, smaller sections of the overall frequency band used by a wireless network.

Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is an encryption technology that provides a very low level of
privacy.

Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) uses a 128-bit key. Mostly WPA2 is used which uses 256-bit key which
makes it even harder to crack.

MAC filtering in which you configure your access points to only allow for connections from a specific
set of MAC address belonging to devices you trust.
Troubleshooting
Error-detection: the ability for a protocol or program to determine that something went wrong.

ICMP (internet control message protocol): is used to communicate issues of connection problem. It
is mainly used by router or remote host to communicate why the transmission has failed.

Its first field; Type field – 8-bits long specifies what type of data is being delivered.

After this is a Code field, also 8-bit long. It indicates a more specific reason for the problem.

After this is a 16-bit Checksum.

Next is 32-bit long Rest of the header field.

After this is the Data payload. The payload for an ICMP packet exists entirely so that the recipient of
the message knows which of their transmissions caused the error being reported.

Ping: lets you send a special type of ICMP message called an Echo Request. If the destination is up
and running and able to communicate on the network, it’ll send back an ICMP Echo Reply message
type. To invoke ping from command line, just type ping <destination IP or fully qualified domain
name>. for example: ping 8.8.8.8.

Traceroute

A utility that lets you discover the path between two nodes, and gives you information about each
hop along the way. This is somewhat similar to ping. For example: traceroute google.com. but it is
only for Linux. For windows: tracert google.com.

To connect port connectivity

nc google.com 80. Where 80 is a port.

For windows: Test-NetConnection google.com. only in PowerShell.

Name Resolution

nslookup command is available on all operating systems. It tells you what servers was used to
perform the name resolutions.

Public DNS Servers

An ISP almost always gives you access to a recursive name server as part of the service it provides.
Public DNS servers are name servers specifically set up so that anyone can use them, for free. Most
public DNS servers are available globally through anycast.

Registrar

An organization responsible for assigning individual domain names to other organizing or individuals.
Hosts Files

The originally way that numbered network addresses were correlated with words was through hosts
files. A host file is a flat file that contains, on each line, a network address followed by the host name
it can be referred to as.

Loopback address

A lookback address always points to itself. It is a way of sending network traffic to yourself. The
loopback address for IPv4 is 127.0.0.1. almost every hosts file in existence will, in the very least,
contain a line that reads 127.0.0.1 localhost, most likely followed by ::1 localhost, where ::1 is the
loopback address for IPv6.

The Cloud

It’s just a concept. Cloud Computing, a technological approach where computing resources are
provisioned in a shareable way, so that lots of users get what they need, when they need it.

Hardware virtualization, is a core concept that how cloud computing work. With virtualization, a
single physical machine, called a host, could run many individual virtual instances, called guests.

A Hypervisor is a piece of software that runs and manages virtual machines, while also offering these
guests a virtual operating platform that’s indistinguishable from actual hardware.

Three types of cloud: public, private and hybrid

Hybrid cloud, a term used to describe situations where companies might run things like their most
sensitive proprietary technologies on a private cloud, while entrusting their less-sensitive servers to
a public cloud.

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS): You shouldn’t have to worry about building your own network or
your own servers.

Platform as a Service (PaaS): A subset of cloud computing where a platform is provided for
customers to run their services.

Software as a Service (SaaS): A way of licensing the use of software to others while keeping that
software to others while keeping that software centrally hosted and managed.

IPv6
Internet protocol version 6.

There also was an IPv5 addressing. It was an experimental protocol that introduced the concept of
connections.

IPv6 address are 128 bits long. 2128 would create a 39-digit long number called Undecillion. IPv6
address are written out as eight group of 16 bits each.

Every IPv6 address starting with 2001:0db8: are reserved IPs.

The two rules to shorten IPv6 addresses are:

1. Remove all leading zeroes from groups, group with only zeroes is replaced by one zero.
 2. Consecutive zero groups are replaced by :, all consecutive. That’s how loopback address of
IPv6 is written.

Example:

Consider IP: 2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:ff00:0012:3456

Applying rule 1 will give: 2001: db8: 0: 0: 0:ff00: 12:3456

Applying rule 2 will give: 2001:db8::ff00:12:3456

The first 64 bits of an IPv6 address is for Network ID and next 64 bits are for Host ID.

The fist field in IPv6 header is version field: a 4-bit field that defines what version of IP is in use. The
next field is traffic class field: An 8-bit field that defines the type of traffic contained within the IP
datagram, and allows for different classes of traffic to receive different priorities. Then is flow label
field: A 20-bit field that’s used in conjunction with the traffic class field for routers to make decisions
about the quality-of-service level for a specific datagram. Next up Payload length field: a 16-bit field
that defines how long the data payload section of the datagram is. Then is Next header field: a
unique concept to IPv6. Next is Hop limit field: An 8-bit field that’s identical in purpose to the TTL
field in an IPv4 header. Finally, there are source address and destination address fields.

IPv6 tunnels: servers take incoming IPv6 traffic and encapsulate it within traditional IPv4 datagram.
IPv6 tunnel broker: companies that provide IPv6 tunnelling endpoints for you, so you don’t have to
introduce additional equipment to your network.

ipconfig /all will give all information of network on windows. Similar like Linux.