NATIONAL STUDIES

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

 Define National Studies

 Compare and contrast the democracy in the pre-colonial states and the democracy in the West.
 Examine the level of civilization of the pre-colonial states in the following areas:
- Medicine
- Governance
- Democracy
- Culture
- Technology

INTRODUCTION

NAS- The background

There is no educational system that is silent on the values that are accepted and cherished by that
society. Education is about values in other word behavior change in all the domains of education that
is the psychomotor, the cognitive and the affective. A skilled artisan or accountant with no sense of
his position in society at the family level or at work or society in general is a social misfit and a drain
to national wealth because of the need to either hospitalize him because he has AIDS or CORONA or
incarcerate him because he is a criminal and a danger to that society. A strong sense of belonging or
identity, responsibility and accountability are the things that can be defined as patriotism. Economic
giants today and in the past are and were the most patriotic. In Zimbabwe today the sense of
belonging has eluded both young and old and this is due to selfishness, greed and the collapse of the
extended family due to western values. A culture of greed or a mafia and mercenary attitude pervades
all sectors of society in the banking, retailing, manufacturing and civil service. The need to change
attitudes and the need to inculcate correct values is not only urgent but imperative now and in the
future.

NAS -Definition
NAS can be defined as civic education designed to make all Zimbabweans who go through
tertiary institutions become responsible citizens who are patriotic and can therefore be
mobilized to participate in national development.

NAS-Purpose
NAS therefore is about positively changing or enhancing the attitudes of participants
with respect to their national identity and with respect to translating the political gains of
the Second Chimurenga into economic gains in the Third and Fourth Chimurenga.
 ZIMBABWEAN HISTORY

Zimbabwe has a beginning in the distant past as witnessed and testified by the Zimbabwe ruins as
well as in the recent past as embodied in the ethos of the
Second Chimurenga war. The second Chimurenga in essence establishes our „enduring political
tradition” and ethos. Standing on a hill allows one to see as far behind as he is able to see as far ahead.
Mathematically expressed this would be, “one is able to see as far ahead proportional to the distance
he/she is able to see as far backward.” History is therefore relevant not only for today’s events and
policies, but allows us to shape our future and avoid the pitfalls of yester -year.

PRE COLONIAL HISTORY

The GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

State was most powerful before the 14th century i.e. 1500.
It was called a state because it could raise an army and force the payment of tribute and was
involved in international relations.
The state was built by a group of people and they were basically the Shona people and who had
much wealth in the form of livestock.
The Shona built the stone capital commonly called Great Zimbabwe which became the centre of
social, religious, economic and political life.
The king was termed “Mambo”. The name of Great Zimbabwe means
“house of stones” that is “Dzimba Dzemabwe”. Similar “dzimba dzemabwe” were built across the
country for chiefs on rulers who were loyal to the “mambo” at Great Zimbabwe.

Historical evidence

Historians have used the oral traditions to try to explain the history of the Great Zimbabwe state.
However, there is little that we normally get from the oral traditions because the Shona did not have
written records.
Documentary evidence written during the Mutapa state by the Portuguese and records found in Arab
writings have an account on the Changamire and Mutapa states.

Archaeological Evidence

Archaeology in the form of clothing found at the Great Zimbabwe and some of the evidence including
bones, copper and iron tools.
These have been used by historians to show the social economic and political activities of the people
at Great Zimbabwe.
The structure at the ruins consist of 2 complexes “the Acropolis” or temple area and the external
enclosure which consisted of a large number of stone buildings.
Excavations in the external enclosure yielded stone, glass, bead, and brassware,
Sea shells, iron ware, iron axes and hoes.
Local goods included ivory, gold, beads, soap stones, chisels etc.

Social and Political Organization

By 1200 a ruling class had emerged which was strong enough to organize almost the whole
population to build a high surrounding wall made of granite blocks.
The Great Zimbabwe rulers exercised power a number of chiefdoms who paid tribute to the mambo
at great Zimbabwe.
Other chiefdoms may have been independent but connected through marriage and trade.
The ruling class controlled trade.

Purpose of the stone structure

 Security
 Religion
 Prestige monument.
 Occupy slave labor

Causes for the Decline or Collapse of the State

 The state had become overpopulated leading to a shortage of resources.

 There was increased emigration
 Shortage of resources i.e. salt
 Civil wars
 Declining soil fertility
 Some dispute that Nyatsimba Mutota left Great Zimbabwe because he had failed to succeed and
left and formed the Mutapa state.

THE MUTAPA STATE

The founder of the Mutapa state was Nyatsimba Mutota who left Zimbabwe in search of salt or after
a succession dispute according to oral history. Mutota went to the Zambezi Valley where he defeated
some weak communities who were already settled there such as the Tavara or the Dzivaguru people.
Mutota as a result earned the title “Munhu-mutapa” a praise name which means Lord of Conquering.
Before the succession dispute, King Chibatamatosi, Mutota’s father had ordered Mutota to find salt.
Initially the king had sent his servant Nyakatondo who had returned with salt and reported on the
abundance of elephants in the area.
Prince Mutota traveled north leading a large army. He built his capital a “Zimbabwe” on the slope of
Chikato hill near the Utete River.
Part of this Zimbabwe remains to this day at the bottom of the escapement north of Guruve.
Mutota formed an alliance with the Tavara High Priest, Dzivaguru. Upon the death of Mutota, his
son, Nyanhenhwe Matope took over and co-ruled with his half-sister Nyamhita who occupied the
district of Handa hence she is often referred to as Nyamhita Nehanda. The two ruled the Mutapa
Empire stretching from the Angwa and Manyame Rivers, north to the Zambezi and west to the
Musengezi and Mukumbura Rivers.

The Mutapa Language eschatology and customs

The people had the same Shona language, customs and culture similar to the peoples of the Great
Zimbabwe state. The term “Shona” was not used until the 19th century. The Ndebele people
described the Karanga i.e. Mutapa language and area of control as “entshona langa” which means a
place where the sun sets or a place to the west.
Nowadays the term Shona is representative of a number of related dialects (in Zimbabwe) one of
which is Karanga.

They believed in a god whom they called “Mwari” who is claimed to have spoken through the spirits
of the ancestors and they listened carefully to spirit mediums i.e. the Mhondoro.
Religious ceremonies were held to honor the spirit mediums where music dancing and feasting
occurred (Bira). The senior spirit mediums were Dzivaguru in the north east, Nehanda in the central
and Chaminuka in the west.

At the cultural level the society was closely knit with the family being the nucleus of society as well
as being the foundation of the nation. The basis of this arrangement was a high degree of morality
with crime, starvation, delinquency, prostitution, divorce and almost all known present day social
ills being unknown. The law was highly developed to deal with cultural issues and less defined in
terms of commerce.

Criminals even murderers were rehabilitated with the law seeking to reconcile the injured and the
culprit and compensate the victim or his relatives in the case of murder. When a person was
murdered life had to be paid with life and invariably a young woman from the murderers‟ family
had to be given to the victim’s family. Inevitably, this created a bond between the two considering
that at birth or death there are things that no one could or can do except the relatives of a woman.
This is in stark contrast to equivalent European law which was and remains punitive and divisive.

The Mutapa Economy

The state existed for almost 500 years in one form or the other. During its peak it was the heart
of a powerful empire which controlled the Zambezi River trade route and received taxes from
foreigners. Not only was the economy based on trade and taxation, tribute was also part of their
economy. The people of the Mutapa provided a variety of goods for trade. Trade made the Mutapa
ruling class wealthy and the state became strong.
The people paid tribute to the Mutapa tax collectors and elephant hunters paid tribute in the form
of tusks.
 The Mutapa encouraged the gold miners to do the dangerous mine work in return the miners had
to sell the gold to the Mutapa.
He taxed all imports and exports, every trader paid tribute, every visitor gifts, people brought
disputes and complains to the Mutapa and paid fees for his judgement.

The Mutapa Political Structures

They had many advisors and ministers to govern the state. Some of the emperors‟ wives were
also officials, greeting visitors and handling their business and as members of his royal court they
became very powerful.

Munhumutapa, his wives and officials wore expensive jewelry and clothes made from cotton and
silk. Most people wore skin aprons.

A large army was maintained which traveled long distances, patrolling and collecting taxes and
cattle and brought new communities into the empire.

The Portuguese Factor in The Mutapa State.

When Matope died, succession disputes arose. In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king and was
the first to receive a Portuguese visitor named Fernandez who brought rice, cloth and guns as gifts.

The acquisition of more guns increased Mutapa’s power such that he was in a position to assist his
ally Makombe of Barwe to take control of Manyika.
In 1530 Neshangwe became the new king after Chisamarengu had died. He took over Mbire province
earning the praise name Munembire.
He introduced the old custom of chiefs sending their ambassador to rekindle fires at the king’s
palace.

In 1550 Chivero Nyasoro succeeded Neshangwe and after him Nzou or Ntemba an unmarried youth,
took over and ruled with his mother Chiuya.
Negomo and his mother Chiuya received a Catholic Priest Father Goncalo da‟ Silveira who wanted
to convert them to Christianity. Muslim traders at the king’s court (vamwenyi) did not like this and
plotted to kill Da‟ Silveira. They subsequently strangled him and dumped him in a pond.

Goncalo’s death angered the Portuguese and when they sent an army to revenge his death, it was
defeated.
In 1607 Gatsi Rusere asked the Portuguese’s for assistance to fight his rival for the leadership and in
return they were given mines.
The people of Mutapa refused to tell them where the mines were because of earlier experience with
Portuguese Prazeros (land/ prazo holders) (this is where the name purazi comes from) who took
their land.
 More Portuguese arrived and forced them to work in the fields. The Portuguese formed private
armies and became wild and lawless.

The Decline or Collapse of the Mutapa State

The decline was precipitated by the Portuguese private armies and this led the Mutapa Nyambo
Kapararidze to try to expel them.
He was unsuccessful in this and was overpowered and in his place a puppet Mamvura Mhande was
installed.

After Kapararidze, the Portuguese chose other Munhumutapas who would obey them.
An 18th century Munhumutapa moved his people to Mozambique where new chiefs were appointed
to restore order.
Chioko was the last ruler to use the title Munhumutapa. He led a revolt against the Portuguese but
was however crashed in 1817 and so ended the legacy of the Mutapa state.

THE ROZVI STATE

The state arose from plundered wealth by the Rozvi under Changamire Dombo (1634) believed to
having been a powerful ruler. He was very wealthy and claimed that his father was a Mwari and his
mother a virgin. The Rozvi capital was at Thabazikamambo near Bulawayo.

By 1680 he was at his peak and his state was spread between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers and
even into areas like Mozambique e.g. Sena.
The Rozvi Changamire received tribute from smaller chiefs. By 1830 – 1860 the state existed in
name only.

Decline and Collapse of the State

Collapse of the Rozvi state was as a result of Mfecane „or time of trouble” caused by Nguni tribes
who had fled from Tshaka or broken away from the Zulu state in present day Natal
Zwangendaba crossed the Limpopo with his group and fought the Rozvi ruler Chirisamhuru. The
state was further weakened when Kololo Sebetwane in 1836 fought and defeated the Rozvi.
Mzilikazi turned west into Gaza and then north with his group and finished the remnants of the
Rozvi state between 1837 – 1840.

THE NDEBELE STATE

The Founder of the State was Mzilikazi son of, Matshobana and grandson of Zwide. Mzilikazi
joined Tshaka under Zwide. He was a chief of a small clan called Khumalo. He suspected Zwide
of the death of his father Matshobana.
Mzilikazi was sent to recover cattle and he did not surrender the cattle to Tshaka and fled north.
 He left Natal in 1821/ 1822 with 300 men. The name Ndebele was given as a nickname by Tswanas
and means people of long shields. Mzilikazi increased his side through conquering and
incorporating weak tribes such as the Tswana and Suthuland some people voluntarily joined
Mzilikazi. He was defeated by the Boers at Enthumbane in the Transvaal. The Ndebele crossed
the Limpopo River in 1837 – 1846 and settled at Inyathi near Matopo hills.
They easily routed the weakened Rozvi and brought adjacent Shona areas under their control.
They conquered the Shona such as the Kalanga and Venda.

Political Structures

King was pre-eminent in the Ndebele state. Mzilikazi was the supreme commander of the army,
highest judge with power over life and death. He was a religious leader who presided over important
religious ceremonies such as Inxwala.

King however didn’t rule alone but with two advisory councils, the Mphakathi and Izinkulu
indicating that king was not a dictator. The Mphakathi was made up of original Khumalo chiefs i.e.
those who had left Natal and knew Zulu military tactics.

These made the most important decisions although they could be vetoed by the king.
The Izinkulu was made up of other chiefs especially those who were incorporated in the Ndebele
state.

The Ndebele Economy

Many European historians misunderstood or deliberately distorted the bases of

Ndebele economy. They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and therefore had lots of time for
raiding the Shona. This was not entirely true.

The following were the basis of Ndebele economy:

Herding –This was the most important economic activity owing to the fact that Ndebele initially
were not permanently established in Matebeleland. The Ndebele kept large heads of cattle, sheep
and goats.

They acquired some of the cattle along the way while others were obtained through the conquered
Rozvi and others were received in the form of tribute from the Shona while others were obtained
through raiding.

Agriculture- the Ndebele had fields in which they grew crops such as millet, sorghum, water
melons etc.
Agriculture was however, not very popular with the Ndebele because of climatic conditions.
 Hunting and gathering - Hunting was very popular in the Ndebele state. Their kills ranged from
large animals e.g. elephants and buffaloes to small species e.g. buck and rodents. Men usually
hunted while women concentrated on gathering.
They gathered wild fruits, grass seed and insects. Gathering was important in the Ndebele state
as far as it supplemented organized agriculture.

Trade - They traded internally i.e. amongst themselves and externally with the Shona
The Ndebele traded their cattle and gold for grain, corn, cloth, iron, jewelry, beads etc.

Mining - The Ndebele occasionally carried out some mining activities to a limited extent. They
traded gold with the Portuguese. Mining was done mostly in winter- after harvest when people
didn’t have much work in the field.

Tribute - in the form of cattle, grain and to a certain extent woman from those tribes under their
control

Raids/plunder - They raided the unsubdued Shona tribes for cattle, women, young men and grain.
However, it should be realized that the Ndebele didn’t always raid the Shona. Only those who
lived near Ndebele settlements were raided occasionally such as the Shona in the Masvingo,
Mberengwa, Gweru and Kwekwe areas.

Ndebele- Shona relations

The myths and realities

Many European historians wrote that the Ndebele always raided the Shona and that the Shona were
on the verge of extinction when settler colonialists came to Zimbabwe. They used this as an excuse
to influence the British government to colonize this country and the missionaries used this argument
more than the ordinary settlers.
The reason why missionaries encouraged the British government to occupy and destroy the Ndebele
Kingdom was because they had failed to convert a single Ndebele man.
The truth of the matter is that there was co-existence between the Shona and the Ndebele had the
occasional raid as a common feature of this relationship.

In the early stages of the Ndebele settlement i.e. between 1840 – 1870 the Ndebele were pre-
occupied with their own security, internal problems such that they could not always fight the Shona.
It is also true that some Shona people never experienced Ndebele raids up to 1890 especially those
Shona people living north of Harare and Manicaland.
Those Shona chiefs who refused to pay tribute e.g. Chief Chivi or Bere were major targets for raids.
Ndebele raids did not interfere with the economy of those Shona chiefs who paid tribute and
moreover some Shona chiefs aided the Ndebele and some stole or raided the Ndebele to recover
stolen cattle.
The Ndebele actually encouraged good relations and there was some level of inter-marriage.
 The Ndebele adopted the Shona deity “Mwari”/uMlimu‟ and followed the Shona traditions of
ancestral worship.

The state was divided into 3 distinct social groups based on history namely:

Abezanzi
These were the superior class which occupied most important positions. They formed the aristocratic
ruling class. These were the original Khumalo who had left Natal and constituted about 15% of
Ndebele population i.e. The Hadebe, Khumalo, Mkwananzi.

Enhla

These were 2nd most important groups in the Ndebele state. They were Sotho and Tswana who joined
the Ndebele on their way to Zimbabwe. They occupied important military positions in the Ndebele
state and they constituted about 25% of Ndebele population.

Amahole

These were the least important in the Ndebele state. They were made up of the Kalanga and other
Shona speaking people who were conquered and absorbed by the Ndebele and made up 60% of
Ndebele population. However, the hole who proved themselves in battle also occupied important
military posts in the Ndebele economy. Due to continued inter-marriage most of these groups lost
their identities i.e. the Moyo, Sibanda, Ncube, Gumbo.

THE EUROPEAN COLONIZATION OF ZIMBABWE

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit the student should be able to:

 Discuss the major causes of slavery and its effects

 Analyze the major deliberations of the Berlin Conference of 1884-5
 Discuss the causes and effects of colonization of Zimbabwe
 Examine the colonization process of Zimbabwe by Europe
 Analyze the causes and effects of Anglo-Ndebele War, the1st Chimurenga War and 2nd Chimurenga.

White settlement in the region was established as early as the 1650s at the Cape in South Africa. This
was a re-supply post for fresh water and food for the East India trade. The Dutch settlers at the Cape
were soon displaced by the British and pushed north. The discovery of gold on the Rand and
diamonds led to the continued jostling for control between the British and Dutch settlers for the good
part of the two centuries from 1700 through 1800. Hunters and missionaries who were the trail
blazers for British colonization spread the rumor that there was a bigger Rand in the area occupied
by the Ndebele across the Limpopo.
Cecil John Rhodes who came to South Africa because of ill-health joined his brother at the Kimberly
diamond fields and became rich and directed his attention to the rumors of an “el dorado” or city of
gold to the north.

Rhodes was an imperialist at heart. His aim was to bring under British Control all African territory
from South Africa to Egypt.

Rhodes believed in British superiority and thought that it was a British responsibility to civilize Africa
the so called Dark Continent.

Other imperialists were also interested in Zimbabwe namely; the Boers from the short lived
Transvaal Republic, Germans from South West Africa and especially the Portuguese.

The Grobler Treaty

In1887 the Transvaal government sent its representative Piet Grobler to negotiate a friendship
treaty with Lobengula assuming he was the ruler of all the territories north of the Limpopo. The
agreement - known as the Grobler treaty provided for a Boer Representative to be resident at
Bulawayo and Lobengula would assist the Boers (in the face of British threats) if required to do so.

In response to the treaty, Rhodes influenced the British government to send a representative to
Bulawayo to negotiate a counter treaty.

The Moffat Treaty

John Smith Moffat representing the British government negotiated and signed the treaty in February
1888. According to this agreement Lobengula was to cancel the Grobler Treaty. He would also not
enter into any agreement with any European power without the consent of Britain.

The Moffat Treaty was supposed to be a treaty of friendship between Lobengula and the British
government but in fact was the first step in the collapse and subjugation of the Ndebele state.

The Rudd Concession

Agreed and signed in October 1888, it led to the occupation of Zimbabwe by the white settlers
through the British South African company. Rhodes had formed this commercial company to
spear head the occupation of this country.

The Rudd Concession was entered into between Charles Rudd representing Rhodes and
Lobengula. The Rudd delegation consisted of three people namely;
Charles Rudd

Rhodes’ old friend since their days at Oxford University. He was therefore an embodiment of Rhodes’
self-interest.
Rotchford Maguire

Was a lawyer and his expertise in the legal language was going to be useful in tricking
Lobengula.

Francis Thompson

He was nicknamed “Matabele” because he was fluent in Nguni languages including Ndebele. He had a
perfect knowledge of Ndebele custom. His presence was therefore meant to influence Lobengula to
sign the agreement. Rhodes was careful in the selection of the Rudd team.

Lobengula didn’t want to meet this delegation let alone sign the agreement, the evidence is that:

It took the delegation about 6 weeks to meet Lobengula.

The delegation bribed Lobengula’s most trusted senior, Induna Lotshe, who influenced Lobengula
to sign the agreement and for that role Lotshe was executed together with his family.
Lobengula was influenced by several white men he trusted such as Moffat who misled or lied to
him that the Rudd delegation represented the queen.

Because of both internal and external influence, Lobengula signed the Rudd Concession in October
1888, the terms of which were:

- Lobengula was to receive:

- Monthly pension of 100 pounds sterling per month.
- 1000 Enfield riffles and 100 000 rounds of ammunition.
- A gunboat to be placed on the Zambezi valley to guard against Portuguese invasion.
- Lobengula was to grant Rhodes;
- -Granted Rhodes and the BSAC exclusive rights over all minerals and precious metals in
Mashonaland and Matebeleland.
- Not more than 10 white men would enter the country.
- They would dig only one hole.
- They would surrender all their weapons to Lobengula and actually become his people.

The Royal Charter

Armed with the Rudd agreement Rhodes had to have the political protection of the British
government. Rhodes therefor sought and got this protection through The Royal Charter, granted
in October 1889. The document in effect declared that the Rudd concession had effectively made
the territories of Lobengula British territories under the administration of the British South Africa
Company (BSAC) and by that virtue restricted Boer and Portuguese expansion. Some German
hunters advised Lobengula on what was meant by the document and he tried in vain to repudiate
it.
 He sent two of his Indunas to the queen accompanied by E.A Mount and Charles Helm to inform
her that he was no longer interested in the Rudd Concession. The indunas were deliberately
delayed and the repudiation was too late.
To reverse the Rudd agreement, Lobengula granted Edward Lippert a German businessman a
concession for a period of 100 years to mine in Zimbabwe.

Rhodes bought the Lippert Concession and made his position even more powerful.

The Pioneer Column

Rhodes’s next step was to organize a group of men who were going to form the first settlers in
Zimbabwe.

The group was called The Pioneers made up of 200 settler volunteers and chosen from thousands of
applicants from all over Europe and South Africa.

Supported by 500 troops, the group was promised 2 000 acres and five gold claims each. The Botswana
protectorate provided 800 African laborers.

Fredrick Selous guided the settler group because of his knowledge of the country as a hunter. The group
crossed into Zimbabwe in March 1890 and built fort Thuli. The column turned east avoiding the Ndebele
state and established Fort Victoria (Masvingo) On 17 August 1890 the Column reached Fort Charter
(Chivhu). From Charter the column reached Harare on 12 September 1890, raised the British flag the
Union jack and, and called Harare Salisbury in honor of British Prime Minister at that time. This marked
the completion of the occupation of the land.

Leander Star Jameson, Rhodes’ personal friend was appointed the first governor of Mashonaland.

The Anglo - Ndebele war and the Occupation of Matebeleland.

The members of Pioneer Column were largely disappointed with the amount of gold they got in
Mashonaland.

They thought that Matebeleland was a little closer to South Africa so a second Rand could be found in
Matebeleland.

The white settlers also admired the big cattle found in Matebeleland and the attractive land (rich grazing
lands). They even believed that Lobengula’s capital was built on top of a gold mountain.
It should be borne in mind that the occupation of Matebeleland was inevitable and unavoidable. It
was to complete the occupation of Zimbabwe and, as the BSAC was bankrupt, it needed gold; hence
Matebeleland was their own way out of that big problem.

To do so the BSAC had to destroy the powerful and landed Ndebele state and Leander Star Jameson
needed an excuse in order to attack the Ndebele state. He created conflicts to justify war between whites
and Ndebele.
 Precursors to the war

The Boundary Line

According to Jameson, Mashonaland was not part of Matebeleland.

Jameson drew up his own boundary line to separate Mashonaland from Matebeleland. He then
restricted Lobengula’s rule to Matebeleland.

Lobengula never acknowledged the division of Mashonaland and Matebeleland.

He claimed the whole country as his and to make matters worse, the boundary line kept on shifting
towards his capital thus reducing his area of influence.

The war - 1893

While Rhodes and BSAC were busy establishing themselves in Mashonaland the Ndebele were trying
to avoid any conflicts with the whites. Since the settlers were interested in Matebeleland, Rhodes and
his people were busy finding ways of attacking the Ndebele The whites admired the Ndebele ‟s rich
grazing lands and suspected gold deposits.

Causes of the War of 1893

The Victoria Incident

• Whites employed the Shona people but the Ndebele still regarded later as their subjects.

• In June 1893 some of the Shona people led by headman Gomara stole 500 meters of telegraph wire.

• They were ordered to pay cattle as fine. They paid this fine using cattle that belonged to Lobengula
and which they had had stolen.
Lobengula claimed the cattle to be his and they were returned to him.

• Soon after this event another Shona by the name of Bere is alleged to have to have stolen cattle
belonging to Lobengula.

• Lobengula sent an impi to punish the Shona chief and his people. As a result, Shona servants on
European farms were killed and some fled to Fort Victoria for protection.

• The Ndebele Indunas, Manyawo and Mgandani pursued the Shona people who sought refuge in
Victoria.

• The indunas demanded that the Shona be handed over but Lendy, the magistrate of Fort Victoria
refused and the Ndebele were ordered to vacate Fort Victoria. Lendy followed and caught up with
Mgandani’s party and killed all of them and in response Lobengula mobilized 6000 soldiers.
• The Victoria incident triggered the war but the issue at stake was that the white farmers believed that
there were rich gold deposits in Matebeleland and had long planned on how to get there

They also saw the grazing land and good cattle herds of the Ndebele as a recipe for prosperity even if
they were to find no gold.

The powerful independent Ndebele state was seen as preventing white settlers from getting enough
labor for their mines and farms.

Preparation for war

By September 1893 Jameson had organized a force of over 1000 well-armed white settlers aided by
missionaries from South Africa.

Jameson promised each of them 2400 hectares of land and 20 gold claims each if the Ndebele were
defeated.

The Battles

The white armies left Salisbury and Fort Victoria in October 1893 and moved south west towards
Matopo ready for a show down with the Ndebele.

In a battle, that took place along the Shangani and Mbembesi Rivers, the Ndebele impi was heavily
defeated.
On 3 November after just a month of bloody fighting the invading forces entered the Ndebele capital,
Bulawayo and Lobengula set fire to the city and fled north where he vanished without trace to date.

The 1893 war marked the complete conquest of Zimbabwe and an end to Ndebele supremacy.

COLONIALISM

Colonialism was a product of European merchants or European commerce. The former (the
merchants) later supported and financed the political institutions or their governments in their wars
of conquest and colonization and they also participated in policy making. Colonization therefore was
therefore an economic necessity. The reasons or causes of Africa’s colonization were or are:

- Facilitated protection of monopoly markets of each European trading nation.

- Allowed easy access to tropical markets.
- Allowed access to natural resources essential for industrial activities.
- Allowed expansion and creation of new markets which had no balance of trade problems.
- Colonization facilitated the unimpeded imposition of the religious super structure and beliefs of
the colonizers on the colonized peoples.

- For glory and imperial prestige.

African slavery had existed in Europe from about the 16th century but the need to exploit the wealth
of South America saw slavery reaching a climax in the 18th century. Slavery however, came to an end
when it stopped serving the purposes and interests of European commerce.

The dynamics of European production and exchange changed and no longer required slave labor.
Britain banned slavery in 1807. Slavery however, continued or even grew after this banning. In 1833
slavery was internationally banned but it did not die until 100 years later and to the shame of Africa
still lingers on in places like the Sudan.

Slavery was not abolished because Europe had repented of its wickedness but because commerce
could not benefit as much from this evil practice.

Once slavery was abolished, it was replaced with colonization.

The commercial revolution in the 16th century expanded trade beyond Europe and this created a
conservative class of merchants and landlords. Commercial merchants were a class which could not
fully satisfy their accumulation potential in Europe so they turned to foreign markets.

Primitive accumulation in Europe, that is, getting rich through violence and other dishonest means,
was extended and practiced in foreign lands through colonization.

The merchants and conquerors destroyed several civilizations in Africa e.g. the Ashanti kingdom and
the Aztec Civilization in Central America.

Earlier, five crusades had been wedged or undertaken in the Middle East and this almost destroyed
the Arab civilization. The crusades were less about religion and more about plunder and theft and
robbery. The amount of wealth stolen in this manner although substantial could not last long and the
result was to exploit the mines and the agricultural potential in Africa and in South America.

In South America where more gold and silver than in Africa existed, the mines could not be exploited
using local labor so they resorted to stealing people from Africa.

This form of exploitation eventually gave way to paid labor as a more profitable way of accumulating
wealth.

Development or industrialization in Europe is therefore directly linked to both colonialism and

slavery.
 THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884 – 1885

Before the Berlin conference in 1884 commercial contact had long existed between Europe and Africa
and in trying to protect their commercial interest, Europeans had fought many wars and for almost a
100 years between 1700 and 1800 Europe was at war with each other because of commercial or
economic interests. With the growth of England and France as the major military powers, the wars
became less and less However, when German became a powerful nation towards the end of the 19th
Century, the following scenario developed in Europe:

The possibilities of renewed conflict became real.

The British passed The Navigation and Frauds Act, The Navigation and Staple acts etc. with a view to
monopolizing trade with the so called “new world” and “the dark continent”.

Portugal fearing wars between Europe and Britain suggested or requested Otto von Bismarck, the
Germany chancellor, to convene a conference for all interested parties with trading or commercial
interests with Africa. This led to the infamous Berlin conference. The objectives of the conference
were:

- To lay down the rules for the partition and exploitation of Africa.
- To prevent war by so partitioning Africa.
Summary of Contents of the agreement at the Berlin Conference;

- Freedom of navigation on all major rivers in Africa.

- Colonization or establishment of protectorates to be entered into voluntarily between European
powers and African Chiefs.

- A colony to be recognized only where there was visible occupation and evidence of a written
protectorate agreement.

PARTIES TO THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

- German, Belgium, England, France, Italy, Portugal

Contents of Protectorate Agreements between European Powers and African Chiefs/Kings.

- Parties to the agreement- a). African chiefs and, b). a European commercial company.
- Subjugation or surrender of title to land.
- The location of the land, its size and general description.
- Surrender of all political, judicial and military power.
- Creation of a monopoly trade area.
- Duration of agreement i.e. infinity or for ever and ever.
- Rewards for the chiefs and the people, alleged or claimed improvement of their lives through
European civilization.

- Surrender of all rights to minerals and other resources.

RESULTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE

- Led to the scramble for Africa by European powers (nations) through commercial companies or
by commercial companies.

- The establishment of concessions which were unfair and never explained to the African chiefs.
- Resistance or rejection of the concessions by African chiefs when they understood the
implications of the agreement.

- Use of force by European powers to break resistance and to fully colonize Africa.
THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION

- Balance of trade dis-equilibria i.e. negative trade relations between Africa and European countries
during and after colonialism through a new form of relationship called Neo-colonialism.

- Exploitation and depletion of Africa’s natural resources without benefit to Africa.

- Underdevelopment of Africa since there was no technology transfer to facilitate industrialization
(investment was only in infrastructure to enable exploitation of resources).
- Cultural decimation/destruction.

- Dependency on European economies.

- Loss of individual and national identity by Africans during and after colonialism
- Super enrichment and development of Europe and their extensions in America and Australia.
Reasons for the colonization of Africa.

- Abundance of natural resources e.g. minerals, rubber, elephants (ivory).

- Fertile soils and ideal climate in Southern Africa and Kenya.
- Africa was the source of many major rivers.
- Existence of a money economy in Africa.
- Possibility of establishing colonies and monopoly markets.
- Little to no meaningful resistance
CONSOLIDATION OF SETTLER COLONIALISM IN ZIMBABWE

Early Settler Administration.

With the Ndebele state in ruins and the Shona state machinery crumbling in the face of superior
settler firepower, the BSAC proceeded apace to consolidate its grip on the country. The Transvaal
Boer state however posed a great challenge to Rhodes‟ plans in 1895, Jameson withdrew most
of the company’s armed personnel into the Transvaal to fight the Boers but was crushed and the
scenario for the Native rebellion in Zimbabwe developed

THE FIRST CHIMURENGA.

Causes of the War

The land Issue

The reserve system or translocation of native Zimbabweans to infertile dry inhospitable holding
areas was introduced.

In 1894 the first reserves were set up in Shangani and Gwaai.

After the defeat of the Ndebele, the settlers seized their 6 000 acres displacing many natives and those
displaced became fulltime laborers or squatters.

The settlers started ill-treating the Ndebele like they were doing the Shona.

FORCED LABOR
The British South African company introduced hut tax to force the Africans to go to work and in
order to raise revenue.

Livestock was seized to force men to go to work for the settler.

To solve their labor problems, the company introduced forced labor. The chiefs were instructed to
recruit able bodied men and hand them over to the BSAC as laborers- “Chibharo”. The Shona and
Ndebele so enslaved ran away into the hills to escape.

The presence of white settlements contrary to the agreements entered into.

Again this did not please the Ndebele who wanted to claim their ancestral land back as in the reserves
there was food shortage and starvation at times.

CATTLE
Soon after the defeat of the Ndebele in the Anglo Ndebele war, the whites confiscated the Ndebele
cattle numbering about 250 000.

This drastically reduced the Ndebele herd and the Ndebele wanted their cattle back as it was a sign
of prestige.

TAXATION
This was imposed on the Ndebele for a dual purpose

i) It was indirectly made to force the Ndebele to work in order to pay tax.

ii) It was meant to increase the company income.

Abuse of Ndebele women by Native Shona policeman.

In order to stop this abuse, the Ndebele had to fight the white men and the employment of their
former vassals the Shona as policemen did not please the Ndebele as they were now told what to do
by these Shona policemen.

NATURAL DISASTERS
It was at that time that natural disasters occurred. These included drought, rinderpest a cattle disease
and locusts. Africans gave these natural disasters a religious interpretation; they argued that the
presence of the whites had angered their ancestors hence these natural disasters and they then found
it necessary to drive away the whites in an effort to bring the natural disasters to an end.

THE ROLE OF SPIRIT MEDIUM

These were very instrumental in bringing about a concerted effort to drive away the white man and
they used a variety of methods. They passed information on the progress made in the preparations
for war. Some prophesied that the fighters would be protected by their ancestors. They also provided
medicine which they claimed made the fighters‟ bullet proof.

They gave general encouragement to everybody and in some cases they threatened death to all those
who showed no interest.

RESULTS

- Africans were defeated because of the inferior weapons that they used which included spears,
shields, bow and arrows against the white men’s machine guns, cannons and 7 pounders.
 - Disunity and dis-organization among the Africans also led to this defeat as some collaborated
with the whites.

- Leaders and spirit mediums were captured and killed thereby leaving the Africans direction
less and leaderless.

- Africans lost faith in their spirit mediums in particular and in their religion in general leading
to many Africans being converted to Christianity. However, although the Africans were
defeated, their efforts need to be recognized. It was the first time that they had fought a
common enemy as a united people.
- It was also important in that it laid the foundation for future wars of resistance that is the 2 nd
Chimurenga etc.

- Notable heroes and heroines of the First Chimurenga were people like Nehanda, Kaguvi,
General Magwegwe and Mkwati of the Ndebele army, Chief Chingaira, Mashonganyika,
Muzambi, Maremba, Zvidembo, Mazhindu, Manyongori, Gunduza, Mvenuri and Gutu.

Repressive Settler Legislation which dispossessed and dehumanized Native Zimbabweans

Almost two hundred whites lost their lives during the first Chimurenga war and many thousands of
Africans died in battle and in the reprisals that followed up to and during 1898. To secure their
position the settlers enacted many pieces of legislation that effectively proscribed or limited African
economic, cultural and political freedoms.

The Native Reserve Order in Council: 1898.

Effectively removed all native chiefs who were anti- settlers and replaced them with puppet settler
administrators. The act also created reserves or cantonments in dry inhospitable areas.

The Hut Tax: 1903.

Enacted to raise revenue for settlers and to force black men to go and work for the white man.

The Dog Tax and Land Bank acts: 1912.

The land bank act provided new white settler farmers with free tillage for five years and the same
period as grace before commencing to repay loans from the state owned Land bank.

The European Produce Act: 1917.

Discriminated against natives in so far as agricultural production was concerned with respect to
quantities they could market or the prices they could fetch.

The Morris Carter Commission: 1925.

Divided the whole country into agro-zones based on rainfall patterns from the highest rainfall region
1 to the lowest rainfall region 5. Natives were trans- located to regions 4 and 5.

The Land Apportionment Act: 1930.

In 1930 whites who numbered 50 000 were allocated 49 000 000 acres of prime land while blacks
who numbered 1 000 000 were allocated 28 000 000 acres of the worst land in regions 4 and five.
The translocation of blacks was accompanied with untold violence and starvation and malnutrition
became endemic. More government officials were employed country wide and effect while rule and
these included native commissioners and police man. A land policy after 1905 was affected which
started to impoverish ty blacks and to keep them politically ineffective. Africans were also excluded
from government through strict qualifications e.g. The right to vote was given to males over 21 days
with an annual income of 50 000 pounds or with property worth 75 pounds. The Land Apportionment
Act of 1930 confirmed and legalized the displacement of Africans that had been ongoing earlier.

Up until 1906, ninety percent of Southern Rhodesia’s agricultural produce came from black farmers
and many whites did not like this state of affairs. As a result, the Rhodesia Native Labor Bureau
(RNLB) stopped blacks from competing with whites and between 1908 and 1915, 1.5 million acres
of the best land was taken from blacks and given to whites. New boundaries were created to exclude
fertile high rainfall areas from newly created reserves. The latter were located in semi-arid areas.
Blacks in regions 1, 2 and 3 were made to pay higher grazing fees and taxes. Since many could not
pay they were removed and settled in reserves which were situated far away from markets and rail
and tarred motor roads. By the 1920s, 65% of the black population had been forced into reserves.
This led to cycle of poverty among Africans which persists up to today -2004.

The Maize Control Act:1935.

The act protected white farmers from black competition in maize production. 2 grades of maize were
made, A grade for whites and B grade for blacks. A grade fetched a higher price while B fetched a
lower price. Whites also paid less for maize they bought from blacks.

The Cattle Levy Act:1934.

- Whites paid less on the market for cattle bought from blacks.
- The government paid more to whites for their cattle.
- This system impoverished the blacks who were losing out through this fraudulent commercial
arrangement. As the blacks became poorer in the reserves they migrated or translocated to
towns.

Industrial Conciliation Act: 1934

- Blacks were denied the right to join trade unions.

- Higher paying jobs were reserved for whites that are skilled and semi-skilled job.
- The act was later amended to allow natives to become nurses and teachers.
Racial Discrimination Act: 1934

The act barred social inter-action between the races for an example it was an offence for a white to
share a toilet with a black man or to mix in schools, hospitals, or hotels even cemeteries.

The Land Husbandry Act: 1951

The act barred any African family from owning more than five herd of cattle or eight acres of land in
the communal lands.

The Tribal Trust Land Act:1965

The act segregated the ownership of land between white areas and black areas. Natives could only
occupy land in communal lands without holding title to it. In Towns natives could only lease property
and no black man could own a house in town until after 1980.

The Land Tenure Act:1969

The act divided the land on racial lines and designated the best 45 000 000 acres as European land
and shared among the 250 000 whites and the worst 45 000 000acres was designated as native land
to be shared by the 5 000 000 blacks.

The act also barred the races from encroaching in the other race’s land.

PASS LAWS
All black males were required to carry a pass or identity paper which any white man or police officer
of any race could demand at any time anywhere. This restricted black freedom of movement from
place to place.

AFRICAN REACTION TO REPRESSIVE AND RACIST LEGISLATION

After the collapse of traditional resistance in 1898 Zimbabwe was ruled by the British through the
BSAC. Africans were speedily brought under control and since company rule was increasingly
becoming inadequate and incapable of running the country, the British gave the settlers two options
to either join South Africa or to establish responsible self-government. In a referendum in 1923 the
settlers chose the latter. The more the settler regime became repressive the more the African spirit
of resistance blazed. Early resistance took crude forms such as jamming of factory machines or
refusing to work on farms and in mines. More refined resistance took the form of strikes and joining
trade unions.

Between the 1st. and 2nd. World wars the vehicle for political agitation among blacks were the trade
unions. The African Railway Workers Union and the Reformed Commercial and Industrial Workers
Union were the first and most effective and they also were non-tribal.
Bulawayo the industrial city of the nation at the time saw more political activity originating and
directed from that quarter. In 1945 the ARWU called a strike that paralyzed the whole network from
Mutare to Ndola in Zambia’s copper belt.

In 1948 a general strike paralyzed all industrial and commercial activity in all cities in the country.

The white settlers connived to create the federation of the Rhodesias and Nyasaland (Southern and
Northern Rhodesia, i.e. Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi) and by the early 1950s this absorbed the
attention of the natives since there were many false promises associated with the creation of the
federation. The federation was eventually created in 1953 and its major features were the following;

Polarization – all major manufacturing activity was concentrated in Southern Rhodesia.

The communications infrastructure tended to serve and favor Southern Rhodesia with the Federation
railways and airlines being headquartered in Southern Rhodesia
The University and all other institutions of higher learning were in Southern Rhodesia.

The settler colonialists embarked on a process of ethnic cleansing designed to rid Southern Rhodesia
of all its native blacks and Trans locating them in Northern Rhodesia and replacing them with what
were perceived as docile migrant laborers from Zambia and Malawi.

White settlers established permanent homes in Southern Rhodesia dashing any hopes of early self-
determination for all the members of the federation as long as the federation existed.

1955 The city National Youth league was formed and it was a purely workers’ movement operating
in the urban areas.

Church leaders also sympathized with their black congregations‟ political aspirations. Some churches
criticized the settlers in their sermons and hymns. However, there were many racists church leaders
who used religion or Christianity to subdue and indoctrinate their black congregations to accept a
subservient role. These racist apologists were happy to continue with the policies of segregation in
church, politics and the economy and the result was a proliferation of many independent African
churches.

In 1957, September 12, the African National Congress (ANC) was formed and it was a merger between
the old ANC and the City Youth League led by Joshua Nkomo. It demanded majority rule.

It coopted the rural peasantry and organized mass resistances against the Land Husbandry Act
(1951) and it urged the peasants not to cooperate with the government. Garfield Todd, the federation
premier (1953-1957) who was a liberal, argued for accommodation of African demands but the
avowed racists in his cabinet called for repression of all African political activity. As a result, Todd
was deposed in an internal coup for giving in to black demands and David White head became
premier and in 1959 e SR-ANC was banned and hundreds of blacks thrown in jail.

1959 to 1965 saw a host of new repressive laws come into effect such as:
- The Native Affairs Act 1959
 - The Unlawful Organizations Act 1959
- The Preventive Detention Act 159
- The Emergency Powers Act 1960
- The law and Order Maintenance Act. 1960

Internal pressure on the settler government produced more and more repression and the nationalists
resorted to pressure Britain to reign in the settlers and to give independence to blacks but Britain
refused.

January 1960 the National Democratic Party was formed and replaced the SRANC. Joshua Nkomo was
elected president and the leadership of the party consisted of Ndabaningi Sithole, Herbert Chitepo,
Robert Mugabe, Bernard Chidzero, George Silunduka, Jason Moyo, Leopold Takawira, Josiah
Chinamano, Dumbutshena etc.

1961 The NDP was banned and the same year ZAPU was formed in December.

1962 December the Rhodesia Front was elected premier in Southern Rhodesia and the party
represented the hard core white racists determined to wipe out all resistance to colonialism and
Winston Field was then premier.

1962 September ZAPU was banned.

1964 August ZANU was formed due to disillusionment with the politics of tolerance and
accommodation and the party was led by Ndabaningi Sithole.

1964 ZANU was banned and all prominent nationalists were either in prison or in exile.

1964 saw the beginning of violent African resistance to colonialism with many acts of sabotage. Of
note is the action by self-styled General Chedu who led 100 youths calling themselves the Zimbabwe
Liberation army. The same year ZANU recruited and trained the first armed resistance to colonialism
and the Crocodile group drew first blood when they attacked a police station and killed a white farmer
in Chimanimani(Melsetter).

1964 Ian Smith was elected premier of the settler government.

1965 November 11th. Ian Smith’s Rhodesia Front made a Unilateral Declaration of Independence.
This made the country an illegal state and although Britain still claimed to be the legitimate ruler they
failed to bring to justice the settler regime. At about the same time the little island of Anguilla in the
Pacific made a UDI and Britain did not hesitate to reign in the rebels.

UDI led the nationalists to adopt armed resistance as the first option to gain self-determination and
the Smith regime went on an all-out campaign to stifle African aspirations and institutionalized
apartheid or racial segregation as the system of governance and social and economic life. The same
year a state of emergency was declared. Such a declaration has the effect of suspending some or all
civil liberties and allows the state to take extra judicial measures to deal with the crisis. What
followed were many years of state terrorism and murder to which the Africans responded by
intensifying the armed resistance - the second Chimurenga war.

By 1963 the nationalist had secured external bases in independent African countries like Egypt,
Tanzania and Zambia to train their armed wings. Zanu’s armed wing became the Zimbabwe National
Liberation Army (ZANLA) and ZAPU‟s armed wing became known as the Zimbabwe People’s
Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Training also took place outside Africa in places like Cuba, China, and
Russia.

1966 at Chinhoyi the first externally trained ZANLA combatants clashed with the security forces and
all seven members of the group were killed.

1967 August ZIPRA in alliance with the South African National Congress’s armed wing Umkhonto
Wesizwe deployed four groups of 20 combatants each group. The majority of combatants were killed
in and around Wankie district. Rhodesia air force began to violate Zambian airspace and another
larger group was deployed by the alliance and again was decimated.

The South African government in response sent troops into Rhodesia and the
Smith government passed the Law and order maintenance amendment bill – 7 September 1967. The
law provided for a death sentence on anyone caught with arms of war

Late 1969 and early 1970 the Front for the liberation of Mozambique fighting the Portuguese in
Mozambique formed an alliance with ZANLA and with more experience they provided training and
logistical support which proved invaluable and led to the opening of the eastern front. Mass
mobilization became the preferred tool of the armed resistance and met with great success. Rhodesia
and Portugal began joint operations in 1968.

1972 December ZANLA scored success with the attack at Alterna farm Centenary.

1974 April in a coup in Portugal General Spinoza deposed the premier Salazar and brought immediate
independence to Mozambique, Angola and Guinea Bissau.

1974 John Vorster South Africa’s Boer premier initiated Détente a policy of accommodation designed
to neutralize the armed struggle by promoting internal reactionary African nationalists in Zimbabwe.
This stalled and almost derailed the armed struggle especially with the death /assassination of
Herbert Chitepo on 18 March 1975 in Zambia.

Chitepo became the chairman of Dare reChimurenga an organization formed after the banning and
jailing of the nationalist leaders in 1964 and his task was to prosecute the war while the leadership
was in prison.

1972/1973 in response to guerrilla offensive the keeps or cantonments were introduced in all war
fronts to deprive the fighter’s food and other support.
1974 Internal rivalry and dissent rock both ZIPRA and ZANLA and the OAU force the two to combine
their armed efforts.

1975 December ZANLA AND ZIPRA form the Zimbabwe people’s army (ZIPA) and armed resistance
gathered momentum in early 1976 as ZANLA intensified operations in Gaza, Tete and Manica
provinces or fronts or regions according to ZIPRA terminology.

1976 In bombing raids on camps in Mozambique, Rhodesians killed many refugees and guerillas at
Chimoio and Nyadzonya in Mozambique and Freedom camp Mulungushi, and Chifombo in Zambia.

March 1978 the so called Internal Settlement was reached between antiwar and reactionary black
groups in Rhodesia.

April 1979 the ANC‟s Bishop Muzorewa was elected prime minister in sham elections and
temporarily the Zimbabwe Rhodesia hybrid state existed and it was not recognized by any state
except South Africa. It was during this period that some of the most gruesome murders were
perpetrated against refugees and
the armed resistance with the authority and concurrence of Bishop Abel Muzorewa’s government.

South Africa unable to meet the human and economic cost of the war in Rhodesia pressured Smith for
a negotiated solution.

1979 October the British under international pressure convened the Lancaster house talks. The
parties to the talks were the British government, the Patriotic Front (ZANU and ZAPU) and the
internal group Muzorewa’s ANC and Smith’s Rhodesia front. The talks could not reconcile the
demands of the parties especially on land but both groups hoped against hope that they would win
and be able to maintain their claims and positions from a legalized position.

1980 March l in internationally supervised elections Muzorewa failed to win a single seat in
parliament, Smith only got his reserved 20 white men’s seats, ZANU(PF) swept the board with 79
seats and ZAPU(PF) got 20 seats from all of Matebeleland and ZANU –Ndonga got one seat.

Independence saw many unrepentant whites emigrating to New-Zealand Australia Britain etc. where
they continue to reminisce nostalgically about the war and how Britain sold them out.

1980 April 18 Zimbabwe became an independent state with Robert Mugabe as premier. The new
prime minister offered Joshua Nkomo the titular head of state position but he declined to accept
although several ministries were headed by his other fellow ZAPU colleagues.

1980 massive arms caches belonging to ZIPRA and which were supposed to have been surrendered
to the state are discovered and ZAPUs properties with caches are confiscated by the state.
Disturbances of a tribal nature erupt in Bulawayo in Entumbane and some people are killed and the
army is sent in to reign in rogue ZIPRA elements and some these flee to the bush
1982 Former ZPRA elements with clear support from the Apartheid regime in South Africa begin a
campaign of sabotage, murder and destabilization in Matebeleland and the Midlands and such names
as Gwesela, Ndevu eziqamula inkomitsho became household names for their notoriety. Hoods,
Khonjwayo and other South African saboteurs and agents provocateurs are apprehended in
Zimbabwe. South Africa unleashes a war of destabilization of all frontline states with rebel
movements RENAMO in Mozambique and UNITA in Angola wreaking havoc to the economies of all
Front line states.

1982 In response to the rebellion by some ex ZIPRA elements the Fifth brigade is deployed in
Matebeleland and the Midlands and development stalls in the affected areas as hundreds of Shona
civilians perish at the hands of dissidents and thousands of Ndebele civilians lose their lives in
reprisals by the Fifth Brigade.

1987 December 22 after protracted negotiations spearheaded by Zimbabwe’s first non-executive

president Mr. Canaan Banana, a unity agreement is signed between ZANU PF and ZAPU PF. A new
party ZANU PF is created and Joshua Nkomo became a co vice president with Simon Muzenda. All
dissident to be incorporated into society and no charges to be preferred against them and similarly
no charges to be preferred against any member of the Fifth Brigade.

1980 saw the end of all formal or legal racial segregation but this evil and immoral practice continued
and exists unabated to date. The new government made strides to correct the colonial evils in the
following areas:

- Universal free primary and secondary education.

- Free medical and health care
- Policy of reconciliation towards the former settler colonialists to which they have to date spurned.
- Land distribution under the willing seller willing buyer basis.
- Integrate and demobilize the belligerents
- Indigenization- enabling the native Africans to own and control business.
- Expanding trade with the region and the world at large
1991 A foreign driven Economic structural program from the IMF and World Bank was adopted. The
program required Zimbabwe to liberalize trade, which is allow free movement of goods from outside,
restrict or cut expenditure, and devalue or allow the local currency to float.

1998 due to ESAP food rioting took place in the major towns due to the negative effects of ESAP.
1998 August the Zimbabwe Defense Forces are deployed to the DRC to help the beleaguered Kabila
regime.
1998 November Nearing the end of the restrictive 20-year non-compulsory acquisition of land close
in the Lancaster agreement, a Land Donor Conference is organized and many foreign donors pledge
to assist Zimbabwe but not a cent is remitted.

1999 The labor Union leadership breaks ranks with government and threatens to form a political
party under the leadership of Morgan Tsvangirai and in September the same year this actual happens
in the form of the Movement for Democratic change...

War veterans receive lump and monthly gratuities and in the build up to the 2000 elections The labor
leadership cum opposition party slides more and more to the right and is seen supporting settler
colonial interests in land commerce and industry and receives massive monetary and moral support
from the same quarter. This alliance also receives massive external assistance from foreign interests
like the USA and UK governments directly or indirectly through such organizations as the
Westminster Foundation etc.

February 2000 a new draft constitution is taken to the people in a referendum and labor, the
opposition together with civic organizations mobilize the electorate to reject it because allegedly it
confers too much power on the president but really because of the „no compensation for land
compulsorily acquired for settlement “clause in the constitution.

2000 February realizing the near success of the landed white class in derailing the land redistribution
by using political parties they funded and helped to found, Veterans of Zimbabwe’s 2nd Chimurenga
and landless peasants occupied white owned farms and forced government to make appropriate
legislation to fast track land distribution – The Land Acquisition Act 2000.

200 June in parliamentary elections the new party almost upset the ruling ZANU(PF) party and wins
57 seats to 63 for ZANU PF.

2000/2001 the opposition near success gives impetus to Britain to ostracize the Mugabe regime and
begins to talk about regime and forces its friends to impose sanctions on Zimbabwe to ruin the
economy in order to make the electorate vote him out of power. Inflation rises steadily and local white
employers on the whole do everything to arm twist the electorate to vote Mugabe out of power.
2002 Presidential elections are won by the ZANU PF candidate and the MDC refuses to concede defeat
or to recognize the new government and goes to court to challenge the election results and alleges
intimidation vote rigging etc.

2003 the nation is in a political stalemate with threaten invasion from Britain and America and court
challenges to the presidency continuing and the opposition top leadership is arrested and taken to
court for trying to assassinate the president.

2004 The 2003 scenario continues but inflation begins to fall and a general optimistic expectation
pervades the nation as preparation and campaigning for the 2005 gubernatorial elections get
underway.
The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (15 Dec 1953- 31 Dec 1963)

The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was the product of the general election of December 15,
1953 and was the first election to the legislative assembly of the Federation of Rhodesia and
Nyasaland, which had been formed a few months before. The election saw a landslide victory for the
Federal Party under Godfrey Huggins who had been Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia for the past
20 years.
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, also called Central African Federation, political unit created
in 1953 and ended on Dec. 31, 1963, that embraced the British settler-dominated colony of Southern
Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and the territories of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi),
which were under the control of the British Colonial Office.

From the 1920s white European settlers in the Rhodesias had sought some form of amalgamation to
counter the overwhelming numerical superiority of black Africans, but this had been blocked by a
British Colonial Office that was sensitive to profound African opposition.

The Idea of Federation 1953 to 1963

The term federation means loose coalition of nations or organizations where by each nation report
to its central leader whilst returning its autonomy/independence.
The idea of forming a federation of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland was
discussed as early as 1915.

There were two main advantages for the federation, one was economic and the other one was
political.
- economically the federation would give the BSAC control over a large mineral producing area.
- the whites in Southern Rhodesia would benefit from cheap labor extracted from the three
nations.

- politically the whites in the three nations would increase their armament, both by recruiting
fighting men and capitalizing on the weapons from the three nations.

- the federation would also improve the settler security against enemies.
- the principal aim for the establishment of federation was to fight the Afrikaners in South Africa
who had just won the elections and were very powerful, but their relationship with the whites
was not always good.

- another reason for federation was social, namely that the whites just wanted to control the
blacks in all the three nations.
Steps Towards the Establishment of the Federation.

- In 1929 the Hilton Young Commission was appointed to look into the federation question in
East and Central Africa.
 - The commission recommended against the union of the three nations.
- It based its argument on the Devonshire Memorandum of 1923, which has said that African
interest were to be put first.
- It also recommended no self-government of the settlers in Kenya and Tanzania would be
recommended.
- This principle was therefore applied by the Hilton Young Commission to Northern Rhodesia
who felt that the white population in this country was so small that it could not make a
federation viable.
- In 1938 the Bledisloe Commission was again appointed to look into the issue.
- Again the Commission objected the idea on the grounds that the racial policies in the Southern
Rhodesia were harmful to blacks.
- In 1951 the conservative party in Britain won the election.
- This party supported the idea of federation.
- White politicians in Northern and Southern Rhodesia began to campaign for the idea of
federation.
- They openly explained that their relationship to the black was like that of horse and the horse
rides.
- In spite of all these objections the federation was imposed on blacks in 1953
Federation Years 1953 to 1963

- The Federation was created in 1953 comprised of Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland.
- There was a total of 310 000 whites in all the three nations, and 8 500 000 Africans. The
Federal Parliament had 35 seats but 29 belonged to the whites and only 6 were for the blacks.
- The Federation however did not benefit Zambia and Malawi, it only benefited Zimbabwe.
- 100 000 pounds generated from the Zambians Copper Mine was spent in Southern Rhodesia
in building institutions like the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, later on called the
University of Zimbabwe.
- Furthermore, the power stations at Kariba was built on the Zimbabwean side.
- Northern Rhodesia and the Nyasaland provided ready markets for finished goods.
- In Zambia, Harry Nkumbula and Kenneth Kaunda fought tirelessly against the federation.
- In Malawi it was the effort of Kamuzu Hastings Banda who also fought against federation.
- In Southern Rhodesia people like Joshua Nkomo who formed the ANC in 1957 led the people
in the fight against federation.

The 1961 constitutional proposals

- A new constitution was harmed out in Southern Rhodesia in 1961.

- According to the constitution the electorate was divided into two, the A and B rolls.
 - Roll A would elect 50 of the 65 members whilst roll B would elect only the remaining 15.
- To qualify for roll A one had to have the following:
- An income of at least 792 pounds per year.
- fixed property valued at 1650 pounds.
To qualify for roll B one had to have the following:

1. income of 264 pounds per year or ownership of fixed property valued at 495 pounds
A minister of religion or headmen with 20 or more followers automatically qualifies into the B roll.
However, three votes on the B roll were equivalent to one vote in the A roll.

• Joshua Nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole had attended the conference in 1961 and they had
surprisingly agreed to these terms.

• The federation broke on December 31, 1963 and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland went on
to attend independency the following year. When the federation ended Southern Rhodesia
benefited in 3 ways:

- all the military was taken by Southern Rhodesia

- university of Rhodesia and Nyasaland became the University of Rhodesia now University of
Zimbabwe.
- The Kariba power station was now controlled by Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) although it
also applied to Zambia.

ZIMBABWE HERITAGE

OBJECTIVES
By the end of the unit the student should be able to discuss the following;

- Political Heritage
- Cultural Heritage
- Economic Heritage
- Analyze the concept of Ubuntu/ Unhu in the contemporary society.
The heritage of any nation is based on that nation’s enduring political tradition. In the USA, the
national heritage is a deep rooted political legacy born out of the war and rebellion against Great
Britain and this is embodied in the term REPUBLICANISM. The French, who are fiercely proud of their
heritage, have the French revolution which climaxed in the storming of the Bastille palace and the
slaughter of the nobility as their national heritage. Similarly, the young nation of Zimbabwe has the
ethos of the second Chimurenga as the national and enduring political tradition.

The second Chimurenga ethos embodies political, cultural as well as economic principles which
define and continue to sustain us as a nation. To destroy any nation, all one has to do is undermine
that nation’s heritage hence the continuing psychological war by the enemies of Zimbabwe to distort
and demonize not only the second Chimurenga war but those who participated in that war and
especially the heroic leaders of that struggle.

A heritage can be defined as an enduring legacy, a definitive event, achievement, tradition or theory
to which the peoples of a specific nation rally around, and have emotional attachments and for which
they are prepared to defend and to go to war if threatened or violated.

Social and Cultural Heritage

Culture in Zimbabwe reflects the major ethnic and tribal groups in the society The demographic
statistics show that the people of Shona extraction constitute about ninety percent of the population
with the Ndebele at 2.5% Tonga, Venda, Kalanga, Chewa Nambya, Shangaan and other smaller groups
constituting about 7%.

The white population has dwindled to less than o.1% of the population. In spite of their small number
the Ndebele influence on culture is fairly strong not only on the smaller groups but has rubbed on to
the Shona tribes adjacent to them. The reverse is also quite true. Culture is dynamic. As a result, it is
a correct generalization that there is such a thing as African culture in Zimbabwe as opposed to
European culture. There are at most only variations in customs among the various African groups in
Zimbabwean society but the customs are either the same or closely resemble each other. Zimbabwean
African culture has the following major elements:

- Nuclear or extended family

- Recognition and respect for age, parents and authority.
- Respect for hard and honest work.
- Acceptance of good morals in terms of dress, sex, and marriage.

There has however been a strong negative influence due to the mass media on the African culture in
Zimbabwe. Television radio and the print media have done much harm in undermining the superior
African culture by encouraging foreign tastes and habits in terms of diet, dress, the family, marriage,
sex and the extended family. The first culprit has been the African family with divorce (unknown and
unthinkable in pure African culture) wrecking many families. Disease due to sex before marriage and
prostitution has grown to pandemic levels especially AIDS related ailments. The white man’s
consumption or spending patterns have also spread among young Zimbabweans and they are finding
the extended family unbearable. Greed and exclusiveness are the hallmarks of the white man’s‟
culture and this is spreading fast among urbanized Africans. Unlike the white person in
Zimbabwe, the African does not have sufficient expendable cash and as a result debt and unfulfilled
desires and wants are making the lives of many Zimbabweans miserable.

African culture remains the superior culture in that it keeps society and the nation cemented.
Moreover, such social ills as prostitution, pandemics, street kids, crime and political opportunism
(kutengesa nyika) because of greed would be nonexistent. All these ills are a result of lack of self-
respect and lack of personal identity due to wanting to be a white person e.g. Michael Jackson who
straightens his nose or an African woman who wears false hair extensions to look like a Caucasian or
preferring to speak in a foreign language and not vernacular.

The legacies we have as Africans in terms of diet are also unchallengeable in that traditional diet
consisting of small grains legumes and African fruits, vegetables and nuts naturally prevent such
diseases as obesity/kusimba - a common feature of most urbanized woman and the major cause of
high blood pressure, hypertension, osteoporosis and infertility.

In medicine, traditional herbs and a good diet remain undoubtedly the panacea for a long healthy life
and the solution to such problems as AIDS more so than condoms.

Marriage and the family are the economic base of any society and nation. Premarital sex, divorce and
sex for money and perversions such as lesbianism homosexuality, drug taking including alcohol
directly attack and undermine the family and as such society. A multiplicity of sexual partners before
marriage will always lead one to either multiple sex partners in marriage or lack of satisfaction with
one partner in marriage.

In religion opinions vary but the facts remain. In African culture the fundamentals of Christianity are
firmly embedded. Respect for age, parents and authority, good morals that is no fornication or
adultery no perversion that is no homosexuality, taking care of the needy etc. are biblical positions
that remain unchangeable.

In short the white man’s‟ culture is not only incompatible with Christianity, it is in fact the antithesis
and a direct attack on everything godly, that is, it is devilish. The problem between African religion
and Christianity is not lack of morals in African religion, but methods of accessing God or worship.
Indeed, this writer is convinced there is lots of superstition with respect to methods of worship in
African religion in as much as most main line and emerging Christian churches are thoroughly
paginated. It is only right and good therefore to promote and maintain our morally superior culture
while adopting correct Christian methods of worship.
Our religious inheritance will therefor remain for all time our good cultural values or morals.

The values of any society therefor serve to define that society’s identity. History has much been
distorted by painting the African culture as irreligious to the extent that it is almost the accepted value
among youngest Zimbabweans to be immoral because a White Christian has an immoral value or
practice for an example walking naked or partial naked in public despite the fact that this violates
Christian principles. The Black person should there for not use the Whiteman’s values, or morals or
immoral as the case may be as the reference point for good or bad values but should use traditional
practice as the point of departure and compare that with biblical principles which remain unchanging
Our values as Africans clearly identify and portray us as a people who shun immorality graft
corruption and laziness. We respect family and authority and hard work. We believe in God and we
have no room for atheism in our culture.

The second Chimurenga also defines our political and economic values. At the economic level the
legacy of the second Chimurenga and our heritage from that event is that the resources that are God
given belong to Zimbabweans irrespective of race or creed or tribe. Thus the land as resource number
one belongs to all Zimbabweans. White Zimbabweans with very negligible exceptions believe that
land and all ill-gotten gains from the international crime of colonialism and accompanying ethnic
cleansing and segregation are legitimately and exclusively the property of those former criminals.
Whites do not want to share our land with us. We have said we will equitably share our land with
whites and that remains and will always remain the Zimbabwean African’s morally right and correct
position. Any so called Zimbabwean therefore of any race who departs from this position is not only
a threat to the interests of the Nation, but is in effect and in essence declaring that the second
Chimurenga was not won and lost, that is, won by the Africans in Zimbabwe through much blood and
joy, and lost by settler colonialists through by much blood and tears. It amounts to a declaration of
war.

Through hard work and self- sustaining economic policies, Zimbabweans with land firmly in their
hands, can engage other nations at the economic level and benefit from the comparative advantages
we have in terms of skilled disciplined labor, good climate, an abundance of minerals and varied flora
and fauna - domestic and wild. Economic activity therefor should benefit Zimbabweans first and
foremost and this should happen through an internal driven economic program and not one that is
externally driven. Political liberation simply relates to universal common suffrage being available to
all citizens. This was gained fully at Lancaster as manifested in the result of the 1980 elections and
subsequent elections whether presidential or gubernatorial.

Such a gain is hollow and empty and absolutely useless if it is not used to bring about economic
emancipation. Political emancipation there for leads to and of necessity must lead to economic
emancipation. This has eluded not only Africa but most of the former colonies through the practice of
neo colonialism by the former colonizers and the USA and most of the developed world. The war for
economic emancipation is the last war and it is the most difficult war in that it is now being fought at
the psychological level through global media houses and the agency of corrupted local
comprador/reactionary/collaborator journalists who raise and imagine and publish false notions of
the freedoms of expression assembly and association. This leads to people as it were shooting
themselves in the foot because they through a corrupted democracy – one in which the voters‟
perceptions have been warped in favor of their colonizers - vote into power those who perpetrate
their economic subjugation. The battle for perceptions is an unfair war, and it is most cruel and
criminal because of the open aggression through demands made on former colonies under the guise
of human rights.
At the political level the second Chimurenga heritage is that as a people we are sovereign and can
determine our own destiny without outside interference and through democratic processes designed
to safeguard our hard won independence. (See governance under legal and parliamentary affairs.)

Ubuntu/Unhu/Moral Values-The African Values Perspective

CONCEPT OF UBUNTU
Mbigi and Maree (1995: p7), define Ubuntu as the sense of solidarity or brotherhood which arises
among people within marginalized or disadvantaged groups.
It is not unique to African people, but can also be found elsewhere. It is the foundation of
communal African livelihood.

It expresses our “interconnectedness, our common humanity and responsibility to each other that
deeply flows from our deeply felt connection” (Nussbaum 2003;2).
It brings to the fore images of supportiveness, co-operation and communism (Koster 1996:111).
Nussbaum (2003:2) views it as the capacity in African culture to express companion, reciprocity,
dignity, harmony and humanity in the interest of building and maintaining community with
justice and mutual caring. “Personhood is the central theme of Ubuntu.
It is based on the Zulu proverb “Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu,” meaning a person is a person
through other people.

This Ubuntu affirms the humanity of one person being directly related to next person’s humanity.
Archbishop Tutu (199:34-35) characterizes a person with Ubuntu as “ one who is open and
available to others, affirming, does not feel threatened that others are able and good, for he\ she
has a proper self-assurance that he or she belongs in a greater whole is diminished when others
are humiliated, when others are tortured or treated as if they were less than who they are from
the foregoing, it is clear that Ubuntu is characterized by human dignity, respect, interdependence,
compassion, solidarity and taking care of your own.

Tambalusi and Kayuni (2005:147-161) presuppose that there is no reason for one to grab other’s
property, get forced gifts from fellow human beings in whatever form. In this view, there is no
justification for extortion, demanding bribes or extortion for service delivery areas in Zimbabwe.

In view of the above, prostitution; immoral dress such as miniskirts, tight fitting clothing; murder;
rape; robbery; burglary, drug abuse; alcoholism; abusive language; lack of respect of senior
citizens; corruption; dishonesty, gay movement (homosexuality and lesbianism), among others,
are all characteristics of lack of Ubuntu.

The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our Ubuntu principles in our social,
political, economic, and professional settings or lives for the good of our country

Lack of Ubuntu can be observed in most Government departments such as the police, mining, city
councils, immigration, among others, where corruption, mismanagement or any other form of
malpractices such as demanding bribes and extortion are rampant.
 From another view point, Mandela (1994) captures the essence of Ubuntu in the following quote;
“I am not truly free if I am taking away someone’s freedom or rights just as truly when my freedom
is taken away.” The point in this case is that as Zimbabweans we must cherish our Ubuntu
principles in our social, political, economic, and professional settings or lives

Ubuntu and Leadership

As Zimbabwean citizens, we are leaders in various capacities such as at family, group, community,
occupational and national levels and we are expected to be role models in terms of our moral
values(Ubuntu/Unhu)
Leadership is the process of directing and influencing the task related activities of group members
(Stoner et al, 1995: 470).
Leaders use powers and influence to get the activities effectively performed by followers.
Whereas power is defined as the ability to exert influence, that is to change attitudes or behavior of
individuals or groups; influence refers to any actions or examples of behavior that cause a change in
attitude or behavior of another person or group.

It must, therefore, be pointed out that leadership is about values.

According to James McGregor Burns (cited in Stoner et al, 1995: 470), the leader who ignores the
moral components of leadership may well go down in history as a worse.
Thus, moral leadership concerns value and requires that followers be given enough knowledge of
alternatives to make intelligent choices when it comes time to respond to a leader’s proposal to lead.

As noted by ethicist Michael Josephson (quoted in Stoner et al, 1995:470), followers or employees do
not learn ethics from people who sermonize or moralize or try to preach to them about ethics, but
learn ethics from the people whom they admire and respect, who have power over them and those
are the right people or teachers of ethics.
It is, therefore, important to reinforce ideals if they are sincere.

It is also very important for leaders and role models, whether they be sports figures, politicians /
rulers or Senior Government Officials to make positive statements of ethics, if they say (Stoner et al
1995: 470). If leaders are not hypocritical, they can account for their actions.

The ideas articulated in this case by Stoner et al (1995), squarely matches the concept of “Ubuntu in
(Zulu/ Ndebele and Unhu in Shona)” Ubuntu refers to love for God, love for one another, and bringing
to ourselves and the rest of the world music, sport, arts and other forms of expression which bring
out the best of the human spirit and connects people across the boundaries of material life
(Rukuni,2007:450). Given the poor service delivery and corruption which characterize various
sectors of Zimbabwe, what ethics/values or Ubuntu/Unhu do some of our fellow citizens portray to
the society?

Van der Colff (2003) points out that Ubuntu calls for leadership which espouses the values of
leadership legitimacy, communal enterprise and value sharing. She argues that these values are vital
for establishing an enabling culture and a set of skills and competencies valued in most leadership
situations.
Historically, African leadership is based on participation, responsibility and spiritual authority.
According to Lessen and Nussbaum (1996), African leadership calls for transparency, accountability
and legitimacy. On the contrary; Van der Colff (2003) contends that leadership legitimacy can only
be promoted by being role models for their followers through their actions and sticking to values and
goals. Thus leaders must be of integrity before expecting the same for followers.
Furthermore, a leader with Ubuntu values must create an enabling environment for their followers.
He / She must be fair, helpful and considerate and support followers in their legitimate requests.
Karsten and IIIa (2005) highlight that Ubuntu decision making is characterized by consultation,
communal participation and open conversation. Evidently, Ubuntu leadership entails a critical
discourse since voices of all participants in organizations or groups are involved and emphasis is on
consensus building.
This is strikingly similar to indigenous African political systems whose story telling, inclusive decision
making and participatory community meetings were key. Coercive powers were generally not used
to achieve a common goal. Rather, consensus was the means. ―Majority
of opinion did not count; unanimity was the rule (Ayittey 1991:100). As a result, communal meetings
were not largely characterized by haggling and debate but a search for deeper comprehension of
issues and a spontaneous emergency of solutions.

The key issue here is the ―value system‖ that guides and controls behavior. According to Tambulasi
and Kayuni (2005 147 – 160), some African public officers perceive the concept of Ubuntu to be all
encompassing and its pursuance is viewed as an empowerment to pay less attention to western
derived principles of democracy and good governance. In view of this, would the mixed-bag of
western value systems and African value systems help Zimbabwean citizen achieve the desired
results or outcomes in social, economic and political life? The question is ―can African feet divorce
Western shoes? This follows Richard Tammbulasi and Happy Kayuni (2005)’s quest for reality about
Ubuntu/Unhu, /Butho.

Economic Heritage

National resources

Zimbabwe is endowed with many natural resources which in certain instances places the nation on
the strategic resources map of the world.
Land

Zimbabwe’s land mass is about - million square miles and has a very conducive climate being neither
too hot nor too cold and has an average rainfall of about 1500 ml.

Minerals

Zimbabwe has the following minerals; chrome, iron, coal, gold, copper, tin, emeralds. Diamonds,
platinum nickel.

Our Chrome, platinum, nickel and coal reserves are of global strategic importance because they are
ranked in the top five in terms of quantity and quality. Unfortunately control of these minerals is still
in foreign hands and as a nation we also are not yet adding value to them.

Wild life

The three major game parks in Zimbabwe are second to the combined Kenyan and Tanzanian wild
life population of the Serengeti game park. The big five wild game –elephant, buffalo, giraffe, lion and
rhino are more abundant in our game parks than in any other park in the world.

People

With a population of about 14 000 000 people Zimbabwe is still sparsely populated considering that
our land mass can sustain seventy million people with optimal economic utilization. The plus about
this population is its literacy levels –about 87% and its varied skills base from which even the most
advanced nations are tapping into. Through many tricks especially after the 2000 parliamentary
elections, the Western countries have not rested in trying to spark a civil war in Zimbabwe which
they will use as a pretext to directly interfere in the politics of this nation. Thatchell the infamous
homosexual has been quoted as saying that he is not only organizing but sponsoring a group
consisting of personnel in Zimbabwe’s‟ armed forces and in the diaspora to militarily bring about an
end to the Mugabe regime in Zimbabwe. The West Minister Foundation and even much earlier the
Heritage Foundation a USA right wing organization are trying and had tried to use opposition parties
in Zimbabwe to engage the Zimbabwean armed forces. On the whole the people of this nation have
refused to be used in this very destructive and dangerous way and have democratically expressed
their wishes at the polls. The people of this nation save those who pipe and beat the drum of this
nation’s enemies remain resolutely united in the face of an unprecedented onslaught from Europe
and the USA.

NATIONAL SYMBOLS

The National Anthem

Born and inspired by the war of liberation, the national anthem is as it were the rallying point of the
nation. Authored by Professor Mutsvariro, it describes and narrates in a few words our origins,
history, beliefs and aspirations.
 The National Flag

The national flag represents state wood and together with the court of arms they are the official and
visible tokens of the state and its authority and existence. The flag is also a product of the war of
liberation. The red star represents our socialist ideals and the Zimbabwe bird proudly points back to
our distant origins and prowess as a people and nation in antiquity among the great civilizations of
the world. The white background on which the above two are superimposed represents our desire
for peace and tranquility within and without. The red stripes symbolize the blood of the heroes who
died liberating the country, yellow our mineral resources, green our flora and fauna and black the
indigenous African natives of this nation. It is incumbent upon every Zimbabwean and any foreigner
on our soil to acknowledge our statehood by standing at attention when the flag is lowered where
ever and whatever one is doing. Standing at attention is not a religious act as some overzealous and
misguided Christians think. Kneeling or bowing down in reverence is a religious act reserved for God
that is why Shadrech and his other two friends were thrown in a furnace for. Nowhere in Christian
writing is standing erect an act of worship or homage. It would be only right and fair to refuse to
kneel to the flag for every Christian. It is only right and fair for every Christian to stand erect in
recognition not homage of those who rule them.

The Great Zimbabwe monument

Located near Masvingo town, it represents unparalleled architectural design and construction and
stands as a direct insult to those who have ridiculed Africans of possessing no scientific psychological
makeup or achievements or capability. It was used as a palace and a temple by the kings of the great
Zimbabwe period and latter dynasties.

The Victoria Falls

A natural geological formation from years of erosion, the feature has few rivals if any and has water
plunging a hundred meters forming thunder and mist from which its more appropriate Tonga names
is derived from –Mosi oa-tunya the smoke that thunders. It is the nation’s prime tourist resort
attraction.

CIVIC RESPONSIBILITIES

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

• Define civic responsibility and patriotism.

• Explain and apply civic responsibility activities in the real world.
Disasters

As technology has advanced so has disasters or accidents associated with it and at the same time what
appears to be natural disasters have also increased. Management of these disasters has become a
major science and the role of each citizen in disasters has become an imperative. Major disasters can
be listed as,

-disease pandemics e.g. CORONA, AIDS, SARS and Ebola

-Floods as a result of unusually high rainfall due to industrialization or broken dam walls

-Drought due to changing weather patterns as a result of industrialization.

-Accidents at the work place e.g. airplane crashes, gas leaks, nuclear contamination, etc. -
Earthquakes.

Disease management is first and foremost an individual responsibility. Correct dietary and sexual
habits are the first front line. Each individual is a national resource and eating junk food or recklessly
imbibing in drugs or alcohol destroys that line as much as taking irresponsible and immoral sexual
behavior like sex before marriage or infidelity within marriage. With infectious diseases, each
individual should take note and report any suspected infections and quarantine self or the affected
victim.

Floods, earthquakes and workplace disasters require the nation to rally behind those affected by
donating food and clothes and shelter. It is also necessary to avoid flood and quake prone areas and
to take heed to quake or flood warning.
Industrial accidents are a manmade problem which require social responsibility to minimize the
risks. There is no such thing as safe technology. The issue at stake is risk minimization and
management. Droughts have always been there before the white man’s agriculture and especially
exotic crops such as maize. Despite droughts, Africa was not found unpopulated as a result.

A banana plant does not grow in Gokwe as naturally as it does in Rusitu valley in as much as maize
thrives in Peru but is prone to drought in Zimbabwe. Maize is a stock feed that grows well in its
homeland in South America but is prone to drought in Zimbabwe. On the other hand, small grains
thrive in Zimbabwe and are highly nutritious for humans. The paradigm shift in our dietary habits
will go a long way towards national food self-sufficiency because eventually sooner rather than latter
even irrigated crops will fail when there is no flow in the dams. There is no other credible long lasting
solution to drought at the family or national level than reverting to the small grains.

In defense of the Nation

All stable nations thrive on patriotism. Patriotism relates to each citizen’s ability to identify with his
nation by being able to distinguish between party political issues and national issues. Sovereignty,
land and defending the nation are not party political issues but national issues to which every real
Zimbabwean must stand up in defense.
 Patriotism
Defending the nation physically and in armed combat when called upon to do so by the authorities in
power or individually when the situation so demands like in the case of unilateral superpower attack.

Defending the nation through positive publicity. The nation’s greatest and most potent enemy today
is the one amongst us who agrees to spread falsehoods about the nation’s politics and economy. Other
than the dissident menace, Zimbabwe has been the most peaceful nation at par with countries like
Botswana and Namibia.

Supporting the nation through correct tax payments

Practice environmentally friendly practices e.g. avoiding littering, pollution etc.
Preserve the national asset that is oneself by avoiding graft, crime, corruption, greed and harmful
behavior such as premarital sex, drug abuse etc.

Respect and tolerate other races, tribes, religions opinions and beliefs.

Cherish unity in diversity among the various stake holders in spite of differences in approaches.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PROLEMS FACED BY ZIMBABWE SINCE 1980

Objectives

By the end of the unit students should be able to:

• Discuss the problems faced by the government at and after independence

• Explain how the government solved the problems that it faced at and after independence

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
Need to develop rural areas to stop rural-urban drift and to correct a hundred years of colonial rule.

Redirect economic priorities to serve the whole population rather than a small white section of the
population.

Bring health. Education, and shelter to all Zimbabweans.

Recurring drought - 1983, 1992, 1997, 2002 as it negatively affects the national economy and
agricultural production.

Deal with unfavorable terms of trade.

Stop the shrinking in the economy and reverse growing unemployment.
Resolve inflation and the Devaluation of the Zimbabwean dollar against major international
currencies

Gradual increase in prices of basic commodities due to speculation and profiteering.

Falling commodity prices in the international market.

Dis investment due to a more vigorous indigenization economic approach.

Political interference in the nation’s politics through the sponsoring and creation of opposition
parties with a foreign agenda.

brain drain

Corruption

Decline in moral values leading to AIDS

HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS SOLVED THESE PROBLEMS

Drought in Zimbabwe has been partly alleviated by importing grain from abroad and construction of
dams and also creating grain strategic reserves seeds packs given to peasants to help them recover
from droughts. Of major importance has been the redistribution of land and reducing pressure in the
congested rural areas and settling people in areas with fertile soils and high rainfall.

The Ministry of Employment Creation and indigenization have gone some way in creating
employment.

Externally originated and driven economic policies have been abandoned in favor of home grown
solutions

Profiteering and speculation which fueled inflation have been checked gradually restoring sanity to
the financial sector.

ESAP has been abandoned by the government and attention has been redirected to the East Asian
economies to encourage investment and cooperation.
SADC and COMESA Union trade arrangements have been adopted to encourage an increase in
international trade.

However, Zimbabwe has not managed to solve all problems.

Cost sharing in Education and Health have been instituted to alleviate spiraling costs.

Indigenization, affirmative action, creation of SEDCO, the Land bank land redistribution etc. have all
gone a long way towards alleviating the unemployment problem.
A new monetary policy together with an anticorruption drive has seen inflation decreasing slowly
but gradually.

Reawakening of the peoples‟ moral values and their culture as a solution to decreasing and ultimately
wiping out STDs and AIDS infection.
Explain how the government has solved the problems that it faced at and after independence

LEGAL AND PARLIAMENTARY AFFAIRS

OBJECTIVES

- By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

- Define Law and state its origins and purpose
- Discuss pre-colonial legal systems and compare them to modern law.
- Explain the concept of Law enforcement justice and public order.
- Discuss the Constitutional provisions of Zimbabwe
- Analyze the rights and freedoms as enshrined in the constitution

LAW
Can be generally defined as rules of behavior enforced by society or a body of established norms for
the good governance of society.
Austin defines law as “a command set, either directly or circuitously, by a sovereign individual and
/or body, to a member or members of some independent political society in which his authority is
supreme”.
Vinshisky (a onetime attorney general in Russia in the ninetieth century) defines law as
“rules and regulations put in place by those in power in order to protect their interests.”

The major elements in Austin’s definition are: “the command of a sovereign‟. This suggests use of
force and the right to command.
The definition is deficient in that it lacks such ethical elements as justice, consistence and uniform
application. In this present day and age law is looked at as the balance and union between might and
rightness or justice and legitimacy.

Salmond, an English judge emphasizes the aspect of “principle” and “recognition‟ and in typical
English legal tradition leaves room and gives a free hand to the judge to determine what is a
recognized principle and what is not. Moreover, this definition does not deal with the element of
legitimacy assuming that English political authority is right and legitimate always and everywhere
and in one statement legitimating such evils as colonialism or wars of conquest.
A principle can be defined as “something that can be applied over a large range of cases resembling
one another in their most essential features” and the result or outcome is invariably the same.

Vinshisky „s definition is more behavioral in approach and scope and explains the origins; purposes
and justification of such laws as the Hut tax the Land apportionment act and the Land Tenure act in
pre-independent Zimbabwe. It also explains the current laws being made to reverse the very same
laws e.g. the Land Acquisition Act, POSA and AIPPA. Everywhere even in Britain law is not made in
pursuit of that elusive thing called justice but for the protection of the interests of those in power. To
a large extent this is a Marxist definition and is precise in so far as it is realistic and not idealistic. No
law is just per se‟. All law is premised on maintaining the status quo and the advantages - political
and economic- of those in authority or of the ruling class.

Purpose of Law
Realistically the purpose of law is to protect the interests of those making the law.

Idealistically the purpose of law is to bring about law and order, predictability, stability and peace.

The nature of law

Man is a social animal. The term society or community suggests norms or behavioral patterns in the
society. Behavior patterns become social customs with the passage of time, usage, and acceptance.
Social customs attract social sanctions if and when violated e.g. labeling such as uri nzenza.
Social custom evolves into legal custom once they are enforced and accepted in the law courts e.g. van
Breda and Others vs. Jacobs.

Natural law or Lex Naturalis and the origins of law

Natural law can be viewed broadly as a product of the biblical principle “do unto others as you would
want them to do unto you.” Evolutionists suppose that man had to escape from a state of nature that
is lawless society. In such a society each member of society does as he pleases and is a law to himself
and does not value nor does he respect the welfare of others. Thomas Hobbes views law as an
authoritarian command, which should be legitimated by its consistence or compliance to natural law
that is one gives as much as he is willing to receive.

One enjoys unchallenged enjoyment of staying in his house because he in turn does not threaten the
undisturbed enjoyment of other people’s homes.
Statute law or legislation is just law if only it is an extension of natural law. Lawmakers are therefore
bound by natural law and it flows naturally from right reason. Natural law is seen as the moral basis
and norm for legislators and governments. The state is thus a product of men or members of society
contracting to appoint a single body or will to bear or represent all of them. Members of society
therefore enter into a social contract, which is characterized by a mutual transfer of rights. Lex
Naturalis proscribes man from doing that which is destructive of his life or taking away the means of
preserving his life. Man in a state of nature has the right to everything and is governed by his own
reason and can do anything to anyone to further his interests. Thus man should be willing if and when
others are willing and in so far as his security and peace are assured as he sees it, waive his right to
everything and be satisfied with as much liberty against others as he receives from others. Every
member of society should therefore surrender as much in terms of rights as the other person is
prepared or willing to surrender. This alludes to the entering of a social contract by people whose
desire is to escape from a state of nature. All modern law is presumed to be based on natural law.

Sources of law

Legislation
Legislation is also referred to as statutory law. It covers those rules of law made directly by the
legislature The legislative authorities of the state promulgate law in various statutory forms such as
Acts of Parliament, presidential decrees and ministerial regulations. In Zimbabwe, the legislative
authority is vested in the Parliament and the President. When Parliament makes and passes laws,
such laws are referred to as Acts of Parliament. It is only through these Acts that Parliament can make
law
Delegated the authority

Parliament, although mandated to make laws, may not be in a position to make all the laws of
the land. It can give such powers to some institutions or individuals and this can be due to
either:
The Complexity of the matter concerned:
Some legal enactments require specific and complete expertise e.g. Fiscal policies, power
generation and distribution

Time constraints and other exigencies

The Parliament, in some cases, may fail to promulgate laws due to time constraints.
Other laws may not be of serious national concern, e.g. Municipal laws on vending!

When the Parliament has given the powers to make such laws to any relevant body it is said to
have delegated the authority and laws enacted under such situations are known as delegated
legislation
Delegated legislation is also known as secondary legislation or subsidiary legislation.
Parliament is entitled to delegate its law-making powers to the president, his/her ministers,
local authorities and other state institutions. Laws made by such delegated authorities is aptly
known as statutory instruments.
Thus, there are two recognized forms of legislation in Zimbabwe: Acts of Parliament and
statutory instruments. A statutory instrument has the same legal status as an Act of Parliament,
except that it must be consistent with the relevant Act of Parliament delegating the authority to
make that statutory instrument. Any body delegated such authority must therefore act intra
vires the Parent Act/Enabling Act. Intra vires means acting in accordance with the powers and
authority given.
The opposite of intra vires is ultra vires and it essentially means acting outside the powers given
 If a law is ultra vires, it is considered null and void (a legal nullity).

At independence, Zimbabwe adopted the Westminster model of Parliament where there were
two chambers/houses. This is composed of the Upper House/Senate as well as the Lower House
(now called the National Assembly). It was then abolished in 1987 ostensibly because it was
having a toll on the national purse. However, it was re-introduced in 2005.

By design, senators are supposed to be well versed with the laws and traditions of the land
The entry level is one to have attained the age of 40.

Functions of the senate

to scrutinize the laws passed especially from the National Assembly and make sure that they
don’t violate any established values, norms and tradition. In this way, the country is assured that
all the laws passed would be to the best interest of the people
However, the Senate is not useful where there is a state of emergency as it turns to slow down
the whole process of law making. Further, it is expensive to run a bi-cameral Parliament as it
exerts a lot of financial demands on the national purse.

Composition of the Senate

Total number of Senators: 80
60 proportional representation seats 6 for each for 10 provinces.
The party list must list a woman first followed by man then a woman, a man, a woman and a man.

2 to represent people with disabilities

18 chiefs - 2 elected by the provincial assembly of Chiefs from each of the provinces, other than
the metropolitan provinces plus the President and Deputy President of the National Council of
Chiefs.

Qualifications
Citizen & registered voter, 40 years or over and ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe for 5 years over
last 20 years

National Assembly
Total number: 270
210 are elected directly from the 210 constituencies
The candidate who receives a simple majority of the valid votes cast in the constituency will win
that seat. (e.g. 3 candidates A-45%; B-35%; C-20% - A wins)
60 reserved party list seats for women: 6 in each of 10 provinces.
Qualifications
The entry level is 21 years of age and should be voted into office by eligible voters for a tenure of
5 years and ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe for 5 years over last 20 years and should be a
registered voter.

Functions

- Make laws
- Debate presidential speeches
- Scrutinize the budget
- Oversight over the national purse
- Pass bills
- Can pass vote of no confidence on the president
- Amend laws
- Repeal laws
- Control over public administration

Common law/ Roman Dutch law

Madhuku L. (2010) states that common law may refer to any of the following:
The law applicable to all people of a given society regardless of race, tribe and sex or as that portion
of the law which is not derived from legislation and emanates from a collection of principles made
by judges in the course of resolving issues brought before the courts.

Roman Dutch law is a fusion of Roman law and medieval Dutch law. This fusion occurred in Holland
over a considerable period of time and was completed by the end of the sixteenth century. Holland
was conquered and occupied by the Romans under the Emperor, Julius Caesar. As time moved, the
local customary law was reconstructed in the light of Roman law. Roman Dutch law is a product of
this fusion of Dutch customs and Roman law. By the end of the sixteenth century, it was this special
brand of law that was the law of Holland. In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck and his group of Dutch settlers
took charge of the Cape of Good Hope and introduced, the law as it applied at that time in Holland,
which was Roman Dutch law. When the British took over South Africa in 1795 they did not replace
Roman Dutch law, but in fact English law began to influence some legal aspects. By 10 June 1891,
the law applicable at the Cape was Roman Dutch law with substantial English law elements.

Customs
Customs are rules that become binding in the course of time through observance by the community
in question and they are not necessarily written down. In other words, the community becomes
accustomed to regulating its relationship in a particular way, with many of its members regarding
that particular way of doing things as legally binding.

There are two types of customs:

1. General custom, which applies in such fields of law as banking, commercial law, international
trade law and so on.
2. African customary law, which regulates the life of indigenous Africans e.g. incest

Case law/judicial precedents

This is the process whereby judges follow previously decided cases where facts are of sufficient
similarity. The doctrine of judicial precedent involves the principle of stare decis (means to
stand by decided decisions) Courts at the top of the hierarchy are of more significance so their
decisions carry greater legal weight than lower or inferior court decisions.
In practice, this means that lower courts are bound to apply the legal principles set down by
superior courts in earlier cases. This provides consistency and predictability in the law

Authoritative texts
Authoritative texts refer to writings by leading authorities in the field of law. Treatises written
by Roman Dutch jurists are authoritative sources of Roman Dutch law and are treated as such in
the courts. In Zimbabwe, legal authorities like G. Feltoe are recognized and their opinions are
taken aboard. Reference must also be made to modern textbooks and scholarly articles or
publications.
Though these have no inherent authority of their own, they may be regarded as very persuasive
sources of law where neither legislation nor case law is in point, or where they are explaining a
legal point which is not clearly covered in legislation or case law.

Law making process in Zimbabwe

Stage 1 First Reading

After a bill has been gazetted, the member responsible must serve notice of a motion that leave
be granted by the House to bring in the bill. On the day specified in the notice, the motion for
leave is moved and, if granted, the member must bring a copy of the bill to the clerks at the table,
who read the title of the bill. It is the bringing of the copy to the clerks and the subsequent reading
of the title thereof which is regarded as the first reading and no debate takes place in the First
Reading.

Stage 2 Reference to the Parliamentary Legal Committee (PLC)

The house from which the bill originates refers it to the Parliamentary Legal Committee (PLC).
Its purpose is to examine all bills and statutory instruments and determine whether or not they
are in conformity with the Bill of Rights and any other provisions of the Constitution.

Stage 3 Second Reading

This third stage is opened by the sponsoring minister, who makes a speech outlining the
purpose of the bill and the principles upon which it is based. This is followed by debate on these
principles.
No discussion on individual clauses is permissible, although reference may be made to these
clauses as part of the debate.

Stage 4 Consideration by Committee

Next, the bill is considered clause by clause, either by a special committee set up for the
purpose or a committee of the whole house. At this stage, amendments to individual clauses are
proposed and debated.

Stage 5 Reporting Stage

This stage involves making a report of the bill, as amended, to the whole house. If the bill was
considered by a committee of the whole house, the report stage is a mere formality. If it was
considered by a special committee, this stage allows other members of the house to propose
amendments.

Stage 6 Referral to the Parliamentary Legal Committee (PLC)

If the bill is amended at the committee and/or report stages, it is referred to the PLC, which will
scrutinize any amendments according to the procedures outlined in Stage 2.

Stage 7 Third Reading

This is the stage at which the bill is put to a vote for either approval or rejection.
No reading per se takes place and, unless some members have given notice that they wish to do
so, there is no debate. For voting to take place there should be a quorum i.e. the minimum
number of people required to constitute a valid meeting of the National of Assembly

Stage 8 Transmission to the other House

As soon as the bill has been passed by the house in which it originated, an authenticated copy of
it is transmitted to the other house. The second house may reject the bill or pass it with or
without amendments.
Stage 9 Presidential Assent

A bill becomes law only after being assented to by the president. After a bill has been passed by
both houses, or after the House of Assembly has overridden the Senate, it is presented to the
president for assent. The president is not obliged to assent to a bill; he/she has unlimited
discretion in this regard. Again, if the president rejects the bill in question, but the House of
Assembly subsequently secures the relevant two-thirds majority and returns the bill to the
president, he/she is given two options: either assent to the bill within 21 days or dissolve
Parliament and call for fresh elections.

Separation of powers doctrine

This doctrine was propounded by Baron de Montesquieu. This principle requires that, as a
guarantee for the liberty of the individual, political power should not be concentrated in one
individual or organ of government. It requires that governmental functions be separated into
three different groups and each be performed by different persons. This will result in the
creation of checks and balances.
The three organs of the state are:
1. Legislature
2. Executive
3. Judiciary

The idea is that these three function in their own capacity without interference from other
organs
Their respective functions are as follows:

Legislature:
- Makes laws
- Debates presidential speeches
- Scrutinizes the budget
- Oversight over the national purse
- Can pass vote of no confidence on the president
- Amends laws
- Repeals laws

Executive
- Assents to bills from the parliament
- Declares state of emergencies e.g. wars, disasters
- Commander-in-chief of the defense forces
- Implements new laws
 Judiciary
- Guardianship of the constitution
- Interprets the law
- Protector of the fundamental rights
- Courts have a supervisory function e.g. higher courts have a supervisory function over
lower courts
- Courts may be given the responsibility of managing distressed companies
- Courts may be authorized to grand citizenship to aliens/foreigners
- It has to be noted that the sole right of interpreting the law is vested in the Judiciary.
- The Legislature is not allowed to interpret the law no matter how unconstitutional that
law may appear
- The best they can do is try to amend or repeal it!!!
- Basically, the organ that makes law (the legislature) should be different from
- the organ which implements it (the executive) and should both be different
- from the organ which interprets it in the event of a dispute (the judiciary).

Democracy and Governance.

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit the student should be able to:

• Compare Western Democracy to pre-colonial governance system inclusivity, exclusivity
• Trace and discuss major issues at all elections held in Zimbabwe.
• Discuss Zimbabwe’s electoral system and authority

INTRODUCTION

Democracy as a system of governance is of Greek origin. Its main tenet was its attempt to bring about
an inclusive rather than an exclusive form of governance that is typical of the monarch or king. A
monarch has its merits and demerits and so does democracy. The traditional Zimbabwean system of
governance while having its shortcomings was nevertheless superior to both the former aristocratic
European system of governance and the present form of democracy as championed by the West
especially The U.S.A. and its lackey the U.K. Demo means people and kratos means rule. Democracy
means people rule. Democracy as a system of governance is not established through elections only.
In the traditional Shona system of governance “ushe hwaive madzoro” first and foremost, that is there
was no permanent ruling class or family as in the present American and European systems where the
super-rich and well connected and acceptable few in terms of race and ideology qualify to rule that is
the rich Anglo Saxons. (Jews, Chinese, Hispanics and especially blacks are excluded from the
presidency on no other grounds other than that that they are from these minority groups.
Secondly, the community was always represented at large in the kings “dare” and this system of
inclusion permeated the whole structure from top to bottom and it was reflected in the family
governance where the family was not run by the father tyrannically but involved and to a large extent
today does involve the mother the children who have come of age and the check and balance of the
extended family
“vana tete nana babamunini”.

WHAT IS GOVERNANCE
The term ―governance refers to the process of decision-making and the ways in which decisions are
implemented (or not). In any given system, the executive (government) is the major actor, but others
like the Judiciary and the Legislature can influence the process. Non-state actors, such as religious or
tribal leaders, civil society, major landowners, trade unions, financial institutions, and community
based groups can play important roles. The following characterize a good system of governance:
- Participatory—encouraging wide citizen participation in decision-making;
- Consensus-orientated—attempting to reach decisions based on widespread agreement;
- Transparent—being open to scrutiny in decision making processes;
- Responsive—listening and responding to the needs of its citizens;
- effective and efficient—providing basic services; and
- equitable and inclusive—not excluding sectors of the population, especially those that are
more vulnerable or marginalized.
- There are many multi- and bilateral institutions that are concerned with promoting what they
have termed ―good governance‖ in post conflict and developing countries. Each of these
institutions defines good governance slightly differently and has developed its own indicators
by which it measures and evaluates progress toward good governance. The World Bank, for
instance, has identified six indicators of good governance ―to help countries identify areas of
weakness so that capacity building and assistance strategies are more effective.The indicators
are:
- voice and accountability;
- political stability and lack of violence;
- government effectiveness;
- regulatory quality;
- rule of law; and
- control of corruption.
Democracy and Governance
Political leaders’ visions they promote and the systems and values they bring to governing a country
play a pivotal role in fostering peace and development, promoting oppression or the resurgence of
conflict. Since so much is at stake, during peace negotiations there is often great competition for
power and the prospect of controlling a government. For countries that have little or no experience
with democratic governance, the challenges are immense. But the post conflict environment does
provide an opportunity for countries to create new structures of government and systems of good
governance. In situations where the international community has taken on state-building, its
institutions assume some responsibility for issues related to democracy and governance. It is also a
 time of opportunity for women. In particular, Zimbabwe has been effective at using quotas and
reserved seats to ―ensure the presence and participation of women in justice, governance, private
sector and civil society. For example; we once had a lady Vice President, Mrs. Joyce Mujuru.
International actors consider good governance‖ to be a key for building sustainable peace and long-
term development. Progress toward good governance is increasingly used as a requisite for the
provision of aid. Despite the variations in definitions and indicators of good governance, most
institutions agree that good governance typically includes efforts at democratization and
decentralization, the introduction of free and fair elections, participatory politics, the creation of an
independent civil society, guarantee of a free and independent press and respect for the rule of law.
Each of these topics, among others, is discussed below.

KEY COMPONENTS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE

In countries involved in peace processes, questions relating to governance often consume a
significant portion of the discussions; typically demands for democratization, including elections and
timeframes for transition, are addressed. Other related elements include discussions surrounding the
nature of political
participation, electoral systems, issues of transparency and separation of powers, as discussed below.

DEMOCRACY
Democracy is a system of government in which power is vested in the people (the population) and
exercised through representatives chosen in free and fair elections. But a democracy does not just
mean that the majority rules. A democracy also includes and protects the human rights of minorities
and respects multiple or plural views and opinions. In a democracy people have rights as citizens, but
they also have responsibilities to participate in the governance system. There are many versions of
democracies around the world (e.g. electoral, consultative) and ongoing debates about the extent to
which one size fits all with regard to democracy. The process a country goes through in attempting to
become more democratic is referred to as democratization. In order for a country to be truly
democratic, all of its citizens men and women must be empowered to participate fully in the
governance process (as citizens, voters, advocates, civil servants, judges, elected officials, etc.).

FREE AND FAIR ELECTIONS

An election is the procedure by which citizens of a country choose their representatives and leaders
and assign authority. Elections must be held
regularly so that elected officials remain accountable to the
population; if they do not uphold their responsibilities to the electorate, they can be voted out of office
in the next election. Elections must be held within a period of time that is prescribed in the
constitution, or fundamental law. For an election to be truly democratic, it must be:
• universal—All citizens of a country must have the right to vote and to be elected, without
discrimination based on sex, race, language, religion or political affiliation. In Zimbabwe as elsewhere
in the world there is no discrimination in voting processes.
• equal—The value of each vote must be the same.
• secret—The balloting must be private so that citizens can participate without being afraid; only the
voter must know for whom she or he votes.
• direct—The voters must be able to choose their own leaders without an intermediary.
• wide choice—The voters must have the opportunity to choose from among several available
candidates.

DECENTRALIZATION
An increasingly important component of democratization in many parts of the world is
decentralization. Decentralization is the process of transferring authority and responsibility from the
central government to provincial and local levels. Countries pursue decentralization for a variety of
reasons, including a desire to make the government more receptive and accountable to the needs of
its population and/or to respond to pressure from donors to downsize central government budgets.

Decentralization is based upon the notion that various levels of the government have different
expertise and abilities to address problems. For example, national defense and monetary policy are
clearly best set at the national level, but policies concerning schools, local police protection and some
public services are often better determined at the local level with community input. Critics of
decentralization, however, charge that it weakens parts of the state that, for the sake of peace building
and human security, need to be strengthened.

There are three types of decentralization: political, administrative and fiscal. Political
decentralization involves the election of local-level leaders. Administrative decentralization occurs
when some of the government’s decision-making is managed at the local level. And fiscal
decentralization refers to the national government sharing budgetary responsibility for collecting
revenues and making expenditures with local government representatives. Decentralization
processes often include local-level elections.

PARTICIPATORY POLITICS AND POLITICAL PARTIES

The concept of participatory politics refers to the involvement of all citizens in politics and
policymaking. This requires a relationship between the government and society in which the
participation of citizens and a plurality of views are encouraged. This can be supported by
strengthening political parties; encouraging the participation of marginalized groups, such as women
and youth; and by strengthening civil society (described below). The right to convene and articulate
political views is a key principle of good governance and democratization. Political parties are one of
the cornerstones of a democratic political system.

Parties are critical because they provide a structure for political participation for people with similar
beliefs and interests. By joining together, individuals, who would otherwise not be influential, can
make their voices heard in the political process through their support of a political party. Political
parties also provide leaders with a space in which to learn the skills needed for governing a society.

A democracy must have more than one major, viable party so that a single group does not dominate
the government and voters have a choice. This principle is called multipartyism. Membership in
political parties must be voluntary. It can be difficult for women to achieve leadership positions
within political parties and to be selected as candidates because, in many countries, parties operate
or govern themselves without written party rules or transparent procedures.

Such lack of openness allows patronage systems and ―old boys’ networks‖ to flourish, effectively
excluding women from decision-making positions and candidate lists. In some countries, political
parties have adopted internal quotas for women’s participation to ensure that they always put
forward a certain number of women’s candidates. In Zimbabwe as in Argentina, Botswana and
France, among others, all political parties encourage participation of women in politics. An important
advocacy strategy for women is to work with political parties to make sure that the party platform,
the formal declaration of the principles and positions that the party supports, describes its positions
on issues important to women.

Regional and International Relations

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
- Define International Relations
- Explain the three Cs of International relations – Conflict, Cooperation and Competition
- Explain the Multi-polar, Bi-polar global power balances
- Critique International law, the community of nations and identify and explain the types and
functions of diplomatic missions.

Definitions
- International relations; The interaction of nation -states
- Nation; The people within a country
- Country; Geographical territory in which a specific people live in
- State; the permanent power or authority which is sovereign and represented by the arms of
state, that is, government, judiciary and the legislature and which is normally embodied in the
constitution as the right of a group of people to self-determination.
- Government; the arm of state which is tasked with ruling or exercising the executive powers
of the state that is, representing the nation at international fora, defending and keeping law and
order in the nation, implementing political, economic, and social policy of the ruling political
party. Government is formed by the winner at general elections and therefore comes and goes
where as the state is permanent except where the country is annexed, secedes or the people
become extinct.

The practice of International relations

Society
People within a nation are a society or societies of people. To become a nation therefore the people
should have similar political aspirations or interests. The term “society” supposes the existence of
common norms or behavioral patterns within that society. Such norms determine relations among
the members of the society in terms of political structures or governance; this determines in turn
distribution of resources. Political structure presupposes a hierarchy and hence classes within
society. Classes in turn infer inequalities among the people. In international relations instead of
people forming the society or community we have nations being the members of the international
society or community and hence the existence also of norms or political behavior, international
political hierarchy and classes, distribution of resources by the international ruling class and hence
the existence of international inequalities. This will be dealt with in full under international capital
below.

International Society
The international society as we know it today is a recent development in the world’s history. Vast
empires, fiefdoms or localized chiefdoms have always been the general picture of politics at the global
level. Sovereign nation – states appear on the global scene about five hundred years ago and evolve
and only become the norm in the 16th. century as principles that govern their conduct take a definitive
shape. Before the development of rules that govern relations between areas or regions or states,
relations between different political entities were characterized by internecine warfare. It was more
a state of nature or survival of the fittest. With the advent of Christianity and its growth, war and its
limitation, conduct and justification became necessary and the notion of the just war was developed.

In his work, “The Summa Theologica,” St. Thomas Aquinas argued the case for a just war as consisting
of:
- It had to have the backing of the king
- The reason or cause for going to war had to be just
- Those to be attacked had to be guilty of some grave evil
- The attackers had to have the right intention – to promote good or the avoidance or prevention
of evil
Many unfair wars and untold evil were perpetrated under the guise of the just war and by about 1490
Honore Bonet stated “soldiers were the flail of God who by his permission make wars upon sinners
and sin and make havoc among them in this world as the devils of hell do in the next”.

Not surprising therefore that at about that time the Aztec civilization was destroyed by Spanish
conquistadors and Africa and many parts of the world seen as containing sinners were subjected to
the most cruel and inhuman plunder and decimation by the European powers. In the same vein Gorge
Bush’s “axis of evil” position hundreds of years latter fits squarely in the Aquinian doctrine. Bush
argues that the war on Iraq - weapons of mass destruction aside - was a just war because that nation
is evil. Who defines evil and by what standard is evil determined? As a result of this doctrine in
international relations it was not possible to develop or for there to evolve rules that could govern
relations between states. Similarly, because of a reversion to the same old position by the Bush
administration, the whole fabric of international law is strained to breaking point. “Evil” is a value
laden term which is highly subjective. Being a fundamentalist Moslem is interpreted as being evil by
Bush and his company whether one is a suicide bomber or not and no law therefore can restrict
regime change in any nation perceived to be evil. Such international behavior not only drags the
world backwards but also creates a very dangerous environment in which every nation and
individual takes unilateral action to redress grievances and institutionalize suicidal tendencies and
solutions even at state level like in the case of North Korea. In 1654, in his treatise, “De Jure Belli et
pacis”, Hugo Grotius”, a Dutch jurist wrote principles that were supposed to govern warfare and this
became the basis for our modern international law.

Approaches in the study of international relations

The Idealist Approach

The First World War shocked non-belligerents as well as the belligerents in so far the toll in human
and material loss were concerned. This led people to treat peace as something they should
deliberately seek and sought to engineer global society in such a way as to not only create peacefully
conditions but also prevent war. This approach was thus normative prescriptive and proactive.
Woodrow Wilson the USA president at the time and others thus pursued this logic and it resulted in
the creation of the LEAGUE OF NATIONS in 1918. The USA refused to join the league in spite of
championing it.

Tenets
- Here they assume that individuals are basically good and capable of meaningful cooperation
to promote positive change.
- Liberalism views states, nongovernmental organizations, and intergovernmental
organizations as key actors in the international system.
- States hate war
- States try to have one common good

The Realist or Rational approach

Between the two world wars thinking on international relations shifted from idealism to rationalism
or realism. This means people began to look at the actual practice of relations among states and
sought to explain their behavior rather than to change their behavior. In a way this approach was a
throwback to the classical approach. Hans Morgenthau a major proponent of this approach argued
that power and self-interest were at the heart of state behavior.

Tenets
- Realism focuses on state security and power above all else.
- It argues that states are self-interested, power-seeking rational actors, who seek to maximize
their security and chances of survival.
- Cooperation between states is a way to maximize each individual state's security (as
opposed to more idealistic reasons).
- Similarly, any act of war must be based on self-interest, rather than on idealism
- Mighty is right
- Countries cannot avoid, but they can only avoid it.
Issues in International relations
- Conflict
- Cooperation
- Competition
These are termed the three Cs of international relations. At each moment in time all nations are
relating to each other in so far as one or all of the three aspects are concerned.

Conflict
Conflict is the most pronounced element in that the state system is almost synonymous with war.
World history is the story of when and with whom nations have fought from time immemorial to date.

Cooperation
When states are not fighting each other they are cooperating in maintaining peace and in dealing
with the challenges and problems that mankind faces for example diseases such as AIDS or disasters
such as earth quakes. Cooperation is highly visible and pronounced even among nations that appear
to have no love lost between them in that the UN and many other world fora provide an avenue for
all nations to cooperate in one way or another.
Competition
Competition among or between nations exists in the form of normal trade or commerce and can
manifest itself in the form of alliances and treaties.

DIPLOMACY

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
- Define democracy
- Discuss the foreign policy of Zimbabwe after independence
- Apply the following in the context of Zimbabwe:
i) Core interests
ii) Objective interests
iii) Subjective interests
- Discuss the types and various functions of the diplomatic missions and their immunity.

Diplomacy can be defined as “the application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations
between the governments of independent states.” Formal contact between nations in the global
community takes place through the medium of diplomacy and the interaction of diplomats. Diplomats
are the emissaries or representatives of their governments in other countries and are the direct
contact between different governments. The ministries of foreign affairs in all states have the
responsibility for the deployment of diplomats and the carrying out of the foreign policy of each
respective country.
Foreign policy
Foreign policy is the position of each government on various issues on world affairs. Foreign policy is
determined by each state’s national interest. The National interest can be defined as the common
interests of all the citizens of a nation. The national interest arises from the values and aspirations
and history of a nation and these are at variance with the national interests of other nations because
of the competitive nature of interstate relations. Foreign policy objectives relate to power or
sovereignty, profit and prestige. These objectives can be classified as: a) Core interests, b) Objective
interests, and c) Subjective interests.

Core interests
These are goals for which most people are willing to pay the ultimate sacrifice and relate to self-
preservation as a nation and revolve round defending the nation and the perpetuation of a particular
social cultural and economic way of life.

Objective interests
These are permanent interests of the state irrespective of institutional changes within the state that
is even when governments come and go objective interests remain unchanged. In Zimbabwe this may
be related to our sovereignty or the right to access land by the natives of this country.

Subjective interests.
To determine whether an issue is a national interest in this instance will depend upon the values
and subjective assessment of those making a decision and the issue at stake does not relate to self-
preservation or perpetuation as a state. Example would be the decision on whether Zimbabwe
remains a member of the Commonwealth or not. It is around the interests of a state that diplomacy is
conducted. This suggests or presupposes therefore that all diplomats are conversant with the
interests of the state that they represent and will be defending and promoting.

Zimbabwean Foreign Policy

During the heyday of Soviet and American rivalry Zimbabwe’s foreign policy was unequivocally non-
aligned. This does not amount to saying Zimbabwe was a neutral state. Zimbabwe, guided by its policy
of non-alignment has from independence sought to establish close relations with states pursuing a
socialist ideology. This approach allowed Zimbabwe to articulate its national interests from a firm
ideological base.

Objective Interests in Zimbabwe’s Foreign Policy

- Preservation of national sovereignty. In pursuit of the same quit the Common wealth and
believes in the democratic right without interference from outside to self-determination.
- Being an equal and active partner in regional and international fora. Is a member of SADC,
COMESA, AU and the UN.
- A strong Pan Africanism arising from the continent’s history of slavery, colonialism neo
colonialism and the war against these three evil crimes against humanity. In pursuit of the
same fought against banditry and imperial de- stabilization in Mozambique against RENAMO
and in the DRC against imperial sponsored regime change of the Kabila administration
through Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi.
Core Interests
- That the native Zimbabwean has an inalienable right to land to own it and to share it equally with
other Zimbabweans of all races without discrimination.
Subjective Interests
- To determine the most suitable international economic relations.

The origins of diplomacy

Diplomacy is as old as human society. In Shona culture a wise saying states that “nhume/mutumwa
haana mbonje.” This statement also underlies one of the major elements of diplomacy namely the
inviolability of the diplomatic person and his possessions. Diplomacy was thus well established in
early European states as well as in all the pre-colonial Zimbabwean states.

In Europe diplomacy almost suffered a fatal blow during the Holy Roman Empire. These were the
dark ages of human civilization. It was only in the fourteenth century that transient diplomacy is
replaced with permanent embassies or missions as city-states take root in Italy. By the seventeenth
century diplomacy is governed by disjointed rules in Europe and the disputes that arose over
diplomatic precedence and protocol were such that war was always narrowly averted. In 1815 The
Congress of Vienna and the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 formalized diplomatic rules and
procedure. It was only in 1961 that eighty-one states at the Vienna Conference on Diplomatic
Intercourse and Immunities that The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations was ratified. The
document covers all aspects of diplomatic activity in terms of types of missions‟ functions and
immunities and privileges of diplomatic personnel.

Setting up diplomatic relations and missions

Diplomatic relations are established through mutual consent. It is assumed that all diplomats posted
are acceptable to the receiving state and the host state issues a document called the agreement to
indicate their acceptance of the proposed head of mission. The latter document can be withheld
without explanation. The head of mission to be becomes official after the presentation of credentials
at the ceremony where he meets the head of state of the host county and presents his letter of
credence.

Types of diplomatic missions and representation

Diplomatic representation is divided into three groups namely:
Ambassadors and Ministers; these present credentials to the hosting head of state – Charge ’de
affaires present credentials to the minister of foreign affairs of the host state.
Former British colonies‟ heads of mission are termed High commissioners and heads of mission
between non-former British colonies are termed ambassadors extraordinary and plenipotentiary.

Privileges and immunities of diplomats

All accredited diplomats are immune from criminal and civil jurisdiction in the host state and exempt
from all taxation. Diplomats are subject to the host state’s laws where they enter into private
business. Action incompatible with the status of the diplomats may lead the host state to request
their removal.
Diplomatic missions are immune from searches and any other intrusive acts by the host state.

Functions of diplomatic missions.

The major activities of diplomatic missions can be classified as a) non substantive and substantive
routine work and b) non routine work.
Non-Substantive routine functions
Attending social and ceremonial functions in the host state e.g. receptions or cocktail parties,
luncheons honor giving ceremonies, parades etc.
NB. The following are sometimes treated as consular functions; Registration of births deaths
marriages of citizens from their country residing in the host state issuing, validating and replacing
passports. Dealing with extradition cases and looking after the interests of citizens from their country
in the host state.
(Consular issues proper are not diplomatic functions although these may be carried out in the
diplomatic premises. These include, the processing and issuing of visas, certificates e.g. certificate of
origin and the facilitation of any other commercial activities.)

Substantive Routine work

This work relates mostly to reporting and intelligence gathering. Intelligence gathering is not an
official or declared function of diplomatic missions but they are never the less used extensively as
cover for these nefarious activities. Where the host state observes abnormally high and audacious
levels of espionage they demand the immediate withdrawal of such personnel and this normally
prompts retaliatory action. Reporting is normally on economic, political, military and social issues.
In certain instances, it might be necessary to engage specialized diplomats called Attaches‟ in the
areas of information military and economic affairs.

Non-Routine Functions
This function relates to negotiating. This relates to the transmission of messages and attending to
direct talks at various levels with the authorities of the host state.

NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS(NGOs)

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
- Identify major NGOs in Zimbabwe and State their functions, purposes and their relationships
with the host Government.
- analyze the role of NGOs ass lobby groups in home countries and as front organizations in host
countries.
- Assess the effect of NGOs and their contribution in development; cultural imperialism and the
dependency syndrome. Non-governmental organizations have become a major feature in
international relations for two reasons: -
 - They are used directly and indirectly by their home states as front organizations.
- Impact of their activities can be far reaching.

NGOs are formal organizations formed by private individuals for the specific purpose of articulating
concerns, raising awareness and lobbying governments for legislative or other political action and
soliciting for resources. NGOs can be classified according to their area of concern or operations
namely: -
- Developmental NGOs
- Advocacy NGOs
- Relief NGOs
Developmental NGOs are involved in raising resources human or material for use in alleviating
poverty or suffering.
Advocacy NGOs raise awareness in an existing problem and lobby governments to take specific
action to deal with that type of problems. Relief NGOs solicit for financial and material resources for
use where natural disasters and earthquakes occur.

The Impact of NGOs’ Activity in Zimbabwe

Developmental NGOs have contributed substantially in the construction of infrastructure in the rural
areas in Zimbabwe. Plan International has together with the ministry of local government been
putting up shallow and deep wells. Other organizations have been involved in the provision of
equipment, construction of clinics and dams. The work of these organizations while laudable in the
short term has produced and fostered a culture of dependence among Zimbabweans. People who
receive these handouts have no sense of ownership of the items donated and are not only reckless in
the use of donated equipment but abandon such equipment sooner rather than later. Most wells have
been abandoned in the rural areas because the pumps have broken and no one has bothered to repair
them.

Advocacy NGOs have been the most prolific in Zimbabwe. These organizations have raised awareness
on such issues as women’s rights, the girl child, human rights democracy and many other areas. These
organizations have produced less positive contribution than the other organizations. It is also these
organizations that have been used by western governments to subvert and undermine the democratic
process in Zimbabwe. These organizations have been highly disruptive of African or local culture
assuming western or foreign values to be superior over local culture.

Relief NGOs provide assistance such as food during droughts in Zimbabwe; such assistance while it
averts starvation in the short term has been extremely detrimental in long-term food security in the
country. Instead of coming up with solutions to recurring drought, people in Zimbabwe look for
external assistance. Adopting wrong grains for food worsens drought effects. Local small grains like
sorghum and millet have been safe food security reserves in the past but the use of an exotic and
foreign grain like maize not suited to our climate has produced a crisis in food security. The overall
picture or effect is that NGOs have contributed more negatively than positively to Zimbabwe’s
welfare.
Front organizations are organizations that are used as cover for some other purposes or activity.
These front organizations have been used to subvert the political process in Zimbabwe. The
Zimbabwe Democracy Trust is sponsored by white Rhodesians to create an environment that
undermines black interests and gains. MISA –Media Institute for Southern Africa promotes funds and
where necessary encourages the creation of media that is friendly to western interests. One of MISA‟s
subsidiaries, the Southern African Media Development Fund has been active in promoting media
hostile to the Zimbabwe government. The U.S. Agency for International Aid, of a USA, government
department, funds more than fifteen NGOs in Zimbabwe with the specific objective of undermining
the Zimbabwe government. The US Aid subsidiary Office of Transition Initiatives is funding a hostile
and subversive radio station SW radio advocating political uprising in Zimbabwe. The
Communication Assistance Foundation of the
Netherlands reportedly seeks to “influence policy formulation” in Zimbabwe and supports activities
of the “Zimbabwe Civil Society”, that is, groups seeking to overthrow the Zimbabwean government.
The Westminster Foundation, a United Kingdom organization has been active in supporting all
activities aimed at undermining the Zimbabwean government.

MEDIA
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit the student should be able to:
- Define Media and explain its role and functions
- analyze the following:
i.Freedom of Expression
ii.Freedom of Association within the context of Media Freedom
- Discuss and explain self-censorship of the media and compare the behavior of Zimbabwe’s
media to that of other countries
- Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing political processes
in modern politics
- Define the term “perceptions” and critically relate it to the adage “the battle is not lost on the
battlefield but in the mind”.
- Discuss and analyze the role of the media in modern welfare and trade.

Definition
Media can be defined as a channel through which one communicates. Mass media refers to the
channel through which one or a group of people communicates to a large audience. It can be print,
electronic or digital.

Roles
It plays 3 primary roles i.e. entertains, educates and informs.
Functions
The media have become one of the central elements of modern societies with some theorists calling
it the FOURTH ESTATE or fourth arm of the state, whose primarily function is to be a watchdog. The
media is the major ideological apparatus of any state. Nation states use the media to maintain peace,
order, national values, heritage as well as the sovereignty and territorial integrity.

Media and Identity

Identity: is simply our understanding of who we are. An individual may have multiple identities & at
times it leads to an identity crisis. By belonging to various communities one can have multiple
identities e.g. (A Dynamos Supporter, can be a Christian, a Polytechnic Student, a Ndebele.) However,
every nation has to promote its own uniqueness and cultural diversity from other nationalities and
cultures. Nonetheless, the greatest threat to such cultural preservation is the work of media products
(cultural products) that transcend national and geographic boundaries to cultivate western cultures
to locals in what has come to be known as cultural imperialism. Noteworthy is the glamorization of
homosexuality in the entertainment media with countries like Zimbabwe against such practices
labeled as Abusers of Human Rights. Hence, in the best interests of the preservation of local culture
& identity, nations should fight against the global media influence which is increasingly defining the
world for us. Radio channels on short- wave frequency (which has the widest reach) such as Channel
Africa & Voice of Zimbabwe try to counter that influence and promote an Afro centric ideology and
give the true African view.

Media: nation & nationalism

Nation- is a political community sharing cultural background and aspirations. The era of national
galas promoted a national togetherness and the use of national colors (e.g Zimbabwe Independence
Silver Jubilee T-shirts & flags) in supporting national causes even in sports, promotes nationalism. A
more localized programming creates a national ideology against foreign ones (e.g the 75% local
content policy in Zimbabwe, with some Muslim states totally disregarding any foreign media
content).

Freedom of Expression and self-censorship

Journalists the world over clamor for media freedom, as they claim it is one of the basic requirements
in any independent nation-state. The current Zimbabwean constitution guarantees the freedom of
Expression in section 20 (5). However, journalists have more often than not abused their freedom of
expression, leading to jeopardization of state security at times and in other instances disturbing of
peace and creating public despondency through the writing of alarmist stories. Understanding that
media messages have economic, political, social, and aesthetic purposes (e.g., to make money, to gain
power or authority over others, to present ideas about how people should think or behave, to
experiment with different kinds of symbolic forms or ideas) help us to understand why all
governments provide relative and never absolute freedom as this will inevitably lead to anarchy.

The Oxford Concise dictionary 10th edition defines anarchy as the state of disorder due to lack of
government control).The media has influence on society as a whole (e.g., influence in shaping various
governmental, social, and cultural norms; influence on the democratic process; influence on beliefs,
lifestyles, and understanding of relationships and culture; how it shapes viewer's perceptions of
reality; the various consequences in society of ideas and images in media)The media has the ability
to influence social and cultural issues (e.g., creating or promoting causes: U.N. military action, election
of political parties; use of media to achieve governmental, societal, and cultural goals)This is the
reason why the Zimbabwean government enacted laws which makes it a criminal offense to publish
falsehoods, write anything that creates public alarm and despondence or anything prejudicial to the
state, president or his office. The government of Zimbabwe also recently allowed for the self-
censorship of journalists through their self-appointed regulatory board known as the Voluntary
Media Council. It is however essential to note that the media framework cannot work in an
unregulated fraternity.

Comparing the behavior of Zimbabwean media to that of other countries

United States has the largest number of media organizations in the world however the media is
owned and controlled by a few individuals. This makes the media environment in the US to be plural
(many newspapers & TV stations) but definitely not diverse (as all the media organizations are
singing from the same hymnbook). Researchers at Sonoma State University in the US looked up the
names of the 155 people who served on the boards of directors of the eleven media companies that
dominated the U.S. media market.
Who are these 155 media elites-directors of the largest combined media news systems in the world?
They include men like: Frank Carlucci, who sits on the board of directors of Westinghouse (CBS), and
was former deputy director of the CIA and later Secretary of Defense under President Bush. This
doesn’t come as a surprise that the Bush administration like any other government in the world
desires to effectively control the media so that it perpetrates its ideologies and policies. The U.S.
media has lost its diversity and its ability to present different points of view. Instead, there is
homogeneity of news stories and the major media tend to look alike.
The media in the U.S. has created, to use Neil Postman's words, the "best entertained, least informed
society in the world." Americans are ignorant about international affairs and alienated from their
own social issues.

Assess the role of the foreign media in shaping perceptions and influencing political processes in
modern politics
The ever widening reach of the global media has created a relatively unified international view of the
world.
According to the Agenda setting theory, “the media may not be successful much of the time in telling
people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.” Bernard
C Cohen (1963). The seemingly plural global media has formed a cartel that owns newspapers,
magazines, book publishers, motion picture studios, radio and TV stations globally. Time Warner,
Walt Disney, News Corporation, Viacom and Bertelsmann control almost all global media of influence
and they are also under one controlling hand, hence all the news and entertainment enjoyed the
world over come from one controlling stake.
Realizing the power of the media in controlling the thinking of man, imperialists have hijacked and
manipulated the global media from its educative, informative and entertaining role to being the major
apparatus in the creation and perpetuation of the Anglo-American hegemony agenda globally. It
therefore doesn’t come as a surprise that a successful land reform program may be called “chaotic”,
an economy under sanctions named “mismanaged and in meltdown”, a homegrown legislation called
“draconian”, by almost if not all of these media houses who are perpetrating an ideology of their
paymasters (He who pays the piper calls the tune).
Through their ill-gotten wealth (slavery & colonialism, and other neo-colonial and imperialist
injustices they continue to commit) the imperialists promote their capitalist system as the only hope
for ailing developing economies so that through their set financial institutions (IMF, World Bank)
they continue to exploit the rich human and natural resources of African economies. Frantz Fanon
noted that “the last battle of the colonized against the colonizer will often be the fight of the colonized
against each other”. The words are very linked to the Zimbabwean scenario and relates to what other
sections of the Zimbabwean media community are doing to destroy Zimbabwe in the name of freedom
of the media. For example, the private media, which are usually anti-establishment, refer to the
sanctions that have led to the economic downturn and suffering of the ordinary Zimbabweans as
targeted and claim they are not affecting trade in the country. However, the public media in Zimbabwe
has always maintained that sanctions in Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular hurt masses
not the government in power because there is no middle class like in countries of Europe who can
effect regime change.

The role of the media in modern welfare and trade.

The building and maintenance of public support is essential in modern warfare due to the increasing
politicization of warfare, where losses and gains are measured in political rather than military terms.
And if progress cannot be demonstrated during a war, then by default one is assumed to be losing.
Thus, the adage “the battle is not lost on the battlefield but in the mind,” is very true. This explains
why the American war against terror is glamorized in Western media though it has led to the
indiscriminate killing thousands of innocent civilians which include defenseless women and children
in countries like Afghanistan and Iraq.

War on Terror has been interpreted as an assault on democracy and freedom by Islamic
fundamentalists and has been heavily criticized for the death of innocent souls the world over though
it is positively portrayed in the media. The media onslaught against Zimbabwean policies is part of
the Anglo American warfare strategy that involves the control of the minds of people and the media
support of any of their policies though they may lead to untold suffering to other people.

The third world Pan- African states, like other developed states also use their indigenous media to
counter the global media positive coverage of Anglo-American policies. With the growth of global
media, the third world countries are creating less of their culture and buying more of it from the
media, hence the continued loss of African culture. Thus, Africans in general, and Zimbabweans in
particular should work together in the fight against western ideals which are proclaimed in foreign
media.
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