582 brave BIBLIOGRAPHEIE IM Draaroee, Ls ete ria (4d Pare 104) HE Lanooney Hite des Nos Alig (arin S04). D. Butuan, Lay Collation: fice (Par 0 E-wBunes Cartan of the Ol Soke {OciordUalvnicy Pre, 198) aclines idls imeem om Oe : rium ose asa Ee re ae Pore tai lo a ed sar ee hea eT a, ca IG nt gil Tat Oa SSE nih Sind Tate tm BEEP aR, cane i iti me tears So Geel aan ne eer SD. GOITEIN ) THE RISE OF THE NEAR-EASTERN BOURGEOISIE TIN-EARLY ISLAMIC TIMES® ‘nous jaan?” atks Fernand Braddel® Its in the-very nature Of sceatife progress, that. when- such question is asked, the answers tre already in the air. The new, sociological trend in Tslamie dies was underlied by the late Profesor J. H. Kramers of Leiden in his lecture: “La Sociologie de I'slam* * at the Ttenty-second Tntersa- tional Covigzess of Orientalistsa Istanbul in September, 1951, and again, ‘with apecial empharig on the economic factors, by Professor Claude Gahen of Strasbourg at the Congrest held in Cambridge in August, 1954 * "As a matter of fact the subjects covered by the term sociology have ocupied the minds‘of Arabists for over a century. In the wake-of Frangois Golaot, HiT, Buelle and: Jacob Burekhardt, Alfred von Kremer ‘wrote his brillfint. Culturgeschichte des Orients unter’ den Chalifen', 1nd although he filled the gape in our knowledge with more elegance than accurteyy this and other books of his cannot be overlooked by the tociologist. They were echoed in the History of Muslim Cieilizaton by the able Christian Araby Jirji Zaidan, The works of the great masters of Islamic studies, Te Goldner, Ch. Snouck Hurgronje and C. A..Nal- Tino, ate mines of information for the student of sociology, while the contemporary dayens of French and British Arabst- respectively, Loui Massignon avd Sir Hamilton Gibb, in thir.aumerous publications, have N ovkne connaisons pas Fhistoize sociale de slam. La connattroas- soni oom PRE Tenn, Ve rie of te Inet ne Bediterrande ot le wionde méditerranéon 2 Ti Seater ee vets bere i it ae Batted jn Proceso the Terty Seed Congres of Oriente ta wis ani eet aslo om sea ri 9p . ‘Wma aii Cio" iona im Arie,584 0, corre paid special attention to the interplay of religious and social forces, The Pater Bf books om The Dawn, The Morning and The Noon of Islam by the late Egyptian scholar, Abmed Amin, which appeared in the thirties Sind the forties of this century, also are sociological in conception and ‘Although—2s these few outstanding examples thoyt—the sociological aspedts have wot been neglecfed by the Historians of Islam, the task i febsd at presont is one of gredter specalisation and integration. The [bundant iterary abd historical sources have to be scrutinized in close Gonnection with the results of Muslim srchaeology, epigraphy, aumis fnaties and papyzology to which also non-Muslim material has to be Nided_—cand’ tie whole has to be integrated into one coherent picture ofthe acity stedied, The late E. Lévi-Provengal's monumental Histoire de PEspogne Masulnane® and the work of some other French Arabil, fn partcular of the lamented Jean Sauvaget, are models of such tea sacnt On the othes hand, special phenomena, in particular those which Ie of great hvtorcal importance and which are atthe same time sufi- Suntly well documented, should be singled out and brought out in full Selief by detailed and, ar-far as possible, exhaustive research ‘K subject worthy of such special study isthe merchants’ class and bourgeoisie of early Islaun. This class developed slowly during the fest fhundsed and fifty years of the Muslim era, emerged into the fll light of Listory at the end of the second, became socially “admitted” during the thind and averted itself a5 most powefful socio-economic factor during the fourth. However it never became ah organised body and, a a clas, never obtained political power, although many bf-ityinembers occupied positions ar high ind highest execatives of the'state. ‘The turn {com the Feath fo the eleventh century (the Muslim fourth and fifth), which wi ieicd the apogee of the Near-Eartern Bourgeoisie, also marks the com- plete ascendancy of castes of slave soldiers, mosty of Turkish e&tracy Eom, which donlinated the history of that part of the world for the next tCgkt hundred years. At tie same tine, the monetary and mercantile caeimy of the Near-East gave way to an economy in which feudalistic frends Beeame dominant. Before all this happened, however, Islam, a "Stig and civilisation, had fully taken shape, and it was largely embers of the bourgevisie, who had developed Muslim religious law, Ubch Be che backbone and very essence of Islam, and the kindred dis- Splinee of the Traditions of the Prophet, the reading and the exegesis of tie Koran, ax well a5 of theology. "We are able to study these processes in detail, as the Maslims have eft us vast collections of biographies of their scholars and men of are geine done hired droit wanlnan (Pcs 9 ond ie erature ned tere 198 ‘REEF THR MEAR-EASTEEN ROUROEORIE 5 leters I believe, i sno exaggeration to say that, forthe tine prior to the Crusade, we posses co fewer than ten thousand blogaphies of Masling, many of wich contain details not only about their erry Betviler and connections, but also with regard to te oceupations and tconpmie potion, Much dime will be required, before thir enormous talerial can be citcaly sifted’ However, even a cusry-peral of it Trngs out to bate facts: ony how extremely specialised the economy of the Near ast was in thote days, and, secondly, tht in arly Islamic tines, twas predominantly merchants who were engeged inte deve opment ofthe religous sciences of Islam ‘No wooden, therefore, that the fllfledged religion of Islam, ax it appears tous through the wings of the hid and fourth centrin of EP Muslim er, i pervaded by fhe sprit and ideas of the rising mer hans clas. The proud conviction of being economically independent of the governing clgos, a feclingof prosperity and succey a sober and Re ie side tvarn th word sete wr come et thei colous io the new religion. Islam possesed a Law and 2 Dogma Which vindicated the avoutehighnen of God—and of His repre tee me of on nee mi of hn ath wih com ined safeguards forthe protection of the ile freed, property and thea of the Mute cen and in wich mats inner ocay wat Bchoved rough the teaching of trust inthe Allemercfl, whieh oa ‘weghed the fears ofthe Last Jugement : ‘stray, «civilisation, witch had amalgemated so masy diferent people sas lisa, eal nat be madt of gnc pce. As © Tesi Della Vida has pointed out fn Ais bilan seth “Dominant Teas in the Formation of Islamic Galle” it was the charateriie—snd, according fo him, the filue—of Moslin cillantion that i never fly integrals conflcing element Economic independence and prot erly were one way fo attain spiritual feedom apd ine: secity, There Mas another way Fenouncng the world and living the Lfe of tig poor wh id cig fn bea hy he ing oi he sin trends of Mean sscelsm amalgamated during the third century of iim i nem tnown ts Sum, Whether Sefiom sa complished way of ie, actually originated in a class lower than the Sargeois, sa. question to be diseused separately. In any cat, or . ces yeplaar ad atk a ar den e a a ERT RUA Pf eon, a ea Balad ice Qa 28 284 18a tad St nh a ae cieatng'« Wiver dase eg, Sen a Sa ic sie So recreates, eaees sp. commune although the Sea of renouncing the world was aap a srong under, tou eth reproetaive opinion during the ptid considered SETAE al ena favourable alte toward earning, amas here es sme qualifications, even towards certain asec aa ere Sag a time the mechan cass aained a scalps Sa ag lng. scat, which i secre for Iter in Bona PStowing as eigioen and socal sel-asertion ofthe SIIIES seurgeotse wil be sade in ooline 1 exis su yy net met of uty Bah sede i emi ace ee Te Tet ea Se sami akbar See ere tea Se Be te i tO el yea alee tse ens oS Sa a ee op pn oe al ce coat ne a ay at es Retr Sek vette Mek eee AON gt mn oe at He i at are Ming ea ene ch ge Bi el ltt csr ee cet melts i he aoc ag, el ioe ute ho, A Su the Ste saa i a te i an ee enh en erie Bass ot eae eo Sr ea ee at Soe ve et amine ae 17 i ae ah et te aa fh Sse St hi nm ws BE er Scat e's mma at ol mt oe ea Ot ih rates jst in 1684. Copious quotations from it in R. HL Beer Cig pe igi caniah ee pr He “Ae, Ee aap SN ea ree Sent ire ck gpaiaaans tae eae ig ie Fol ete nr er abe chest Ha Raat SS tira obec eer tes a gia fe geted inthe own ‘Soin Akin Nase, The Aitinds of nlm torr SRS. SUM Seddon ede Belardes ‘ue mise of nH NeaK-satvany povRoBOTErE sar raking money, convictions made popular by mendicant ascetics, who aight be compared to the begging friars and monks, against whom Stele ‘wrote so eloguently. As is well-known from other quarters, Muslim as- cetism of that time was tinged by Christian influences in these matters Te i remarkable that economic ethics should have formed the subject of a special treatise a5 early as the second half of the second century ‘of the Muslim era. Nor war Shaibani the only author who wrote a book. ‘On Earning. Katib Celebi, the seventeenth century Turkish bibliogsa- pher of Arabic literature, Enew of other books bearing the same title, ‘written by two authors who lived inthe third century of Islam = Abad ibn Harb Nisaburi “ (died 848) and hie pupil Ahmad ibn Yahya Hl- wani # (Gied 909). Both professed asceism and both came from north- ‘aster Tran, then, with the possible exception of Iraq, the most important business center of the Muslim world, Chapters on e¢onomi ethics were included in religious books, as we shall see Inter on. However, the most ‘common form of expressing views on the aubject—and indeed on any subjest—was, according to the atomistic and aphoristic character of the ‘Muslim mind, that of saying and maxims, attributed to the Prophet oF to one of his Companios the’ so-called Hadithe or “Traditions”. Some ofthe Traditions on economic ethic are included n the canonical eollec- tions of Hadith poblished inthe third center of the Muslim era. Many spore are seattered throughout the general iteratire of that and the following centuries, A very great number are included in later compila- tions, particularly in Soyut's Kan al~'Ummal (Hyderabad, 1894-8), in the chapter *On Commerce", which pethape deserves a fll translation into a western language © Shaibani's book On Earning quotes many such ‘yinge and is indeed the oldest extant source for most of the Traditions en economic ethics contained in it Ths, the book is representative of its time not only becaave of the personality of it author, but also because sf the source used by him. Shabani opens his book with the blunt statement—Iater on to be refuted by hir pupil Tbn Sama'a : “Seeking one's livelihood is 2 duty incumbent on every Muslim, just as the seeking of knowledge". This tatement in covtoborated firet by a number of sayings (certainly apo- ef E-Zaman, i the page gute inthe previo nate i hiogapiy te Akin a-Bucnbson, Tarik Bephded (Csi, 1981), Pea eee eee ete ee tHe fe aero ai ed or ft sh ra rie ee itr sl Are ea a de os eee ge Com as Snlage im Iam’, Mitiedenger des Seminars far" Ortntalscke ‘Sprachen, ‘Sprachen, ‘West588 5p. comme cryphal) attributed to the Prophet and secondly by an often-quoted ‘éatebce put into the mouth of the Caliph Omar I, under whom the great ‘Maslin conquests were made: “f preter dying on my eamel's saddle, while travelling on business, to beiag killed in the Holy War : has not [Allah hirlsclf mentioned thore that travel on burns before those that Fight ‘on the Path of Goa’ (. Koran, ch.73, verse 20) * Shabani then oes on to show that, beginning with Adam, all the prophets gained their Tiveliood by following some profession. Adam, was a farmet; Noah a carpenter, Abrahant a cloth merchant ™—and, as the Arabs regarded themselves as hisdesceidants (Chrough Ishmael), the Prophet recommended that they Become clots mercliants lke their forefather. David, it i true, fret lived on his revenue as king; but he soon was instructed by a heavenly apparition that living by some trade was reli- flously preferable to receiving a salary from the government and-he became an armotirer (ef. Koran $4, vv. 10-11). Here-as may be said at once—Shatbani strikes a note, which became commonplace in later Muslim Literature: namely, thatthe profession of the honest merchant, or indeed any trade, pleases God more than Govern- ‘ment service ®, But even as eafly atthe close of Ue fecond century after Muhammad's death, Shaibani was not alone in ths opinion. Thus Ton Se'd (died 845) quotes in his Tabagat a saying attributed to x hero of the battle of Kadisyys, in which the Arabs crushed the ermy of the Sasanid king : “I prefer earning one Dishem by commerce to receiving ten as my soldier's pay". We are, of cours, inno position to check the authenticity of such a saying. In the fist century of Taam, the “Ata ot foldier’s pay, formed the basic income of any Arab who emigrated from ‘Arabia (othe campstowns foundedall over the neve Muslin empire. Ie is fa historic fet that even in that early peridd some people had scruples bout the wajs of collecting the réveaue fron which the “Ata” was paid In any cate, thir and similar sayings, which praised business and’pre= ferred income from it to salary seceived from Government, must have This sccm ty be & Matin invention, Abraban'd gamez say sar aoe eviieetivet E Gimmc, he og of for {yeast Sed Vp. 8 meyer bn ole patron of eco merchant alae folgehs olg te wi tir ta fe xargs te ete neni isa Mg, Roel 45, an ie gots Thom the ae Rrra ie note ih p29, eg Sine cae of a! prot he oat ede 2 deer i tev alae id Paradio would Betame at eth tee!” 40h nore Aba HuciA the four ef Me Banahie Soa! af Envaasceenged ie he ee de BH ea he Aad ts Conran i a ed Jos age opens, We B. 8& 1AT. Of the some man i separa tant teed seeping apeitnent a Gveraneat ps iid p66. Soe athe wih rpc o a aay wile wr arm ome, ide p65 10, THC [maig Stat eed wih a peralny severe cnematon of te dt eI “THE RISE OF THE NEAR-tasTERY nowRocorste 59 ‘ben in vogue for some time before they were included in the collections of biographies or celpous law and lore tround the year 200 ofthe Shaibani is on firmer ground, when he refers to the fact that all the carly champions of Islam had been businessmen or poseesed other fources of regular income, Thos Abu Beks, the fist caliph was a cloth merclisnt, Othman, the third, a-very wel:to-do importer of cereale, efo.# He ip equally right, when he quotes a mumber of passages from the holy book of Islam, in which Ma'ash, earning one's living, or outright ly Tijara, commerce, are mentioned either as the normal occupations of the trve-believers or are even lauded a8 auch More interesting for us, however, are those passages of Shaibant work im which he justifies his opinions theoretically Of course, the ‘ltimate aim of man's life x to seve God, But in order to be able-to serve God, one needs sound body, clothes, etc, and these can be lawfully fcqiired only by work, Trust in God i a- prerequisite of the true believer, but this means only that one should work as hard as one xa aid "bargain with God” ie Yeave'ittosim to send his blessings. Once, ShaiBani reports the Caliph Omar‘save a group of pious men siting with tdowncast heads, Thee’ he was-t6ld, were the: Mutewabbilun, people trusting in 'God- and therefore sefraiuing from professing any trade. “No”, said the Caliph, making a pun, “these are the Muta'akilun” (those ‘who éat up other people's money). “You,had better lift up, your heads ind carn your own livelihood” = "A most important part of Shaibani’s book are those rections in which the deals with the question whether the true Mslim should work only ia order to keep body and soul together or. whether the acquisition of Toxuries was lawful, In view of the most extravagant Laxury in which snany'of the Muslims; even of the first Reheration, indulged, this was a ‘question which occupied the minds of everybody. Shalbani’s anewer is affirmative. As to precious clothing~the most common objectof indul- gence of the time—Shaibani quotes a saying attributed lo, the Prophet: FWhen Allah gives riches to'a man, he wants it to be seon on him ‘This in dictum sucrbéd tothe Prophet, which in a lightly different and ‘even more characteristic form is found both im the canonical collections Sp 2. See oe oe eae ee eer it STs tn Ram a ae a eter er dnd a ibid, 31. * 7 DEP590 2. comes ‘of “Traditions ® and in Tbn Sa'd's Biographies, where various heroes Uf claniealTolam quote it in order to justify their wearing of silk and Pe euit or similar Kexurious materials: This problem of luxury in per~ preat appearance was co central during the first two centuries of Islam hatin Hterally hundteds of places we read inthe old biographies about Tea candy or simple asthe age may be—atire ofthe ancient Muslims, their way of perfuming or dyeing their hair, their wearing of golden— ce foninge and jewellery, ete. The general impression left by the Se ctnal of the relevant literature on the subject is chat many ofthe ely fuel seligious men indulged in hixarious dress toa far higher degre® Mee ike religious law, which became fixed later on, deemed permissible Shanligdye ft war asked whether a man who was already married to ‘one ae several wives, did not transgress the lawful Iohit of pleasure is | his world by acquiring ne or more beautiful slavegirl (who served, ening to Muslim law, also as concubines). During the 20 years of SSrqdest tating in withthe Prophet's death, an ualimited supply f this (di is only mataral that some piout people See rotuples as to the wide ute ade of it, Not so our jurist. Shaibani #* points out that beth the Prophet and hs son-in-law, the later Caliph Ali Peet gucabines f foreign extraction in addition to their numerous weets thus tierercould-be no harm in any Muslim's following their weitbie From what T know of the pictst literature of the first five Statics Of Tslam, the Keeping of beautiful slave-girls met with lest SEfction than any other form of luxury, This attnde certainly wat one Sti reesons for the enormoat expansion df the slave-tade inthe early centuries of 5 eri scivises extravagant expenditure on-buildings was 10 widely resonted that Maalim religious itrature censured even excesive spend Tee ofmoney on mosques, This censure was incorporated inthe canon. Be tatlecitns of Teeditins of the Prophet. However, it would be 1 plctely erroseous to atribute the trend tothe distaste ofthe Bedouin Fontown Life The Arabs-who emigrated to the camp-towns were grcat Persea in oany places incibn Sods Biographies we find details about bulldet ing of houses and palaces by the early Muslims, Dislike of ne efal bulldang was'inherent in the sedentary population even before Winn excessive expenditure on synagogues was censured inthe Talmod Pee im vein se hatin which Tslam later discussed mosques, The seal Beaten for this attitude was the great suffering inflicted om the middle seartg er classes both by fofced labour and by the senseless squandering Commodity wat available an ah widest oe the faguce be Sows na man apres oo Bin" Abe aw Aik Eire 0Taml Chapter “AUN, poe. Hf Sl Tabogan pa 929,11 SEs Sone p 7 SEE SOULE op tom, e Mandi chapter D, asin 1 at he ed : vourcrorste im si tn et a lag a PT cette Coe speck ot “to ly oe ck oon the oer To oe a detec he the subj on bul of tds paca value Thu he Cali Motsvek, Psa Feeder ge slant rte oneness dikens (aver con) and 100 lions of dar nla ee a “anda BS Shcumaances i natal that Mesto regia ste chs eve ofthe mile dash hd fon th cot of har elt isla txteng even Tandab, there was aouther qcton of economic ce tohourd rcbes? Wat snot notre conflict wit Allsks command, ‘Dr manitnction to trust in God repeated so often inthe’ Holy Koran ? tthe nk iterate on he eect Told eo quote one ir whe wh was himself « mow ebaraceriac representa fc la a ‘na Ab Tay aa (ed 96 els soe ain sures of inpsaton fr Gaara (oT TLE te ent of the Saimivyn movement, which professed in adiion to eran ibs em en arama wo icra cals lc Be ie hina Poca cea aunt ro SR pesos were mae SEP Te EEA! Cee Ov om an om, tng oe a lr 4 Ua Sa at re52 sb. corny théological dogmas, the ideal of Zsihd or renouncing of the world However, thése pitt were very well-to-do people, and one has the imprest that the’ great traveller Mogaddasi, who describes them as ich ®, sect some connection between their piety and. their material fuctzs, Likewise, Abu Talib after weighing the pros and cons of living the life-of a beggar, who “manifests” his trust in God by renouncing the ‘world, and that of a successful business man, who “conceals i, gives the palm to the latter, The amatsing of capital (Iddithar in Arabic) is not in conflict with the trust in God, ifs done “for Him and in Hin ‘with the intention to serve God and to induce His favour. Serving God with one's money means of course in the first place spending it on charity, for religious foundations or purposes, for works ‘of public wilt, ete, However, the modera idea that good service rendered to one's fellow-men in busines or trade is in ise meritorious ‘was by no means foteign to the religious literature of early Isiam, “The best man is he who is the mort scful to other people", says a dictum stribated to Mohammad. This idea is expounded in more detail in an Interesting passage contained in the treatise “How to Behave Oneself towards One's Fellow-Men” by the famous mystic Sulami (041-1021), cdited recently by the Israel Oriental Society ® “When you leave your ‘house for the Bazar", nays Sula, “do so with the intention to satisfy the ‘wants of a Muslim if, in addition, you make profit, regard this as 8 favour granted to you by God and a blessing bestowed on your customer for your sake". Meticulous honesty, and even consideration and delicacy ‘were required ini business relations, which, af we have seen, were sur- Tounded with a kind of halo of scrvieé to God and men ®. Osths, Concealing of defects praising of what one wells or blaming of what one ‘buys and interfering with other people's transactions should be strictly avoided. One should never press a debtor, if hé isin strait ; one should Stick fo one's own bbligations But if ctstémer wants to cancel a cone tract, ete, one should not isis on lis Keeping it. One should inessure ssi opt Ml ae 0p 96.1.2 Le Pn i i a om arise yg Str Cie bane sedan mai memes LGrma ey wards oa ieee det i cn Seema acta way 5 Re he, Gre i cerala rt jester ie Gh teat eee ane i By eee et een eis igen HE [HIE aise OF THE NEAR-RASTERN BOURGEOISIE 208 ‘or weigh generously for others, but strictly for oneself. Clearly the people ‘whom Sulami addressed were themselves business people, and there was ‘certainly some heartsearching among them as to whethes buch a worldly profession as that of a merchant was not, Teligiouly speaking, ’ai & Shame, “When you see your fellow-sufis siting in their shops, believe they do so, becanse they have small children or poor parents to look after; when you sit in your shop, consider that whatever you give up of this world, you will win". One need not be greedy, for loses or gains are trdained by God. As a profit is thus a gift from Heaven, one should take particular care not to spoil it by iliet practices Stil atthe Arabie pun had it: At-tujjar fujjar, “The merchants are scoundrels" itis dif- Feat to do business without coming into conflict withthe exigencies of fret ethis, Therefore, Sulami advies the merchaat to atone for possible Slips by accompanying each transaction with a gift of alms for the poor 4 i" "This survey of representative opinions on the subject fom the second to the fourth century of the Muslim era has shown that early Islam 35 4 whole took a positive, or st least lenient, view of economic activities, Iuury and the amassing of capital and saw in the profession ofa trade a service to one's fellowmen not devoid of religious value. The atitude of the majority of Marling is perhaps best expressed in the saying at- tributed by Shaibani and others to the Prophet Muhammad : “Poverty ‘almost like apostasy” ©. This implies that the,true servast of God should be affluent or at least economically independent. The booths of the money-changers in the great mosque of the camp-town Kua pos- tibly were indicative of the fact that there was no necessary conflict be- toreen butiness and religion in Islam. ‘eis true, the Sufis were fully aware of the contrast The phrase _yilhag asa, “Tet Bim take up business", denotes in their language noth- ing less than giving up the Sufic way of life. Stl, the world-renousicers ‘and world-affizmers did not necessarily constitute two hostile eamps The peacefal co-existence of the two attitudes is tllingly exemplified in the sory of the pious Abu Barza al-Aslams, who never rode a horse or ‘wore silt, while his brother was the champion of the extravagant. Far rom being eriical of each other, each of them used to say of his Brother: ‘Roh the pun she advice ae abled tothe Prop. he ertre addacel by Rice, pb, secon Il nie We and Ma In Tow Sb Tadeaet Vi 2 pie he ap sey and eee itd Oy ety i ul Blan Co 0 84 pliteal change from ieolaion to an open-doo, policy ind Tis ie ee sce nei to be ibe Fart of World aed fy he Jepance Natl. Cami fr ‘Uno cept srt eee Development af Manging. ‘the members of the come are Dr Shigehs Kursots, Dr Sit Yagi, Dr Duet Suton De Teuuro Wassuy aed Dr Saie Twa1010 Coenlagia y peififeacen de Ja Mts de Ik ‘hatte’ Frente eligaus Developments Des precip dune Ln ibe Sinan: Laden Fee, 1598986 Pager ene jenn XI able pai) Pais of the Near tanern Boergeise in Bee Pattie ode ope Tho Nea a Sena eo Age: a Octane oc © “Te Cogungaltrg fOceanke Pepe dor crane pes waroiads Groge B Joatow Ch Morast 2B. Penine & D. Goitein Nato Kovohe P, Mercer ing Be Ninceen entry G5, Behe Lav karen Torcomeren ea lig XIX 1 L Zee « Here den creolopie dev Roscane . «| Ghishnen Terie dea mitage de 180. 1000 = |Z. Dafowr | « - Madera Arsie Liteatre LE ae Rca Devore Cente " G. Rlucthok Answer Dr, Baitor's Camaeat on «See Sa Relation» R. Hoops Oberratios ur eOoders Artie Literate, ike Hons , Borinee a ins pee BRaopremaatSeafieer et Catered Sea iat {La Religion lee mewvements sci day HAG Shae et Denti del Deer ale edstor de) oper du Cable ct du Prot Rade oP cdneoppanct do sees sox XV eetine ncten’h entry edicin » SSewie“Asicts er quand tenance Ge FAst corn a8 XIX “Afvcan Calta nd the Weston Tniraion sis ae fees, dures einen eres isos 0 Negro Alea ‘Matt — Volume TT Indes ev Abteor Arn A. Picanto 1G, de Valdeactone 2 Fire F Paso RM Shrek Peete Liste M.A, Keratotsew 4“. soi 18 ee conmasson normario nile 20yR UNE HITE DU DEVELOPPEMENT SCHNTIRQUE FT CULTUREL DE L-AUMANITE CAHIERS D’HISTOIRE MONDIALE JOURNAL OF WORLD HISTORY CUADERNOS DE HISTORIA MUNDIAL SOUS LA DIRECTION DE LUCIEN FEBVRE MEMORE DE LINSTITUT DE FRANCE voum 1 1956 EDITIONS DE LA BACONNIERE - NEUCHATEL,