TAKE-HOME EXAMINATION FOR ANIMAL PHISIOLOGY COURSE

Lecturer : Nurlaili Susanti, MD, M.Biomed

Rule : a. Each Student must work alone
b. The answer must written in English
c. The answer must include literature sources from books, ebooks, or article of journals
c. Task must collected no later than May, 27th 2016 via email: dr.santie@gmail.com
per class

Answer this questions appropriately !

1. Describe the anatomy and physiology of respiration in aquatic birds (ex. penguins)?
2. Describe the anatomy and physiology of respiration in aquatic mammals (ex. shark)?
3. On what conditions the fish have gas exchange by concurrent or countercurrent and
explain how the mechanism of this?
4. Are there any differences in the efficiency of gas exchange in the large birds and small
birds?
5. Explain the difference in adaptation mechanisms, both physiology and behavior, in
seawater fish and freshwater fish?
6. Describe the physiology of urine formation in the kidneys?
7. Describe the mechanism of foods fermentation in ruminants and then explain the
mechanisms of short chain fatty acids absorption produced by fermentation process?
8. Explain the role of short chain fatty acid in the regulation of glucose and fat metabolism?
9. Describe the mechanism of absorption of macronutrients in the gastrointestinal tract?
10. Describe the mechanism of macronutrient transport from the gastrointestinal tract to the
target organ?
Name : Moch. Faizul Huda
NIM : 13620010
Class : Biology A

Answer
1. Anatomy and physiology of respiration penguins :
The respiration pattern seems to indicate that recovery from dives is rapid. The
respiration rate increases only slightly after dives of less than 1 minute., but the rates
increase markedly immediately after dives of more than 1 minute. When a bird returns
from a dive it hyperventilates vigorously. At this time inhalation is throught the open
mouth and exhalation is with the mouth closed. When resting in the water, the bird
breathings is very arrhythmic and the mouth remains closed. The pattern consists of a
deep inspiration, followed by apneusis for a number of second. Expiration is a long sigh
ended by another rapid, deep inspiration. Diving is usually preceded by a few rapid
breaths and starts after what appears to be a deep inspiration. The bird were never seen to
exhale under water (Koyman, G.L. 1971)

2. Anatomy and physiology of respiration Shark :

The gills are breathing in fish, including sharks. Embriologis shark Gill slits are
growing as a result of a spate of envaginasi faaring which grows outward and met with
envaginasi from the outside. Each time the shark's mouth opened so water from the
outside going into the pharynx and then out again through the reproach of the gills.
Pristiwa out of water involves the meaning of cartilage as filament supports the gills.
Sharks have 5-7 pairs of Gill slits anterior gap couples non plus respiration called spirakel
(Jasin, 1984)
By opening and closing the mouth of the shark drove water into the mouth and
punched it out with the power (the mouth shut) through the Gill slits and spirakel. Gill is
composed of fiamen (sheets) that contains many blood vessels capillaries. Ventral aortic
blood from going through the capillaries release CO2 and oxygen binding that is soluble
in water (Jasin, 1984)
3. The arrangement of blood vessels in the fish gills are adaptations that maximize the
transfer of oxygen from water to blood. The direction of the flow of blood through the
capillaries in the lamella is a filament gills contrary to the direction of the flowing water
above the lamella. Opponents of the current flow (Contercurrent flow) it maintains the
concentration gradient remain low when O2 diffuses from the blood into the water along
the capillaries. Blood flow through capillaries Ketka lamella. The area contains more
oxygen because blood continuously skipped by the water content of his increasingly
concentrated O2. Because the exchange of current opponents, then the lamella can extract
more than 80% of the oxygen dissolved in the water that passes on it, this is done in the
same fish when concentrations of O2 in air or the environment are low. Conversely, if the
blood is flowing through the amea kapier with the same direction with the water running
above the lamella (concurrent flow), then the gills can only take at most 50% of the
oxygen dissolved in the water. When O2 diffuses from the blood into the water, the
concentration gradient will be progressively decreased its and finally no longer exists
when the number of O2 dissolved in the water and the blood is the same, and this is done
by fish when concentrations of O2 in water or their surroundings are at high
concentrations, and gills of fish do opposing flow flow flow flow se instead
(Campbell,2004).

4. On the bird, place the respiratory gas berdifusinya only occurs in the lungs. The lungs of
birds totalling a pair and is located in the chest cavity that is protected by the ribs.
Respiratory pathway in the bird originated in the nostrils. At this place, incoming air is
then forwarded on a crack in the base of the throat the pharynx which connects the
trachea. Trakeanya length in the form of a pipe-shaped cartilaginous rings, and the end of
the trachea branches into two parts, namely bronchial bronchus of left and right. In the
bronchi at the base of the trachea, there is a sirink on the inside there are creases in the
form of membranes that can vibrate. Bergetarnya membrane that gives rise to the sound.
Bronchial branching more into mesobronkus yangmerupakan secondary bronchi and can
be differentiated into ventrobronkus (in ventral part) and dorsobronkus (on the dorsal
portion). Ventrobronkus is linked to dorsobronkus, many parabronkus (100 or more)
(Fried,2005).
 The influx of oxygen-rich air to the lungs (inspiration) due to muscle contraction
antartulang ribs (interkostal) so that the rib cage moves out and the sternum moves down.
Or in other words, the birds of the air sucked by the way her chest cavity enlarges so that
air pressure inside the chest cavity become smaller, which resulted in the entry of outside
air. Outside air that enters a small fraction stayed in the lungs and the vast majority will
be forwarded to the coffers of Eve as a backup (Sloane,2003).
On a bird's lungs, oxygen spread from the air into the blood capillaries & carbon
dioxide from the blood to the capillaries. This transfer is very efficient in birds for many
reasons. First, a complex arrangement of air and blood capillaries in the lungs of birds
creates a large surface area in which gas can spread. The surface area available for the
Exchange varies with the size of the bird (Fried,2005).
Another reason why the gas exchange in the respiratory system of birds is so
efficient is that the blood-gas barrier in which the gases are spread very thin. This is
important because the amount of gas spread across this barrier is inversely proportional to
its thickness. Blood-gas barrier in the thinnest bird. Blood-gas barrier thin better on birds
and mammals due to an endothermic use oxygen at a higher rate than ectotherms such as
amphibians and reptiles. Among the birds, the thickness of the blood-gas barrier varies,
with smaller birds generally have the blood-gas barrier thin from larger birds
(Schmidt,1990)
The factors that determine the speed of eisiensi and diffusion of gases through the
membranes of the lungs of birds are as follows (Schmidt,1990):
 The greater the pressure difference on the membrane faster speed of diffusion.
 The greater the lung membrane area the greater the quantity of gas that diffuses
across the membrane in a certain time.
 The thin membranes, faster diffusion of gases through the membrane to the
opposite.

5. In nature there are two kinds of waters of different levels of salts, namely marine and
fresh waters. Sea water has a higher salt levels than fresh water. Fish that live in sea water
and fresh water each have ways of adaptation. Sea water fish can not survive if
transferred to fresh water, and vice versa.
 Sea-water fish have bodily fluids containing salt lower than the levels of salt in the
environment. The fish adapt to the way of always drinking and removing the urine very
little. It aims to keep the amount of fluid that is in the cells of his body. Salt that came in
with the water will be ejected through the gills actively. The osmosis pressure body cells
freshwater fish is higher than the pressure of the water in osmosis environment, because
the levels of salt in the body's cells freshwater fish is higher than the levels of salt water
environment. According to the laws of osmosis, solutions will move from a pressurized
low osmosis to osmosis high pressure solution. With so much water that goes into the
body of the fish through the cells of the body of the fish. To keep the fluids his body stay
balanced, the fish adapt to the way a little drinking and luarkan adopting a lot of urine
(Wulangi,1993).
The following table is the difference between the fresh water fish and sea water:
Sea Water Characteristics of adaptation Fresh Water Fish
Sedikit Spending on urine Many
Pointed The urine excreted Dilute
Many Drink water Sedikit
Lower than in Higher than in
Cell osmosis pressure body fish
sea water fresh water
Thicker The walls of the body's cells Thinner

6. The process of the formation of urine in the kidneys there are 4 stages, namely:
 Filtrasi
When blood flows through the glomerulus, plasma protein-free filtered
through the capillaries of the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule. Under normal
circumstances, 20% of the plasma enters the glomerulus filtered. This process,
known as the glomerulus filtration, is the first step in the formation of urine. In
average, 125 ml of the glomerulus filtrate (liquid difiltrasi) formed collectively
from the entire glomerulus per minute. This amount is equal to 180 liters (about
47.5 gallons) per day. Taking into account that the volume of plasma rerara in
adults is 2.75 litre, then this means that the kidneys filter the entire volume of the
 plasma of about 65 times a day. If all difiltrasi out as urine, plasma will be all the
urine in less than half an hour! However, this did not happen because of the kidney
tubule and capillary peritubulus closely associated throughout its length, so that the
materials can be exchanged between the fluid in the tubules and the blood in the
capillaries peritubulus (Sherwood, 2011).
The Glomerulus Filtrate Composition. The glomerulus filtrate have
compositions that are almost exactly the same as the composition of the fluid that
oozes from the tip of the arterial capillaries into the interstitial fluid. Does not
contain erythrocytes and contains only about 0.03 percent protein, or about 1/200 of
the protein in the plasma. Electrolyte and the composition of the other solut
glomelurus filtrate is also similar to the ones found in the interstitial fluid
(Guyton,1990).
In the primary urine produced through the glomerulus filtration plasma. The
primary urine is isotonic fluid against plasma. The pores that are traversed by the
plasma, has a midline effective average approximately 2.9 nm. This allows the
entire plasma components with molecular weights of up to approximately 5 kDa
can pore through without a hitch. With increasing molecular weight, the molecule
will be withheld, but first a molecule with an M > 65 kDa can no longer enter into
the primary urine. Because blood proteins generally have suati M > 54 kDa protein-
protein, then the blood is only found in a very little amount in urine (Guyton,1990).
 Reabsorpsi
When the filtrate flow melaiui tubules, ingredients that are beneficial to the
body returned to capillary plasma peritubulus. Selective displacement of materials
from the inside of the tubules (the lumen of the tubule) into the blood is called a
tubule reabsorption. Materials that direabsorpsi did not come out of the body
through the urine but carried by capillary venous system to peritubulus and then to
the heart for diresirkulasi. From 180 liters of plasma filtered per day, approximately
direabsorpsi litres 178.5. The remaining 1.5 iiter in tubules flowed into the pelvis of
the kidney to be expelled as urine. In General, the materials that need to be saved
by the body selectively direabsorpsi, while materials that are not needed and should
remain in the urine (Sherwood, 2011).
 Reabsorbsi play a role that is much more important than the secretion in
formation of urina. But the secretion is crucial in determining the amount of
potassium ions, hydrogen ions, and some other substances in urina. Typically, more
than 99% of the water in the direabsobsi glomerulus filtrate when flowing through
the tubules. Therefore, if an element dissolved in the filtrate is glomelurus not
direabsorbsi at all the whole way tubules. Rebsorbsi water is of course memekatkan
the substance is more than 99 times. Instead, some elements such as glucose and
amino acids, almost entirely direabsorbsi so their concentrations decreased nearly to
zero before the fluid this way urina kidney tubules separate substances that must be
removed in the urina (Guyton,1990).
 Sekresi
Third, renal secretion process of the tubules, is a selective removal of material
from the kapilel peritubulus into the lumen of the tubule. This process is the second
route for the entry of material into the renal tubules from blood, whereas the first is
through the glomerulus filtration. Only about 20% of the plasma flow capillary
melaiui glomerulus difiltrasi into Bowman's capsule; the remaining 80% flowing
through the arterioles, efferent pathways into capillaries peritubulus. Secretion of
tubules is a mechanism for removing the material from the plasma quickly by
extracting a number of certain materials from 80% of the plasma terfiltrasi in
capillary peritubulus and move it to the existing material in the tubules as a result of
filtration (Sherwood, 2011).
 Ekskresi
Urinary excretion is spending on materials from the body into the urine. This
is not a separate process but is the result of three processes first above. All
constituent plasma terfiltrasi or secreted but not direabsorpsi will remain in the
tubules and renal pelvis to drain into the excreted as urine and removed from the
body. All the difiltrasi and then direabsorpsi, difiltrasi or not at all, get into the
blood capillary of vein (Sherwood, 2011).

7. Livestock ruminant digestive systems with different livestock non ruminants, where more
complex digestive system. Ruminant livestock has an actual stomach and anatomy is
divided into three parts namely rumen, omasum and endoplasmic. After the birth, rumen,
omasum and endoplasmic continues to grow until it actually works. On the Lamb stage
transition starts at age 3 weeks and ends at 9 weeks. 42 while in this phase of the calf
begins at the age of 5 weeks and ends at the age of 12 weeks. The arrangement of the
tools the ruminant livestock digestion is the mouth, esophageal, rumen, omasum,
abomasums, endoplasmic, intestine, colon, colon rectum (Dilaga,1992)
Farmed ruminants to chew pakannya by mixing a number of water in its saliva
that is produced by glands saliva. Sheep and pig saliva secreted with the speed of 10-15
liters per day and at 75 cows – 100 liters per day. This secretion is influenced by the
physical form of the feed, the content of the dry ingredients, the volume of the liquid
contents of the stomach and psychological stimulation. Other capabilities of the ruminant
livestock is restore pakannya from retikulo-rumen into the mouth (regurgitation) to
dimamah/chewed again. This process is called ruminansi. Parts of the feed from the front
(anterior) Chamber rumen, because power is the vacuum/vacuum is pulled back to
esophageal and mouth, part liquid immediately swallowed up again while the rough
(bolus) chewed reset prior to put it back in the rumen. Experts have found that bolus
chewed repeated 40 to 50 times before it is swallowed. Next to the time needed in the
process, according to some experts that the cows grazing time to 8 hours and 8 hours to
ruminansi (Dilaga,1992).
Retikulo rumen fluid contains bacteria and protozoa. The bacterial concentration
was approximately 109 each fwb cc, while the number of rumen protozoa vary
approximately 105 to 106 per cc. Types of bacteria in the rumen is presented in the
following table:
The major products
Species Source Of Energy
of fermentation
Glukosa, selulosa, Asetat, suksinat,
Bacteroides succinogenes selebiosa, pati format
Asetat, laktat,
Ruminococcus albus Glukosa, selulosa format
Etanol, CO2H2
Ruminococcus flavivacilus Glukosa, relulosa Asetat, suksinat
 Xylan Format, H2
Asetat, butirat,
Butyrivibrion fibrisolvans Glukosa, selulosa laktat
Format, CO2, H2,
Xylan, pati etanol
Glukosa, xylan, Asetat, propionat,
Bateroides ruminicola pati suksinat
Format
Asetat, suksinat,
Bateroides amylophilus Pati, maltose format
Asetat, propionat,
Selenomonus ruminantium Glukosa, pati, laktat
Laktat, gliserol,
suksinat Format, CO2
Streptococcus bovis Glukosa, pati Laktat
Glukosa, pati, Asetat, laktat,
Lachnospira pectin format
Etanol, CO2, H2
Asetat, suksinat,
Succinivibrio Glukosa, dekstrin format
Glukosa, glycerol, Asetat, propionat,
Peptostreptococcus elsdenii laktat butirat
CO2, H2, Asam
kaproat
Vibrio spesies (lipolitik) Gliserol Propionat
Methanobacterium
ruminantium Format, H2 Metana

Sumber : Arora (1989)

 More important microbial digestion occurs on the ruminant livestock, which have
the ability to digest fibrous feed material rough high on rumennya. Livestock ruminant
digestion, enzymatic digestion, preceded the microbial otherwise on herbivores (horses),
microbial fermentation occurs in the posterior part of the digestive tract (Arora,1989)
Ruminant feed containing cellulose, hemicellulose, starch and carbohydrates
obtained from plants. Digestion of cellulose and hemicellulose by every species of cattle
among the substances that produce energy not aided by enzymes of the body of livestock.
Digestion of carbohydrates is dependent on symbiotic microorganisms enzymes that
inhibit one or many parts of the digestive tract. The end result of digestion cellulose and
hemicellulose are fatty acids and gases. Most of the rations there is still a residue of the
part that is not digested or not diabsorbsi, the remaining mikroflora and or the results of
the followup of the metabolism of intermedier (e.g. calcium and iron) are normally not
found in feces, but finally found in the cecum and colon. Here the organic component of
fermentation stool BLOB experience to a degree that terganung on the nature of rations
and species of livestock (Thivend,1979).

Short chain fatty acid metabolism (VFA)

A heart that gives various carbohydrate metabolites into blood, none of the portal in
the form of glucose as ruminants. Acetate in large numbers leaving the heart goes into the
blood stream. Only VFA (acetate) obtained in large enough quantities in the Peripheral
circulation. Acetate Acetyl CoA into difosforilasi and get into a cycle of TCA. He needs a
high energy compound 2 in order to become active and produce ATP molecules on
oksidasinya 12 (3 NADH, 1 FADH, 1 of ATP). Therefore, there is a net increase of 10
ATP per molecule of acetic acid is absorbed. Acetate can also be used directly to
synthesise milk fat, especially the short-chain acids (Dilaga,1992).
Propionic acid is largely removed from the blood by the liver portal that will
convert it into glucose. In fact, this is a source of propionate glucose for ruminants and in
dairy cow produces 40 kg per day, has been diestimasikan donated as much as 60% of the
required. Propionate is converted into glucose, first got into the cycle of TCA as suksinil
– CoA in the following way, it requires high berenegi compounds 3 and involved 2
vitamins namely Biotin and vitamin B12. If the reaction of the oksaloasetat –
 fosfoenolpyruvat irreversible, then Suksinil CoA must go beyond this reaction in a
manner directly to Fosfoenolpyruvat and get to the glucose. Because oksaloasetat cannot
pass through the membrane of the mitochondria, while Malic Suksinil be, then CoA
would be converted to Malic comes out to penetrate the membrane and then modified
again became oksaloasetat and later became Fosfoenolpyruvat. Fosfoenolpyruvat then
move in contrast to Glycolysis to produce glucose. If it is converted to glucose and
propionate thereafter CO and H O there will be a net increase of 17 ATP per molecule of
glucose per 34 or equivalent (C6). It is different with the result of glukosanya own 36
ATP. Butyric acid is absorbed as objects ketone (Ketone body) are ultimately
metabolized as Acetyl CoA –. Clean production of ATP is 25 per butyric molecules
(Dilaga,1992).

8. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) are absorbed directly on the place of production and may
also be metabolized in intestinal parts anywhere. SCFA is absorbed is used for
maintenance, growth, activity and lipogenesis. SCFA by activation in enzimatis is by the
formation of acyl-CoA, among others, acetyl CoA, CoA-propyonil and butyril-CoA
which is an important factor that regulates the absorption of SCFA by the tissues of the
body (Wolpert,2011).
According to Marsman and Mc Burney (1995) the existence of SCFA production of
food fibre fermentation causing "luminal SCFA infusion", as well as increased mass and
the proliferation of colonic. SCFA affect epithelial transport koton (colon), "colonocyte"
metabolism, growth and diferensiasinya, control the day of fat and carbohydrates,
increases the energy supply of the muscles, kidneys, brain and heart. In addition SCFA
was instrumental in setting the "ulcerative colitis", "diversion colitis", as well as "in
enteral feeding". Short chain fatty acids (SCFA) can lower the pH of the colon so that
capable of balancing mikroflora in the intestine. Diabsorbsi and SCFA metabolized by
different paths. SCFA being absorbed in the form of the acid is not terdisosiasi (non ionic
diffusion) or in the form of sodium and potassium salts of SCFA (ionic diffusion). SCFA
that diabsorbsi will be used for the maintenance, growth and lipogenesis (Dilaga,1992).
SCFA contributes to the effect of the drop in cholesterol. SCFA work on
metabolism of liver glucose or cholesterol synthesis depends on the ratio of acetate and
 propionate in blood pemburuh porta. Acetate and propionate first reaches the liver, so the
effect on the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Acetic acid is metabolized in the liver
and diabsorbsi, muscle, brain tissue. Propionic acid metabolized in the liver as well as
being able to lower their cholesterol synthesis. Butyric acid metabolized in colonic
epithelial cells, as a regulator of cell growth so it can be said to be a component that plays
a role in the maintenance of the mucosa and cells capable of inhibiting tumor cell
poliferasi (Wolpert, 2011).
Butyric Fat acids in the cecum and colon is higher when the substrate in the form
of food than the fiber substrate without fiber. Butyric used as an energy source by the
colonic epithelial cells. Other than as a source of energy, capable of binding the toxin
compounds butyric in the colon so it can serve as the anti-carcinogenic compounds
(Cummings, 1981). Colonic SCFA stimulates blood flow, fluid and electrolyte
absorption. Butyric substrates preferred by colonocytes and shows an increase in the
normal Phenotype in cell (Dilaga,1992).

9. The absorption (Absorption) is a very complex process and uses four ways that is
facilitative, passive, active, and phagocytosis or pinocytosis,, and as for the mechanism is
as follows (Sloane,2003):
 Passive Absorption
The absorption of nutrients occurs when the passive diabsorbsi without using
any transport (carrier) or energy. This happens when the concentration of nutrients
in the channel more cell tinggidaripada cerna mengabsorbsi. This concentration
difference that encourages passive absorption through the cell membrane that can
absorb the nutrients. The absorption process is similar to the process of osmosis.
Only a small part in the absorption of nutrients in the water, namely fasif and some
minerals.
 Facilitative Absorption
Plural form of facilitative use transport proteins (intergral) to move nutrients
from the channel to the cell mengabsorpsi cerna. plural form of facilitative requires
no energy. In the sni absorsi also occur due to a difference in konsertasi. Plural
form of facilitative done for fructose.
  Active absorption
Active absorption using protein transport and requires energy. Galactose,
glucose, amino acids, potassium, magnesium, phosphates, iodide, calcium, and iron
in absorption actively. Some nutrients may use the same transport, so that competed
for in absorption. As a source of energy is ATP. Energy can be actively
memompakan compound in question into the villi memeindahkan solution so that it
can concentrate low to highly concentrated solution. Example tools for iron
transport protein is transvering and for vitamin A retinol binding protein.
 Phagocytosis or pinocytosis
Phagocytosis or pinocytosis is a way of absorption where the membrane
epithelial selsel ingest substances that will be in the plural. In this way can be a big
grain, such as absorption of proteins intact. The influx of foreign proteins via
channel cerna into circulation which may cause allergic reactions in the cause by
phagocytosis.

10. Makronutrient transport Mechanism from the digestive tract into target cells through two
way is as follows (Fried,2005):
 System Vaskuler
Blood is carried to the digestive system by arteries, which later branched into
capillaries and into all cells. Blood leaving the digestive system through a vein into
the heart. This forked back into venous capillaries and into all the cells of the liver.
The blood leaves the heart through the veins and back to the heart. From the heart
of memlui artery to capillaries (in channel cerna) into a vein, kekapiler (in the liver)
into the veins of the heart. The liver acts as the main organ for pursuing the
metabolism of nutritional substances. In the hearts of the substances brought in
cerna in sort, which is dangerous in extinct
 System Limfa
The ingredients of cerna goes into lymph vessels (fats form a large and fat
soluble vitamins) through the villi in the end entered the circulatory system and
circulated through the arteries, capillaries and veins such as the only other
nutritional substances, however without first getting into the liver. After being on
vascular system, nutritional substances can walk freely into any cells for use as
where it should be.
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