Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lesson1 2
Lesson1 2
CELL is described:
PROKARYOTIC
EUKARYOTIC
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
NO organelles cytoplasm
ribosomes
PROKARYOTIC VS EUKARYOTIC
PLASMA MEMBRANE
structural barrier separating the cell from the outside environment; with protective
and regulatory functions
CELL MEMBRANE
CYTOPLASM
space in the cell where most cellular activities take place --- “factory area”
contains an intracellular matrix called cytosol where all other cellular components
are suspended
organelles --- membrane-bound structures in eukaryotic cells
inclusions --- non-permanent and inactive substances/materials in the cell (i.e. fat
globules, crystals)
“blueprint” of an organism
carries all the information necessary for the growth, development and survival of an
organism
Ribosomes
small non-membrane bound structures that act as sites for protein synthesis
in the cell
PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
LIPIDS
Organic compounds
Fats + Oils
Non-polar
Insoluble in water or (Not attracted to water)
PHOSPHATE HEAD
LESSON 1
Polar
Water-soluble or (Attracted to water)
PROKARYOTIC CELL
1. CAPSULE
a sticky outer layer that provides protection
2. CELL WALL
a structure that confers rigidity and shape to the cell
3. PLASMID
A genetic material
Extra chromosomal ring of DNA
4. NUCLEOID
A DNA-containing region within the cytoplasm
5. PILUS (phili)
A hair-like appendage that functions in adhesion
6. FLAGELLUM
Facilitates movement of bacteria
NUCLEUS
structure
double-membraned structure with nuclear pores that connect the nuclear
components to the cytoplasm
control center of the cell
function
directs RNA and protein synthesis
stores the genetic information (DNA)
NUCLEOLUS
structure
spherical organelle within the nucleus
function
assembles ribosomes
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
LESSON 1
structure
network of internal membranes (endomembrane system)
divided into 2 regions:
ROUGH ER --- with ribosomes
fxn: protein synthesis
SMOOTH ER --- w/out ribosomes
fxn: lipid synthesis, regulates calcium levels
function
compartmentalizes the cell creating a greater surface area for cellular processes
to proceed
serves in the transport of cellular products via the formation of vesicles
GOLGI BODIES
structure
stacks of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
cis face --- accepts incoming transport vesicles from the ER
trans face --- releases secretory vesicles containing the finished product
function
modifies and packages cellular products
LYSOSOME
structure
small spherical bodies containing digestive or acidic hydrolytic enzymes
function
digests macromolecules, cellular debris, old organelles and foreign substances
PEROXISOME
structure
small spherical bodies containing oxidase enzymes
function
neutralizes toxic substances
breaks down fatty acids
VESICLES
structure
membrane-bound sacs
function
store and transport substances
VACUOLE
LESSON 1
structure
membrane-bound sacs
in animals, there are many but small in size
in plants, there is only one but big central vacuole
function
store water, enzymes, pigments, waste products
MITOCHONDRION
structure
hotdog-shaped structure with smooth outer membrane, folded inner membrane
and many respiratory enzymes
intermembrane space separates the outer and inner membranes
folds of the inner membrane are called cristae
matrix is the space within the inner membrane
have small amount of dna
function
produces ATP (aerobic respiration)
CHLOROPLAST
structure
double-membraned, green oval structure with stacks of sac-like structures within
thylakoid refers to the sac-like structure containing pigments such as chlorophyll
and carotenoids
thylakoids stack together to form a granum
function
facilitate food production in photosynthetic organisms
CYTOSKELETON
structure
network of protein filaments including microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
microtubules
cilia and flagella --- motility
centriole --- anchor and assemble spindle fibers in animal mitosis
function
provides structural support and movement (in some) to the cell
ENZYME
LESSON 1
Enzymes are proteins that help speed up chemical reactions in our bodies. Enzymes
are essential for digestion, liver function and much more.
Catalyze all kinds of chemical reactions that are involved in growth, blood
coagulation, healing, diseases, breathing, digestion, reproduction, and many other
biological activities.
CELL WALL
structure
rigid structure in plants and members of the kingdom fungi made up of cellulose
or chitin, respectively
function
provides structural support to the cell
CELL MODIFICATION
MICROVILLI
Increase the surface area and secrete substances “shaggy hairs”; finger-like
extensions of the plasma membrane function in absorption of nutrients.
NERVE CELLS
Which are elongated, facilitate the transmission of impulses from the brain and
the spinal cord to the different parts of the body.
Have a biconcave disc shape and are highly deformable. This allow for easy
movement through blood vessels. Has 2-3 Micrometer.
SPERM CELLS
Have tail, flagellum which propels it toward the egg cell for fertilization.
CILIA
Hair like projections on the cell surface; move in a wave like manner to move
substances along the cell’s surface.
CELL-CELL JUNCTIONS
LESSON 1
The points where two cells come together. Through the cell junctions, the cells
are joined in long term associations, forming tissues and organs.
Trivia:
People with sickle cell disease have abnormal hemoglobin genes. This causes their red blood
cells to assume a sickle shape. Sickle-shaped red blood cells are not flexible, and thus, they
stick to vessel walls resulting in abnormal blood flow. This then impedes the delivery of
oxygen to the tissues, greatly affecting the health of patients.
ROUGH ER CYTOSKELETON
GOLGI APPARATUS
VACUOLES and VESICLES
MITOCHONDRIA
CHLOROPLASTA and other plastids
LYSOSOMES
PERIXOSOMES
ENERGY
- In physics, energy is the property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform
work on, or to heat the object. It can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed.
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE (ATP)
- It is the major energy currency of the cell that provides the energy for most of the energy-
consuming activities of the cell. The ATP regulates many biochemical pathways.
Mechanism: when the third phosphate group of ATP is removed by hydrolysis, a substantial
amount of free energy is released.
ATP HYDROLYSIS
- ATP hydrolysis is the final link between the energy derived from food or sunlight and useful
work such as muscle contraction, the establishment of electrochemical gradients across
membranes, and biosynthetic processes necessary to maintain life.
- Hundreds of reactions in the cell from metabolic transformations to signaling events are
coupled to the hydrolysis (literally meaning “water loosening”) of ATP by water.
- The reaction ATP + H2O ADP + Pi transforms Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) into
Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and Inorganic Phosphate (Pi).
CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
THE FORWARD ARROW
When reaction proceeds in forward direction
DOUBLE ARROW
When reaction is reversible, meaning same products can be used to get the reactant
back
THE EQUILIBRIUM ARROW
When a reversible reaction is at equilibrium
SYNTHESIS OF ATP
CONSUMPTION OF ATP
EXTRACELLULAR ATP
In mammals, ATP also functions outside of cells. ATP is released in the following examples:
Mitochondria and Chloroplasts display similarities with bacteria that led to the
endosymbiont theory
This theory states that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non
photosynthetic prokaryotic cell
Eventually, the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell in which it was
enclosed, becoming an endosymbiont (a cell living in another cell)
Indeed, over the course of evolution, the host cell and its endosymbiont merged cells into a
single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion.
LESSON 1
At least one of these cells may have then taken up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming
the ancestor of eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts.
First, rather than being bounded by a single membrane like organelles of the
endomembrane system, mitochondria and typical chloroplast have two membranes
surrounding them. (Chloroplasts also have an internal system of membranous sacs)
There is evidence that the ancestral engulfed prokaryotes had two outer membranes, which
became the doubled membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Second, like prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes, as well as
multiple circular DNA molecules associated with their inner membranes.
Third, also consistent with their probable evolutionary origins as cells, mitochondria and
chloroplast are autonomous (somewhat independent) organelles that grow and reproduce
within the cell.
Singular, mitochondrion
Mitochondria are the sites as cellular respiration, the metabolic process that uses oxygen to
drive the generation of ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels.
The mitochondria are oval shaped organelles found in most eukaryotic cells.
They are considered to be the powerhouse of the cell.
As the site of cellular respiration, mitochondria serve to transform molecules such as glucose
into energy molecules known as adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
ATP fuels cellular processes by breaking its high energy chemical bonds.
Mitochondria are most plentiful in cells that require significant amounts of energy to
function, such as liver and muscle cells
Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells, including those of plants, animals,
fungi, and most unicellular eukaryote.
Some cells have a single large mitochondrion, but more often a cell has hundreds or even
thousands of mitochondria, the number correlatives with the cell level of metabolic activity.
For example, cells that move or contract have proportionally more mitochondria per volume
than less active cells.
Each of the two membranes enclosing the mitochondrion is a phospholipid bilayer with a
unique collection of embedded proteins.
The mitochondrion has two membranes that are similar in composition to the cell membrane:
Has many protein-based pores that are big enough to allow the passage of ions and
molecules as large as a small protein
INNER MEMBRANE – folds inwards (called cristae) to increase surfaces for cellular
metabolism. It contains ribosomes and the DNA of the mitochondria.
Has restricted permeability like the plasma membrane
Is loaded with proteins involved in electron transport and ATP synthesis
Surrounds the mitochondrial matrix, where the citric acid cycle produces the
electrons that travel from one protein complex to the next in the inner membrane.
At the end of this electron transport chain, the final electron acceptor is oxygen, and
this ultimately forms water (H2O). at the same time, the electron transport chain
produces ATP in a process called oxidative phosphorylation.
The inner membrane creates two enclosed spaces within mitochondria:
Intermembrane space between the outer membrane and the inner membrane;
and
Matrix that is enclosed within the inner membrane
Chloroplasts, which are found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis.
This process converts solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunlight and using it to
drive synthesis of organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water.
The word chloroplast is derived from the Greek word chloros which means ‘green’ and
plastes which means ‘the one who forms’
Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles and are the sites of photosynthesis.
The chloroplast has a system of three membranes: the outer membrane, inner membrane
and the thylakoid system.
OUTER MEMBRANE – this is a semi-porous and is permeable to small molecules and ions
which diffuse easily. The outer membrane is not permeable to larger proteins
INTERMEMBRANE SPACE – this is usually a thin intermembrane space about 10-20
nanometers and is presented between the outer and inner membrane of the chloroplast.
INNER MEMBRANE – the inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a border to the stroma.
It regulates passage of materials in and out of the chloroplast. In addition to the regulation
activity, fatty acids, lipids, and carotenoids are synthesized in the inner chloroplast
membrane.
STROMA – this is an alkaline aqueous fluid that is protein-rich and is present within the inne
membrane of the chloroplast. It is the space outside the thylakoid space. The chloroplast
LESSON 1
DNA, chloroplast ribosomes, thylakoid system, starch granules, and other proteins are found
floating around the stroma.
THYLAKOID SYSTEM – it is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of membranous
sacks called thylakoids. Thylakoids are small sacks that are interconnected. The
membranes of these thylakoids are the sites for the light reactions of the photosynthesis
to take place. The chlorophyll is found in the thylakoids. The thylakoids are arranged in
stacks known as grana. Each granum contains around 10-20 thylakoids.
The word thylakoid derives from the Greek word thylakos which means ‘sack’.
Important protein complexes which carry out the light reaction of photosynthesis
are embedded in the membranes of thylakoids
The photosystem I and the photosystem II are complexes that harvest light with
chlorophyll and carotenoids. They absorb the light energy and use it to energize the
electrons.
The molecules present in the thylakoid membrane use the electrons that are
energized to pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid space. This decreases the pH
and causes it to become acidic in nature.
A large protein complex known as the ATP synthase controls the concentration
gradient of the hydrogen ions in the thylakoid space to generate ATP energy. The
hydrogen ions flow back into the stroma.
o GRANAL THYLAKOIDS
Arranged in the grana
These circular discs that are about 300-600 nanometers in diameter
Contains only photosystem II protein complex
This allows them to stack tightly and form many granal layers with granal
membrane
This structure increases stability and surface area for the capture of light
o STROMAL THYLAKOIDS
Are in contact with the stroma and are in the form of helicoid sheets
The Photosystem I and ATP synthase protein complexes are present in the
stroma
These protein complexes act as spacers between the sheets of stromal
thylakoids
CHLOROPLASTS
PLASTIDS
Flavonoids Anthocyanins, aurones, Produce many colors in flowers. Yellow, red, blue,
chalcones, flavonols, and Common in plants such as berries, purple
proanthocyanidins eggplants, and citrus fruits.
Present in certain teas, wine and
chocolate.