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Large For Gestational Age Newborn - UpToDate
Large For Gestational Age Newborn - UpToDate
Large For Gestational Age Newborn - UpToDate
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Literature review current through: Aug 2022. | This topic last updated: Aug 10, 2021.
INTRODUCTION
Infants who are born large for gestational age (LGA), especially full-term or post-term
infants, are at risk for perinatal morbidity and potentially long-term metabolic complications.
DEFINITION
In general, LGA is defined as a birth weight (BW) greater than the 90th percentile for age.
However, it has been suggested that the definition be restricted to infants with BW greater
than the 97th percentile (2 standard deviations above the mean), as this more accurately
describes infants who are at greatest risk for perinatal morbidity and mortality ( figure 1)
[1,2]. Using a national reference based on single live births in the United States, infants born
at 40 weeks gestation at the 90th percentile had BW greater than 4000 g, and those at the
97th percentile had BW greater than 4400 g [3].
A grading system for macrosomia has been proposed based on BW (see "Fetal macrosomia",
section on 'Definition'):
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Term infants who are appropriate for gestational age have BW between 2500 and 3999 g.
INCIDENCE
Among term liveborn infants in the United States born in 2008, the incidence of LGA based
on the above grades of macrosomia is 6.6, 0.9, and 0.1 percent for BW of 4000 to 4499 g,
4500 to 4999 g, and >5000 g, respectively [4]. The birth rates for all three grades of LGA have
declined in the United States from 1990 to 2008 [4]. However, in other countries (eg, Sweden
and Australia), the reported incidence of LGA births has increased [5,6]. In these countries,
the rise in proportion of neonates born LGA was thought to be due to a decreased exposure
to prenatal smoking, increases in maternal age and weight, and gestational diabetes.
Although the mechanisms that control fetal weight gain and growth are poorly understood,
excessive fetal growth appears to be due to increased delivery of nutrients to the fetus,
which is influenced/caused by genetic factors and intrauterine environmental factors, or a
combination of the two.
• Familial trait – Mothers who were LGA are more likely to deliver an LGA infant than
mothers who were appropriate for gestational age.
● Epigenetic factors – Limited data suggest that placental epigenetic alterations may
contribute to increased fetal growth [8-11].
Genetic factors
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Race and ethnicity — Racial and ethnic factors influence birth weight (BW). In a study from
the United States that included all term, singleton live births from 1995 to 1997, mothers
who were White, American Indian, or Samoan were disproportionately overrepresented in
the group with LGA offspring [2]. In another report of mothers with gestational diabetes,
macrosomia occurred significantly more often in Latino than in Black infants (50 versus 19
percent) [12].
Maternal factors
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Other factors — Other factors that are associated with the birth of LGA infants include
multiparity, advanced maternal age, post-term pregnancy, male infant, birth of a previous
LGA infant, and maternal BW greater than 4000 g.
NEONATAL MORBIDITY
Overview — Neonatal morbidity for term infants is greater in LGA infants (birth weights
[BWs] above 4000 g) compared with appropriate for gestational age (AGA) infants (BW
between 2500 and 3999 g) [2,14]. In addition, morbidity increases as the BW increases above
4000 g.
This was best illustrated in a study that analyzed data that included all singleton live births in
the United States from 1995 to 1997 with a gestational age between 37 and 44 weeks of
gestation [2]. Logistic regression analysis demonstrated that the risk of several neonatal
complications was greater in LGA infants compared with infants who were AGA (BW 3000 to
3999 g), and the frequency increased with increasing severity of macrosomia as follows:
● Compared with AGA infants, the risk of birth injuries was twofold, threefold, and
fourfold greater for infants with grade 1 (BW between 4000 and 4499 g), grade 2 (BW
between 4500 and 4999 g), and grade 3 (BW >5000 g) macrosomia, respectively.
● Mechanical ventilation for more than 30 minutes duration was 1.19 (95% CI 1.14-1.23),
1.85 (95% CI 1.73-1.99), and 3.96 (95% CI 3.45-4.55) times greater for infants with
grades 1, 2, and 3 macrosomia, respectively.
● The risk of a five-minute Apgar score lower than 3 was 1.3 (95% CI 1.21-1.39), 2 (95% CI
1.76-2.29), and 5.2 (95% CI 4.09-6.62) times greater for infants with grades 1, 2, and 3
macrosomia, respectively.
● The risk of meconium aspiration was 1.28 (95% CI 1.23-1.34), 1.65 (95% CI 1.52-1.79),
and 2.61 (95% CI 2.15-3.16) times greater for infants with grades 1, 2, and 3
macrosomia, respectively.
● Neonatal mortality was only increased in infants with grade 3 macrosomia and was
2.69 (95% CI 1.91-3.8) times greater than the mortality rate in AGA infants.
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(See "Fetal macrosomia" and "Shoulder dystocia: Intrapartum diagnosis, management, and
outcome", section on 'Maternal'.)
The increased morbidity seen in LGA infants results in a higher utilization of neonatal
intensive care compared with AGA infants, as illustrated by a study from the Arizona
Neonatal Intensive Care Program (NICP) of infants born between 1994 and 1998 [15]. In this
study, LGA infants with BW >4000 g were more likely to be enrolled in the NICP (criteria
included admission to a neonatal intensive care unit [NICU] for a prolonged stay [>72 hours],
readmission to a NICU, or transport to a NICU) compared with AGA infants with BWs
between 2500 and 3999 g (2.7 versus 2.1 percent). The four most common diagnoses in LGA
infants, which accounted for 53 percent of the admission diagnoses, were respiratory
distress (19 percent), transient tachypnea of the newborn infant (16 percent), hypoglycemia
(9 percent), and meconium aspiration (9 percent).
The neonatal complications of shoulder dystocia are discussed in greater detail separately.
(See "Shoulder dystocia: Intrapartum diagnosis, management, and outcome", section on
'Infant'.)
Respiratory distress — As noted above, LGA infants are more likely to develop respiratory
distress than AGA infants [2,15]. This is primarily due to the increased risk of RDS, especially
in infants of diabetic mothers (IDMs), who are more likely to be delivered prematurely. The
higher incidence of cesarean deliveries in LGA infants appears to increase the risk of
transient tachypnea of the newborn. In addition, meconium aspiration is a common
respiratory complication in LGA infants, perhaps due to the increased risk of perinatal
depression. (See "Infants of women with diabetes", section on 'Respiratory distress' and
"Meconium aspiration syndrome: Pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis"
and "Meconium aspiration syndrome: Pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and
diagnosis", section on 'Pathophysiology' and "Transient tachypnea of the newborn".)
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Congenital anomalies — Minor congenital anomalies are more common in LGA than AGA
infants. This was evaluated in a retrospective case-control study of more than two million
births in Latin America, of which 1800, out of 31,897 infants with congenital anomalies, were
LGA [25]. The most common anomalies associated with macrosomia included:
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NEONATAL MORTALITY
Increased mortality is associated with LGA and may only occur in the most severe grade of
macrosomia. As noted above, in a study of all singleton, term live births between 1995 and
1997, the neonatal mortality rate was only higher in infants born with grade 3 macrosomia
(BW >5000 g) compared with AGA infants (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.69, 95% CI 1.91-3.8)
[2]. Similar results were noted in a Canadian study that reported more than a twofold
increased risk of deaths in term infants with BW greater than the 97th percentile compared
with AGA term infants [24].
Neonatal mortality is also higher in LGA preterm infants compared with AGA infants born at
the same gestation. In a retrospective cohort study of preterm infants (gestational age <29
weeks) from the Canadian Neonatal Network and Canadian Neonatal Follow-Up Network
databases, LGA infants compared with AGA infants had a higher risk of death (26 versus 18
percent, aOR, 1.6, 95% CI 1.0-2.54) [26].
PRETERM INFANTS
Unlike term infants, preterm infants who are LGA may have lower mortality and morbidity
than appropriate for gestational age (AGA) infants with the same gestational age (GA). This
was illustrated by a retrospective review of data from the Vermont Oxford Network of
preterm infants (GA 22 to 29 weeks) born between 2006 and 2014 [27]. Compared with AGA
infants, LGA preterm infants had decreased risks of mortality, respiratory distress syndrome,
patent ductus arteriosus, necrotizing enterocolitis, late-onset sepsis, severe retinopathy of
prematurity, and chronic lung disease. However, LGA infants were more likely to have early-
onset sepsis and severe intraventricular hemorrhage, but these findings were not consistent
across GA range. These data suggest that for preterm infants, large birth weight may be a
protective factor resulting in better outcomes. These findings are limited, as they were based
on a review of the medical record without validation of GA and need to be confirmed in other
cohorts, preferably in a prospective study with validation of GA.
NEONATAL MANAGEMENT
● Prior to delivery, an assessment of the need for neonatal resuscitation is made based
on the gestational age, anticipated birth weight, presence of a congenital anomaly or
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labor complications, mode of delivery (eg, cesarean delivery), and maternal history.
(See "Neonatal resuscitation in the delivery room", section on 'Anticipation of
resuscitation need'.)
● Immediately after delivery, routine neonatal care is provided that includes drying,
clearing the airway of secretions, maintaining warmth, and a rapid assessment of the
infant's clinical status based on respiratory effort, tone, heart rate, and an examination
to identify any major congenital anomaly or genetic syndrome. The need for further
intervention is based on this initial evaluation. If the infant does not require additional
resuscitation, the infant should be given to the mother for skin-to-skin care and
initiation of breastfeeding in the delivery room. LGA infants should be fed as quickly as
possible after delivery to avoid hypoglycemia. (See "Neonatal resuscitation in the
delivery room", section on 'Resuscitation' and "Overview of the routine management of
the healthy newborn infant", section on 'Delivery room care'.)
Individuals of both diabetic and nondiabetic mothers who were born LGA may have long-
term metabolic effects that increase the risk of obesity [28,29] and insulin resistance [30-33].
Ongoing studies will be needed to see whether effects increase the incidence of adult
diseases, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.
Limited data suggest neurodevelopmental outcome is similar for LGA and AGA infants.
● In a study of 2930 children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort
(ECLS-B), the cognitive function of 271 children with birth weights (BWs) ≥90th
percentile did not differ from that of children with normal BW (defined as between the
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5th and 89th percentile) at 9 months, and 2, 3.5, and 5.5 years of age [34]. By contrast,
there are small observational studies that suggest infants born to mothers with poorly
controlled diabetes may be at risk for developmental abnormalities, but the quality of
evidence is poor. (See "Infants of women with diabetes", section on
'Neurodevelopmental outcome'.)
Infants who are born large for gestational age (LGA), especially full-term or post-term
infants, are at risk for perinatal morbidity and potentially long-term metabolic complications.
● Although LGA has been defined as a birth weight (BW) greater than the 90th percentile,
it has been proposed that a higher threshold of at least the 97th percentile be used
because this more accurately describes infants who are at greatest risk for perinatal
morbidity and mortality ( figure 1). At 40 weeks gestation, infants at the 90th and 97th
percentile weigh more than 4000 or 4400 g. The American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists (ACOG) uses a 4500 g threshold for the diagnosis of macrosomia (ie,
excessive fetal growth). (See 'Definition' above.)
● In the United States, the incidence of LGA for infants born at 40 weeks gestation is 6.6,
0.9, and 0.1 percent based on BWs of 4000 to 4499 g, 4500 to 4999 g, and >5000 g,
respectively. Although the incidence of LGA has declined in the United States, it
appears to be increasing in other countries due to increases in maternal age and
weight, gestational diabetes, and decreases in maternal smoking. (See 'Incidence'
above.)
● Excessive fetal growth (macrosomia) resulting in LGA is associated with genetic factors
(eg, syndromes such as Beckwith-Wiedemann ( table 1)), intrauterine environmental
factors (eg, maternal diabetes and obesity, excessive maternal weight gain), and other
maternal factors, such as advanced maternal age and multiparity. (See 'Risk factors and
etiology' above.)
● Neonatal complications are more frequent in infants who are LGA compared with those
who are born appropriate for gestational age (AGA). Complications associated with LGA
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include:
• Birth injuries (eg, brachial plexus injury, perinatal asphyxia, and clavicular injury)
primarily due to shoulder dystocia (see 'Birth injury' above)
● Neonatal mortality appears to be increased only in LGA term infants with BWs >5000 g
compared with AGA term infants. (See 'Neonatal mortality' above.)
● The management of an LGA infant includes screening and treating any complication
associated with macrosomia; determining, if possible, the etiology of macrosomia; and
providing routine newborn care. We recommend that in the first few hours following
delivery, laboratory evaluation includes measurement of blood glucose and hematocrit
(Grade 1B).
● Individuals of both diabetic and nondiabetic mothers who were born LGA may have
long-term metabolic effects that increase the risk of obesity and insulin resistance. (See
'Potential long-term effects' above.)
REFERENCES
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6. Hadfield RM, Lain SJ, Simpson JM, et al. Are babies getting bigger? An analysis of
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95:874.
22. Schaefer-Graf UM, Rossi R, Bührer C, et al. Rate and risk factors of hypoglycemia in
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30. Chiavaroli V, Giannini C, D'Adamo E, et al. Insulin resistance and oxidative stress in
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31. Darendeliler F, Poyrazoglu S, Sancakli O, et al. Adiponectin is an indicator of insulin
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33. Evagelidou EN, Kiortsis DN, Bairaktari ET, et al. Lipid profile, glucose homeostasis, blood
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34. Paulson JF, Mehta SH, Sokol RJ, Chauhan SP. Large for gestational age and long-term
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Topic 5059 Version 27.0
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GRAPHICS
Singleton United States birth weight percentile curves for boys and girls
born in 2017
Comparison of smoothed BW-for-GA percentile curves for infants born in the United States in
2017 using two smoothing techniques (lambda-mu-sigma [LMS] and 4235H, a nonlinear
resistant method).
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Reproduced with permission from Pediatrics, Vol. 144, e20190076, Copyright © 2019 by the AAP.
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Marshall- Accelerated growth and maturation, shallow orbits, broad middle phalanges
Smith
Simpson- Macrocephaly, coarse face, ocular hypertelorism, broad flat nose, macrostomia,
Golabi-Behmel macroglossia, nail hypoplasia, skeletal abnormalities
Sotos (cerebral Large size, large hands and feet, poor coordination
gigantism)
Data from: Jones KL. Smith's Recognizable Patterns of Human Malformation. WB Saunders, Philadelphia 2006.
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Contributor Disclosures
George T Mandy, MD No relevant financial relationship(s) with ineligible companies to
disclose. Leonard E Weisman, MD Equity Ownership/Stock Options: Vax-Immune [Ureaplasma
diagnosis, vaccines, antibodies, other medical diagnostics and pre-analytical devices].
Patent Holder:
Baylor College of Medicine [Ureaplasma diagnosis, vaccines, antibodies, process for preparing
biological samples].
All of the relevant financial relationships listed have been mitigated. Laurie
Wilkie, MD, MS No relevant financial relationship(s) with ineligible companies to disclose.
Contributor disclosures are reviewed for conflicts of interest by the editorial group. When found, these
are addressed by vetting through a multi-level review process, and through requirements for
references to be provided to support the content. Appropriately referenced content is required of all
authors and must conform to UpToDate standards of evidence.
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