Exploring Nature-Based Solutions to At-Home

Water Management in Peru: Incorporating

Indigenous Corn into a Modified BioSand
Water Filter Design
ENGR 090
May 2021
Natalie Samantha Balbuena
Advised by Professor McGarity
1. ABSTRACT
Water scarcity is inherently a pluralistic issue that many developing communities grapple
with on a daily basis. It is an issue created by colonial history that primarily affects ‘forgotten’
and ‘ignored’ communities in Latin America. As a result, you have many Peruvians in both the
rural and urban regions of Peru paying the high price of having little to no access to clean water
and water sovereignty. While there are other technologies and methods to treating water at home,
none are inherently sustainable, empowering, and safe to use in the longterm. As such, the next
best water purification system out there is the BioSand water filter. No studies have been done on
its application in Peruvian homes primarily because they are large concrete structures meant for
flat-plained communities. This study aims to address the overarching water quality issue while
also incorporating different modes of feasibility (access, cost, and construction/replicability) and
sustainability (by reducing food waste and encouraging engagement). By downsizing the BSF
and simplifying the design, one can retain the ease of use while reducing the cost and increasing
the accessibility. The addition of Peruvian Purple corn products were also explored as both a
variable that could improve the efficiency of the water filter and as a way to incorporate
sustainability as a mindset. As a result, the general design of the filter proved to be ~70%
effective in removing 71% of coliform and turbidity in lab generated water samples. The overall
addition of the corn proved to be effective with the incorporation of just seeds/cobs
demonstrating the most effectiveness (with an average reduction of 89% for coliform and 83%
for turbidity). As a preliminary study, this project demonstrated the potential that both the design
and the incorporation of corn product has in improving the filtration efficiency of a BSF in
homes.
2. INTRODUCTION
2.1 The ‘Third World’ Identity
During literary reviews, the production of the ‘third world’ as a singular monolithic
subject in western/european research was something consistently observed. The very definition
of colonization that is relevant here is a predominantly discursive one, focusing on a certain
mode of appropriation and codification of scholarship and knowledge about inhabitants in the
third world (21). The writings in reference discursively colonice the material and historical
heterogeneities of the lives of those in the ‘third world’- an image that is arbitrarily constructed
and that carries an authorizing western signature of Western/European humanist discourse (21).
What is being argued here is that the assumptions that come with privilege and ethnocentric
universality combined with inadequate self-awareness regarding the effect of dominant Western
scholarship on the ‘third world’, can characterize a sizable amount of Western research on the
third world. It is within the production of this ‘third world’ identity and ‘third world
difference/separation’ that Western/eurocentric research seeks to appropriate and ‘colonize’ the
constitutive complexities which characterize the lives of people in these nations.
It is important to note that there exists a positionality between ‘developed’ nations and
‘developing’ nations. Top-down development creates a dangerous dynamic of dependency that
begins with the language used to address each nation. Terms such as ‘developing nation’ and
‘third world’ are identities conceived by nations with more ‘power’ that establish a toxic
hierarchy of value. These terms imply that many of the conditions and issues these nations face
are not a result of any third party interference but rather an issue inherently wrong with the
nation itself. This separation of different ‘worlds’ often leads many scholars, often from
‘developed’ nations, to overlook the root causes of these issues and to characterize these nations
by their struggles and not their successes. The following list of factors were compiled from
several papers that sought out to ‘characterize developing nations’ (1,5/6):

1. Low levels of education, shorter life expectancies, and higher infant mortality rates.
2. Having the local economy rely on agriculture. Exports are mainly from the primary sector (i.e
farming or mining).
3. Tendencies towards higher population growth rates due to lower levels of education, income, and
agricultural work.
4. A “tendency to be a former colony in their modern history” (1,5).
5. Residing in rural areas; specifically Indigenous communities (1,6).

This list of factors contributes to the creation of negative stigma towards the wrong issues
at hand. The ‘average third world’ person leads a truncated life of being ‘ignorant’, ‘poor’,
‘uneducated’, ‘tradition-bound’, and ‘victimized’. It is a common thing to see this in literature
regarding these nations. It is also interesting to note that of the papers reviewed, all that used this
kind of terminology were papers that came from ‘developed’ nations. Most papers coming from
these communities, in contrast to Western work, would not refer to themselves as the ‘third
world’; rather they would simply move into the content of the research as if the label did not
exist while simultaneously recognizing that there are both tangible and intangible problems they
are dealing with.
Western scholarship cannot avoid the challenge of examining its role in today’s current
global economic and political framework. To do any less would be to ignore the complex
interconnections between first and third world economies and the effect of this on the lives of
people (22). As such, the nation at hand, Peru, as well as other nations going through similar
struggles as a result of larger colonial infrastructures, will be addressed as a ‘community’.
2.2. Re-Defining Water Scarcity
2.2.1 Water Scarcity & Non-Essentialism
It borders on repetition to observe that water is unequally distributed and unevenly used
across the earth. Quite often water supply fails to meet demand for shorter or longer periods of
time, therefore producing a situation of water scarcity that can be localised or more
geographically widespread. However, without denying the important climatic, geological and
hydrological factors, the primary cause determining scarcity is the way water resources are
actually managed (12,3).
Water scarcity is a relational condition that is born out of complex socio natural
interactions. For example, the scarcity of water in semi-arid Sicily, for example, does not derive
from low rainfall alone, but it is mainly the outcome of disjointed, incomplete and often
malfunctioning techno-natural networks (12,5). Likewise in Peru, water scarcity is generally a
function of colonial infrastructures. Nonetheless, a large number of ‘official’ documents still tend
to neglect the relational and politicised basis of resource scarcity and limit the analysis to a
simplistic balance between supply and demand (12,5/9).
According to the mainstream, the scarcity of water is the result of a combination of
physical insufficiencies, environmental determinism and imperfect, costly market transactions. In
other terms, the lack of water has been interpreted by the theorists of ecological modernisation as
the failure to capture its monetary value (12,11). In this perspective, common property
institutions are also held responsible for the wasteful use of natural resources, whereas
free-market responses are seen as the answer to the risks posed by ensuing scarcity (12,9).
The set of toolkits included in the new water legislation – such as water licences, user
fees, payment for ecosystem services and utility privatisation – are all rationalised in relation to
rising levels of scarcity (12,3/7). Because it is defined as scarce, water is reontologised by the
dominating Western groups as an economic resource and becomes susceptible to the same
ratio-nality (i.e. production for the market) that was paradoxically responsible for the sources of
scarcity in the first place (12,1). Mainstream interpretations thus operate within a narrow
techno-bureaucratic perspective (12,1) in which scarcity emerges as a ‘meta-narrative’ that
justifies simplistic solutions to conflicts and disputes (12,8). The ordinary symbolism of scarcity
ultimately represents a political rallying point around which administrative networks emerge and
are perpetuated in order to harm vulnerable communities via direct intervention or
exclusion(12,6). This reductionist focus on physical scarcity and on the purely economic
responses obscures, rather than illuminates, the understanding of the natural resource scarcity.
As such, water scarcity should be understood from a non-essentialist perspective. It
means that scarcity cannot be described in absolute terms, but it is the result of intricate relations
between human groups and their socio-natural circumstances. By acknowledging the
non-essentialist origins of scarcity, it is possible to go beyond simplistic descriptions of resource
shortage and open up the possibility of creatively addressing the causes and consequences of
water scarcity.
In particular, it should be noted that the persistence of scarcity in capitalist societies is in
effect closely related to the expansion of a specific model of economic growth and national
development according to the Western ‘projection’ and view of modernism (12,18). The goals of
modernity should not be a monopoly of the Western society (12,19). For instance, in Latin
America, the expansion of the modernist project has never been completed, but conflicting views
of modernisation co-existed and have been even displaced by post-modernist environmental
sensitivities, often imposed by extractive agencies (12,20). Scarcity, as much as modernity, is a
contested concept that needs to be critically reinterpreted in order to understand the failures and
the prospects of allocating and using water more fairly.
2.2.2 Water Scarcity in the South
In the megacities of the Global South, the nature of water scarcity closely follows the
legacy of colonial rule and the continued troubles of colonial development. Water distribution
problems are more severe in zones occupied by deprived populations and in areas where the
communities are ‘weak’. That condition calls for an idea that adequately connects the pattern of
poor water services with the concrete suffering of marginalised sectors of urban and rural
societies. Such a framework should be able to address the complexity of the location and situate
water scarcity in relation to the combined effects of other important forms of economic, political
and social deficiencies. In this sense, water scarcity is not a single, monothematic phenomenon
but it must be deconstructed as the cause of various intervening scarcities (12,3).
Consequently, the scarcity of water should be treated as a plural, compounded
phenomenon, that is also an integral factor in the formation of highly asymmetric social
landscapes. The multiple forms of scarcity have many repercussions for the social production of
space, especially in large areas where the convergence of different kinds of scarcity becomes the
prevailing pattern of the lived space. In those situations, interpersonal and domestic forms of
discrimination, as in the case of the female members of poor homes who are often put in charge
of fetching water for the family (12,25), typically add another layer to the overall association of
multiple scarcities in deprived areas.
2.3 About Peru
2.3.1 An Introduction

Galapagos
~aCI ti

Pe Brazil

Bolivia
SouthPacific
Ocean
[Fig 1. Map of Peru, (23)]
Peru is located on the western side of central South America. Its borders are the Pacific
Ocean to the west, Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east and Bolivia and Chile to
the south. Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia and Peru form the Comunidad Andina de Naciones (CAN,
Andes Community of Nations). Peru’s current population size is 33,355,236 people (8,1). It has a
total area of 1,285,216 km2 which is divided in three natural regions: la costa (the coast) with an
area of 11% of the country, la sierra (the mountains) containing of the Andes mountain range and
accounting for 27% of the country, and la selva (the jungle) which covers 62% of the country
(8,2).
2.3.2 Peru and Water Resources
Peru has a strategic location for water resources. Its territory includes the Pacific Ocean
coast; the origin of the Amazon River, the longest river on the world; and 71% of the tropical
glaciers in South America. 25% of the aquatic ecosystems are in the Amazon region and its
basins represent 5% of the world’s fresh water. Because of the availability of superficial, ground
and atmospheric water, Peru has a large water supply accounting for 4.6% of the volume of the
world’s run-off (8,2).
Peru is one of the top 30 countries that suffer from chronic water stress. Although it has
an overall per capita availability of 68,321 m^3 per person per year, the distribution of said
resources is incredibly poor due to the uneven spatial distribution of water resources (24,25).
More people live in the coastal region (almost 60% of the total population) than in the mountain
(31%) or the jungle (9%) regions (8,3). To put things a bit into perspective, 1.76% of Peruvian
water is available in the coastal area, that is located in the Pacific basin, where over 60% of the
country’s population lies (26). Nevertheless, the water supply correlation in these three regions is
completely opposite in relation to the amount of people (8,4). The water availability (million
m^3) and the water availability per capita (m3/person) are uneven (8,5). The most populated
region has the lowest available water supply and the less populated has the highest available
water supply (8,6).
Peru can be divided into three slopes: Pacific (the Pacific Ocean to the west), Atlantic
(the Atlantic Ocean to the north) and Titicaca (Lake Titicaca to the south). In order to address the
uneven distribution of water supply and demand on the slopes, some water is either transferred
from the Atlantic to the Pacific and Titicaca slopes by water diversions or is kept inside
warehouses. It is important to understand that this uneven distribution refers to water supply for
domestic use including consumption, hygienic and drainage, as well as other kinds of water use
(i.e agricultural). Therefore, in the Pacific slope, the percentage of water supply is much lower
than in the Atlantic because of its higher population and because of their higher amount of water
use for agriculture, industries, domestic demand, mining and livestock (8,9).
2.4 Peru’s Water Issues in a Social Context
2.4.1 Integrated Water Resource Management
Since the industrial revolution, human activities have been directly affecting the
environment causing rapid change. In order to address the high demand that demographic
densification puts on water resources and to control contamination, in the last few decades a new
concept has arisen known as integrated water resources management (IWRM). IWRM is a
process that promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related
resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner
without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. To complement this definition, the
United Nations Environmental Program UNEP adds, IWRM is necessary to address increasing
water scarcity and pollution. Methods include water conservation and reuse, water harvesting,
and waste management. An appropriate mix of legislation, pricing policies and enforcement
measures is essential to optimize water conservation and protection.
Water management decisions not only implicate technological, scientific, administrative,
economic, and political aspects, but also implicate social aspects. Because water is our most
important natural resource, every person has the right of access to water. For instance, usually
water is accessible and fees are not expensive. However, since people have the right of access to
water, human attitude towards water use is associated with a short-term value (8,10). Therefore,
water wastage is common, such as citizens who waste tap water, farmers who over-water crops,
and other people who pollute water without any penalty (i.e., pollution from up-stream to
down-stream by mines and factories sewages). An approach is needed that helps to include
people more in solutions to water management problems.
The IWRM approach has to include cultural values of communities towards resources,
particularly concerning the idea of ‘mother earth’ (pachamama, in Quechua) and traditional land
technologies cannot be changed immediately, since they have been used for many centuries in
the Andes region. In Peru, because of the lack of forward-thinking policies, for many centuries
the Andes farmers have suffered the most.
Since rivers and oceans are connected, environmental problems like the runoff of
chemical and organic waste from industries (i.e. mining) and domestic use, negatively affect
aquatic ecosystems (8,28). Therefore, water carrying capacity, supplied potential, and human
impacts are all important factors to consider when making water management policies. IWRM
approach should not only apply to regions and basins, but also slopes, watersheds and estuaries,
as they are also part of aquatic ecosystems (8,29). However, in Peru the IWRM of basins is a
relatively new approach (8,30/31). While it has not yet been fully implement or adapted in the
whole country, it has been suggested as a wider and more efficient management than
departmental self-management.
Even though the study of aquatic ecosystems points to the fact that water resources are
interconnected, people have not yet fully recognized the damage that their waste causes to nature
(i.e., mining companies’ mercury waste run-off that affects domestic water supply). Therefore, a
shared knowledge of the national situation is needed for a more responsible and efficient use of
water. People need to understand that their actions have consequences and that their waste affects
the entire water system since the water resources are linked by precipitation and
evapotranspiration, superficial and ground interconnections.
2.5.6 An Introduction to Water Quality Parameters
2.5.1 Bacterial Contamination
Water sources enable diseases to spread in a variety of different ways. The four groups of
disease-promoting environments include: water as a passive carrier for pathogens, contaminated
water that acts as a breeding place for disease carrying insects, water as a source of nourishment
for infecting agents, and inadequate quantity of water to maintain proper hygiene (1,10).
Dehydration poses the greatest threat to those suffering from diarrheal diseases as it causes the
affected to lose water and electrolytes. Diarrhea also causes and worsens malnutrition, especially
in children, making diarrheal diseases the number one cause of malnutrition in children under the
age of five (1,10). Killing an estimated 1.5 million children every year, diarrheal diseases are the
second leading cause of death in children under the age of five years old (1,11). Aside from
malnutrition and dehydration, the presence of bacteria in drinking water can cause a variety of
diseases. Typhoid fever, Gastroenteritis (stomach flu), and meningitis are just a few examples of
waterborne diseases (1,12).
The coliform group of microorganisms is a widely used indicator for fecal contamination
because many inhabit human and animal intestinal tracts. Coliform-counting culture methods,
allowing for the quality control of water sources, were developed in the early 20th century (1,9).
Alongside the development of water testing methods, processes to combat coliform
contamination in water were implemented in towns and cities around the world. The most widely
implemented water purification processes were sand filtration and chlorination. Communities
that implemented these forms of technologies quickly saw a decline in cases of waterborne
disease (1,9).
In Peru, the water flowing through two of the main rivers into Lima, Rimac and Churin,
have been shown to be contaminated with various coliforms as a result of unchecked polluters
situated at various parts of the rivers (13). Combining this with the lack of proper water filtration
and purification infrastructures in both rural and urban homes supports the principle idea that
Peru’s waters can be heavily contaminated with coliform. While there hasn’t been any set of
extensive studies that break down the composition of drinking water in both rural and urban
Peru, other studies have been done that demonstrate how fecal contamination is present in water,
food, and hands in homes in rural and urban communities (15) . While coliform contamination is
not nearly as bad as it was during the 90s, during a massive cholera outbreak, it is enough for
people to continuously implement household water treatment methods.
2.5.2 Turbidity
Turbidity is best known as an aesthetic measure of water quality. Turbidity measures the
cloudiness of water by quantifying the ability of suspended particles to scatter passing light. The
more light scattered, the more suspended particles present in the water, and thus a higher
turbidity rating. Turbidity is commonly measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU)
(1,19). The World Health Organization recommends turbidity less than 5 NTU in drinking water.
This level is low enough to be unnoticeable by the human eye (1,20).
In addition to the aesthetic qualities, turbid water can provide food and shelter for
bacteria and pathogens (1,19). While there is an association between the presence of bacteria and
the turbidity level, it is not a definite relationship. A study by the American Water Works Service
Company in the US (1,21), showed a clear association between the numbers of total coliforms
and the turbidity level. The study also found that high turbidity levels accelerated chlorine
residual depletion, causing bacterial growth. In a study by the University of Pretoria (1,22),
turbidity was used as an indicator of microbial growth. There currently exists little to no public
studies on the levels of turbidity that water in urban or rural Peru demonstrate.
2.6 Household Water Treatment In Peru
2.6.1 Contextual Considerations Summarized
In Peru, 83% of homes report treating their water at home. While consistency of reported
practices in a 2014 study was high in both urban (94.8%) and rural (85.3%) settings, availability
of treated water (based on self-reporting) at the time of collection was low, with 67.1% and
23.0% of urban and rural households having treated water at all three sampling visits (2,3).
Self-reported consumption of untreated water in the home among adults and children < 5 was
also common (2). Most households in both settings (urban (U): 77.5%, rural (R): 70.9%)
reported treating their water prior to drinking. In both settings, boiling was the most common
method of treatment (U: 77.5%, R: 69.6%).
Consistent with the baseline survey, the majority of households in both settings relied on
piped water for drinking purposes. Additionally, there was an observed strong sense of mistrust
towards the drinking- water supply, with 84.9% of urban households and 50.6% of rural
households believing that their source was not safe for human consumption. Both urban (89.5%)
and rural (79.0%) households reported storing drinking-water at home (2).
Over three quarters of the participating urban households reported practising HWT on a
daily basis; though, daily use was slightly lower in the rural context (63.2%) (2). Additionally,
three-quarters of urban households reported that they would treat more drinking-water the same
day if their supply was exhausted; 5.1% reported that there would be no need to treat a second
time while the remaining households would wait until the next day and consume untreated water
until then. In the rural setting, 52.9% of households would treat more water the same day, 4.4%
reported that there would be no need while 42.7% would wait until the next day. The majority of
urban households reported that their water was not safe for consumption (80%), while only a
minority of the rural participants believed so (14.3%) (2).
All households reported practising HWT for health reasons. In all rural cases and in half
of urban cases, the respondent made specific reference to microbes in the water. However, a third
of urban and rural respondents believed that boiling water could prevent coughs and
chest-related illnesses as well as diarrhoeal diseases (2). While more than 85% of urban and rural
households report in surveys that they treat their water prior to drinking it, and claim to follow
positive HWT-related practices (daily use, consumption of treated water by all household
members and reporting water treatment through the year), follow- up surveys showed these
reports to exaggerate actual practices (2). A sizable proportion of participants, including young
children, acknowledged also consuming untreated water when at home, especially in the rural
context. This is consistent with previous research in Peru that found it common for mothers who
had reported treating their water to allow their children to consume untreated water (2,35). These
results also suggest that the self-reported HWT estimates may be more misleading in rural
settings, which may be at higher risk of waterborne infections due to lower access to safe water,
sanitation and to health care. Rural households who claim to practice HWT were more likely to
(i) report drinking untreated water at home, (ii) over-report daily use or supplementation, and
(iii) have untreated drinking-water at collection points.
 Furthermore, data from in-depth interviews indicate that lack of knowledge is not a
reason for not practicing HWT. Most of the participants interviewed were well aware of the
reasons for boiling their water; however this did not stop them from consuming untreated water
at times. (2) This suggests that the issue lies within the motivation to engage with water
treatment practices as well as their feasibility or tediousness. While no official studies have been
conducted on the preferences for different kinds of HWT, in general, these methods are energy
and time consumptive.
Reported water quality results done alongside these studies are consistent with recent
studies of the effectiveness of boiling in reducing thermotolerant coliforms, which have found
that although boiling significantly improves the microbiological quality of water, it does not fully
remove the potential risk of waterborne pathogens (2,23/24/25/28/29). Overall, there exists a
lack of consistency in HWT and sub-optimal microbiological effectiveness also raises questions
about the potential of HWT to prevent waterborne diseases.
2.6.2 Common Household Water Treatment Technologies
Household water treatment (HWT) can improve drinking water quality and prevent
disease if used correctly and consistently by vulnerable populations. Over 1.1 billion people
report treating their water prior to drinking it. These estimates, however, are based on responses
to household surveys that may exaggerate the consistency and microbiological performance of
the practice—key factors for reducing pathogen exposure and achieving health benefits.
Systematic reviews of water quality interventions suggest that HWT is effective at improving
drinking- water quality (2, 2–4). Although there is evidence that the health impact from HWT
may be exaggerated due to reporting bias, the WHO and UNICEF have recommended the use of
HWT for populations relying on unsafe supplies as part of a comprehensive strategy to prevent
diarrhoea (2, 5).
While there are hundreds of technologies in use all over the world, this section introduces
a few commonly used water treatment technologies for use in situations without reliable access
to safe drinking water.
2.6.2.1 Boiling
Hundreds of millions of people around the world boil their water as a means to disinfect
it. It is by far the most common way families treat their water. The World Health Organization
identifies boiling as “the simplest and most effective way to kill all disease-causing pathogens”
(1,20). Boiling water allows for the pasteurization of microorganisms to occur, leading to the
reduction of the overall microbial load in the water sample (1,9). The World Health Organization
Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality recommend achieving a rolling boil as an indication the
temperature has raised enough to disinfect (1,20). Depending on the size and needs of a
household, boiling water can take up to a couple hours of the day. In terms of fuel, burning
firewood for extended periods of time leads to deforestation, increased emissions into the
atmosphere and poses health risks for the household. For communities that use gas powered
stovetops, the process becomes both harmful to the environment and costly to implement.
2.6.2.2 Chlorination
 Chlorine has been used as a water treatment method since the mid-1800s (1,7). Chlorine
acts as a disinfectant when mixed with water; removing or deactivating harmful biological agents
(1,42). Household chlorine is commonly available around the world in the form of either sodium
hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite. Both forms of chlorine are relatively inexpensive, easy to
use and distribute, and effective against waterborne bacteria and pathogens (1,43) in the short
term. In many cases around the globe, chlorine decontamination has proven to be a great
additional precaution when using simple filtration, such as a slow sand filter, as it removes the
disease carrying pathogens effectively(1,42).
Chlorine is not effective against parasites or the reduction of turbidity. In addition,
chlorine can leave a strong odor and/or a disagreeable taste for consumers (1,43), potentially
causing people to neglect using the treatment. In addition, there is more room for human error
when manually chlorinating water. While the electric dosing pump is a common chlorination
technology around the world that can help mitigate this by releasing a specific dosage of liquid
chlorine into community water distribution systems, a single device can cost up to $1,200 (1,3).
Although effective in wealthy communities, technologies relying on power sources and complex
designs are prone to failure in rural and poorer communities due to unreliable electricity and lack
of infrastructure.
2.6.2.3 LifeStraw by Vestargaar-Frandsen

Life!it
www .llifestraw.com

Personal

iiiifo@Mi H I
FIR.ANDS
IH.SEA!>! CONT RO L TEXTH !S

[Fig 2. Personal Life-Straw (28)]

The LifeStraw is a portable water filter designed by Vestergaard-Frandsen, an
international humanitarian technology company based in Switzerland. These units are easy to
use, adaptable to a variety of environments, and require no electricity or moving parts (1,44).
Testing results indicate that the personal LifeStraw removes 99.99% of waterborne bacteria and
99.9% of parasites while the LifeStraw family unit removes 99.999% of viruses (1,45). A 2011
study conducted at the University of Arizona proved that the LifeStraw family unit exceeds the
WHO criteria for “highly protective” microbial water purifiers (1,46).
Water flows through the cylindrical filter due to a pressure difference powered by
suction; just like a drinking straw. Water passes through various chambers in the 9 inch long
LifeStraw. First, the water travels through layers of mesh with spaces in the micrometers,
trapping a majority of microorganisms and turbidity factors. After the mesh, the water enters a
chamber containing iodine-coated beads that eliminate leftover bacteria. Finally, the water passes
through a chamber with active carbon to remove the taste of iodine (1,47). Advantages include
that it is quite effective, user friendly with little to no maintenance required, and that it has a
minimal time for filtration. Disadvantages include that it has a short lifetime (up to 3 years), that
it has a low capacity, generates more waste, and is an outsourced technology.
2.6.2.4 The SolarBag by Puralytics
Water disinfection using solar energy has been well documented, implemented, and
studied. In its simplest form, water is placed in transparent containers and placed directly in the
sunlight for a few hours. During this time, the temperature of the water can reach up to 550 C,
killing various bacteria and pathogens. In addition, sunlight within the wavelength region 320 –
450 nm is absorbed by molecules that act as photosensitizers, reacting with oxygen and killing
additional organisms (1,48).
Puralytics is a water purification company that offers products that utilize
nanotechnology activated by light energy (1,49). One of their most popular products is the
SolarBag. The SolarBag carries and purifies 3.5 L of water when set out in the sun and includes
an indicator that informs the user when the water is safe for consumption. On a sunny day, the
filter will take 2-3 hours to complete purification while on a cloudy day, 4-6 hours are required.
The SolarBag has proven in multiple tests to be effective in the decontamination of drinking
water. A study at Istanbul Technical University found a 99.875% reduction in E. coli and 99.99%
reduction of protozoa while a study at Cascade Designs Inc. demonstrated a reduction in
chemical contaminants by over 90% (1,51).
Although this form of disinfection is simple, portable, and largely effective, it has some
setbacks. Most notably, the process does not affect the presence of chemical contaminants.
Additionally, turbid water causes the scattering of sunlight and can prohibit any disinfection from
occurring deeper than a few millimeters (1,48). It also has a very short life span (up to 1000
uses), requires constant sunlight (which is very variable in Peru), and only disinfects a relatively
small amount of water at a time.
2.6.2.5 Concluding Thoughts and Problem Statement
While HWT methods prove to improve the overall water quality of households in
developing communities, they should not be the ‘end-goal’ of drinking water treatment because
they still lack effectiveness. They introduce uncertainties regarding human error, lack of
engagement, long-term costs, and are often energy extensive. ‘Newer’ technologies also seem
like the next best step. However, they establish a toxic dependency on outsourced technology in
communities that are in need of economic independence. As such, in order to help circumvent
these downfalls and fulfill the needs of water quality and water sovereignty for communities in
Peru, slow-sand filtration implementation in BioSand water filters will be explored.
3.THEORY & BACKGROUND
3.1 Theory & Granular Media Filtration
3.1.1 GMF Basics
Filtration is used to separate non settleable solids from water and wastewater by passing
it through porous mediums. The most common filtration system is a granular media filtration
set-up. Granular media filtration (GMF) systems typically come in two forms: rapid depth filters
and slow sand filters.The typical components of a generic GMF are an inflow control, the actual
media, the underdrain, and a backwash system for cleaning.

3.1.2 Filtration Transport Model

!fr
w... being filtwed
'P ..

0
e
Floe •
e)

Bacteriu 0.001 m
cg /
-- lmercep1ion

filter Pore

[Fig 3. Filtration Theory Mechanisms (29)]

Filtration theory can be modeled as a two-step process: particle transport to the
solid-liquid interface presented by the filter and particle attachment to this surface. Particle
transport mechanisms are more physical in nature and can also be simplified into three main
steps. First, a single spherical particle of filter media is established. This particle, referred to as a
‘collector’, is unaffected by other particles surrounding it and is fixed in space in a flowing
suspension. The main flow direction is established to be that of gravitational force.
A suspended particle that follows a streamline of the flow can come into contact with the
collector by simple virtue of its own size. Water flows so that the particle moves close enough to
the collector to become attached. This process is known as i) interception. If the density of the
particle is greater than that of the water, the particle follows a different path due to the influence
of the gravitational force field, the effects of the buoyancy of the particle, and the fluid drag on
the particle. This is known as ii) sedimentation. Lastly, a particle in suspension is subject to
random interactions by molecules of the suspending medium that result in Brownian movement.
This is known more simply as iii) diffusion.
Other forces that particles are subjected to include inertia. Streamlines tend to diverge
from the collector particles when approaching them. Regardless, particles with sufficient inertia
will proceed unchanged and come into contact with the collector. It is important to note that this
is negligible for water filtration due to the small mass and density differences. Additionally,
particles are subject to hydrodynamic action that is caused by velocity gradients within pore
openings. As they experience higher velocities on one side, particles tend to rotate and create a
spherical field that causes the particle to move across the given flow field. The results are
non-predictable paths that lead to movement across the streamline and collision with collector
particles. It is a far more effective force for lower particle-collector size ratios. Particles may also
be susceptible to flocculation which occurs when large particles overtake smaller particles to
form larger particles that are removed by any of the above mentioned removal mechanisms.
Particle attachment is a process that involves electrostatic and molecular Van De Waals
forces that are similar to what occurs in coagulation. These attractions are sensitive to the surface
charges on the collector particle as well as the pH of raw water. Particle attachment is
accomplished only when particles make physical contact with the filter medium of choice. This
contact can come from several mechanisms as shown in Fig 3. When the particle is larger than
the pore, it becomes trapped, or strained, and filtered. Particles can be removed via sedimentation
as they progress through the filter. Others are intercepted and adhere to the surface of the
medium due to inert surface chemistry.
Filtration efficiency is driven by the attachment/surface chemistry between particles and
is greatly increased by the destabilization or the coagulation of particles prior to filtration. This
reduction in the particle charge increases particle agglomeration and reduces the forces necessary
to trap particles within the filter. Transport efficiency is also driven by the filtration rate, media
design, particle size, temperature, and density (in regards to sedimentation only). There exists a
size of suspended particles for which the removal efficiency is at a minimum. The smaller the
size of the granular media, the smaller the pore openings through which the wastewater must
pass are created. While these small openings increase filtration efficiency, there is an increase in
headloss through the medium. The reverse is also true; the larger the size of the granulat media,
the less headloss and the less filtration efficiency.
When designing filters, there are two generalized and main goals to follow: to prioritize
particle removal and filter run length. Both goals are affected and driven by the forces above as
well as other factors such as the size of the filter, what kinds of media, the uniformity of the
media, time, and effluent flow.
3.1.2 Slow Sand Filters
Slow sand filtration (SSF) is a type of centralized water purification system. A properly
design SSF will effectively remove turbidity and pathogens through various physical, biological,
and chemical processes in a single treatment step. They are characterized by high reliability and
low lifecycle costs. Construction, operation, and maintenance do not require complex skills. As
such, SSF is a very promising filtration method for small/medium-sized communities and
households with a fairly good quality surface water source. WHO considers SSF to be a “simple
but highly effective and considerably cheap tool that can contribute to a sustainable water
management system” (30).

Filter Regulating Weir Clearwater

valve chamber reservo
ir

Rawwaterinlet/
Supematant----M..4- •
- 1.Sm
waterreservoir

Venturi Weir WHO40369

meter

[Fig 4. Slow Sand Filtration Basics, (29)]

The basic functioning of the filter is quite simple. Wastewater flows through a layer of
sand where it gets both physically filtered and biological treated. Sediments and pathogens are
removed. It is important to distinguish between slow and rapid sand filtration. The difference
between the two is not just in terms of filtration speeds, but in regards to the underlying
treatment process. SSF incorporates more of a biological process whereas rapid sand filtration is
more of a physical treatment process. In a SSF, physical removal of sediments is important for
the purification process, however the more important aspect is the biological filtration. Top
layers of the sand become biologically inhabited by the establishment of a microbial community.
These microbes come from the source water and form a community in the span of a couple of
days. The fact that there is fine sand and slow filtration and a SSF facilitate this added process.
The structure itself consists of an open/closed box filter chamber, a type of reservoir, and
a piping system as shown in Fig 3. ONly clean sand is required for occasional replacement. The
sand layers are put in gradually according to grain sizes with finer grains at the top. SSFs operate
at slow flow rates of 0.1-0.2 m^3/h per square meter of surface (according to WHO). This head
loss allows for the water to remain in the space above the medium for several hours while larger
particles are allowed to separate and settle before passing through the sand bed for purification.
3.1.3 Filter Media
Generally speaking, filter media should be i) coarse enough to retain large quantities of
floc, ii) sufficiently fine particles to prevent suspended solids from passing through, iii) have
layers deep enough to allow for long filter runs, and iv) be graded to permit backwash cleaning
(30). These traits are not always compatible with each other and are the main reason that
multi-media filters (filters with three or more types of media) are becoming increasingly popular
alternatives. Commonly used media types include silica sand, anthracite coal, and crushed
granite rock.
A sample of sand taken from most sources will not consist of uniformly sized grains.
Rather, most sources will come with a range of different grain sizes. In order to characterize sand
samples, you refer to two quantities. The effective particle size refers to the particle diameter
such that 10% of the sample grains are smaller than it and 90% of the sample grains are larger. It
is denoted as . The uniformity coefficient is a way to express the size difference between the

largest and smallest grains in the sample. It is defined as the following ratio where
refers to the particle size where 60% of grains are smaller and 40% are larger. The smaller the
uniformity coefficient, the better (16).
3.1.3.1 Sieve Analysis
In order to determine the effective particle size and the uniformity coefficient, a sieve
analysis is conducted. For a sieve analysis, you first stack together different sieves that fall in a
desired range, in a tower. The coarsest sieve is at the tio and the finest is at the bottom. Around
200g of dry sand is mixed and measured out before being put in through the top sieve. After the
sand has been shaken through for ten minutes, the sand that is retained in each sieve is weighed
as accurately as possible in a cumulative manner (16). Using this, the cumulative weight % of
sand retained by each sieve can be calculated and then subtracted from 100 to obtain the
cumulative weight percent passed through each sieve. Sieve size is then plotted against
cumulative weight percent to obtain a size distribution curve.
3.1.4 An Introduction Hydraulics of Filtration
The flow rate through a SSF is very small and thus laminar flow can be assumed. The
headloss or resistance due to the filter can be calculated using the following:

[1]
Where h refers to the thickness of the filter bed
refers to the filtration rate per hour (divided by the surface area), and k is the
coefficient of permeability. This coefficient has dimensions of velocity (m/h) and is best
determined experimentally. However, a value can be estimated from the following:

Where T refers to the temperature in celsius, p refers to the porosity (volume of the
pores/total volume of media), refers to the shape factor or sphericity, and refers to the
specific diameter of sand grains.
The shape factor is the ratio of the surface area of a sphere to the surface area of an
average grain of sand in the media. The shape factor for various grain shapes are shown below:
 [Table 1. Example Shape Factors, (16)]
Spherical Nearly Rounded Worn Angular Broken
Spherical

1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.65

The specific diameter is a way to describe the grain size for a sample of naturally
occurring sand with various grain sizes. It is defined as the grain size of a theoretically uniform
sample such that the sample has the same gross surface area as an equal amount of the naturally
occurring sand. The specific diameter can be calculated using the following (16):
[1]
3.2 Biosand Water Filters
3.2.1 Biosand Water Filter Basics
One POU (point of use) technology distributed worldwide by non-profit organizations
(NPOs) is the biosand filter (BSF). The BSF was developed in the 1990s by Dr. David Manz. In
a 2008 study, five POU technologies were compared, with the BSF identified as the most
effective and having the greatest potential to become widely used and sustainable (9,1).

[Fig 5. General BioSand Water Filter, (31)]

The BSF is a multimedia, intermittently operated, slow sand filter. The BioSand Filter
consists of a concrete body, filtration media, and a PVC piping system. Water is poured into the
top of the filter, flows down through the media, and is then head driven up the PVC pipe to the
outlet. Essential to the BSF’s function is the presence of a biolayer. The biolayer is a living
biofilm located in the top few inches of the filtration media. This biolayer naturally develops as
contaminated water regularly passes through the media and assists in capturing a variety of
bacteria and pathogens by decreasing the pore size between sand grains. The decreased pore size
enables an increase in mechanical trapping of pathogens and suspended solids. After the ripening
period, bacteria,virus, and protozoa reduction rates increase, while effluent flow rate begins to
decrease.A ripening process taking 2 to 3 weeks is needed so that a biolayer can form.
Lab testing performed by David Manz indicates the filter performs well at removing a
variety of contaminants. This is due to the variability of the biolayer, influent water, and
construction conditions. `In conventional slow sand filtration (SSF), the filter is constantly
operated until the filter requires cleaning by scraping the top layer of media (1,19). Conversely,
the BSF is not constantly operated; instead the BSF is only operated when the user needs water.
The user is able to control the amount of water filtered and at what time during the day. Over
time, effluent flow rates in the BSF slow due to trapped solids, until eventually the user believes
the BSF must be cleaned so that the effluent flow can be restored to an acceptable rate (32). The
BSF is cleaned by filling the influent chamber to the base of the diffuser plate with water,
removing the diffuser plate, and agitating the water to suspend the trapped solids. Suspended
solids can then be removed by the operator. The cleaning process is repeated until the user is
satisfied with the effluent flow rate. The BSF manufacturers suggest flushing the filter for 2 days
before water is used for drinking; this is not always an option if the filtered water must be used
immediately following cleaning (9,3).
As a quick summary, BSFs remove contaminants through the following mechanisms:
1. Mechanical Trapping: small particles, such as microorganism and silt, are trapped within the
spaces of the sand grains.
2. Adsorption: Suspended substances in the water attach to the surfaces of the sand particles due to
molecular forces.
3. Biologically active layer: referred to as the biolayer, organic matter and particles from the influent
water are trapped in the upper 2-4 inches of the filtration media. This group of organisms increases
the filter’s ability to remove bacteria and parasites.

3.2.2 BSF Studies & Expansions

In a BSF, metals can be removed by treating the sand with various reactants to assist in
removing those particular contaminants. An example of this is the KanchanTM Arsenic Filter
(KAF), developed by MIT . The KAF modifies the media with the addition of iron nails. The
presence of the nails in the sand allows for arsenic removal via adsorption to the iron (1,53). In a
two-year study with over 1,000 KAFs in Nepal (1, 53), the results showed that the filter
modification removed high levels of unwanted water pollutants. While this study produced
largely successful results, a study in Cambodia (1,54) found the modification to be relatively
ineffective in arsenic removal of influent water.
Many BioSand Filter field studies have taken place around the world. A study in Nepal
indicated that working biofilters were successful in removing 99.1% of influent water turbidity
(1, 19). A 2006 study in Haiti found that (1,6), 99% of those using a BioSand Filter reported that
the water appeared clearer and tasted better. In addition, 95% of study participants felt that the
household’s health improved since they began using the filter. In that same study, they found
that, on average, the filter reduced E. coli bacteria by 98.5% (1,6). A 2009 study in the
Dominican Republic found that households utilizing a BSF had 0.53 times the odds of diarrheal
disease as households without a BSF (1,55). The BioSand Filter is a widely known and utilized
water treatment technology. Such a study has not yet been conducted for communities in Peru.
As to whether the filter can be adapted for single households in Peru is also a question to be
explored.
3.2.3 Advantages & Disadvantages
BSFs have a variety of advantages and disadvantages that have been briefly discussed in
sections above. Advantages include the fact that it can be constructed using locally sourced
materials, that it is effective in almost any kind of weather, that it requires no electricity, has a
short theoretical duration to filter water, and that it is generally effective. Disadvantages include
that they are big and bulky, difficult to transport, stationary, its concrete body can become
cracked, and that it can’t treat more complex contaminants such as heavy metals.
4. DESIGN THINKING & GOALS
4.1 Problem Statement
4.1.1 Focus
The community of focus here are both urban and rural households in Peru. While rural
and urban communities experience water scarcity and water quality issues on a different scale
and scope, they still share certain overlapping issues: a lack of engagement with sustainability
and andean cosmovisions, generally poor water quality, and little to no water-sovereignty or
security. As such, the aim of this project is to address these issues in a way that is sustainable and
that prioritizes their need for independence.
4.1.2 Guiding Questions
These guiding questions were used to keep the project and its development centered on
addressing the problem/focus and the design goals.
1. Who is being prioritized?
2. What are the issues to prioritize?
3. How can sustainability be incorporated into the project (both physically and socially)?
4.2 Design Goals
These design goals were developed with the assistance and experiences of two
Peruvian-led non-profits; FICUS and LosSinAgua (Those Without Water).
4.2.1 Goal 1: Water Quality
Water quality/scarcity is a complex standard to define. In an ideal scenario, the goal
would be to treat the water for all possible contaminants. However, to achieve that goal in the
long-term, a more realistic and short-term goal that fits in the scope of this project is to focus on
two main water quality parameters to improve upon: total coliform count and turbidity. These
factors were chosen due to their influence on human health and the overall drinkability of water.
While heavy metals is a notable threat, it is only a real threat to certain regions and departments
in Peru and thus should not be assumed to represent all of Peru’s drinking water supply. Thus the
design should present a better alternative to household water treatments in terms of overall
efficiency and effectiveness to clear the water of coliforms and turbidity.
4.2.2 Goal 2: Feasibility
One of the main reasons other water treatment technologies are not being explored is due
to the fact that they are not feasible in a number of ways. They are often energy and resource
intensive, have high initial costs, are tricky to understand and maintain, take up too much space,
are complicated to build, generate more waste, and establish a dependence on more outsourced
technology. As such, this augmentation of a BSF should be more economically feasible, simple
to replicate/build, easy to maintain, and able to fit in individual homes.
4.2.3 Goal 3: Sustainability
Another downfall to existing technologies such as the SolarBag, LifeStraw, and HWT
methods is that they lack sustainability in two ways. Primarily, they all generate some sort of
waste and use more resources and energy than necessary. Additionally, they don’t engage the
user very well with sustainability as a concept through practice. As such, incorporating physical
elements into the filter to widen its sustainability impact. In addition to the overall design and
construction of the filter, the implementation and use of any added materials should provide a
more engaging interface for users to interact with ideas surrounding Andean Indigenous
cosmovisions, which are inherently sustainable, and water sovereignty.
4.3 BSF Design Changes
The first major change implemented in the filter design is the downscaling of the filter to
be ~91 cm tall. The filter retains the proportional size/length of each of the media layers while
also being able to allow users to clean 16L of water at a time. The reduced height makes it able
to fit in smaller spaces within homes such as kitchens and living rooms. This metric also makes
the user more prone to interact with the filter and thus be more apt to engage with water
sovereignty as a whole. Since BSFs are inherently easy to use and maintain, this might address
the gap in consistent water treatment that was observed in surveys detailed in earlier sections.
The next major change is the PVC filter base and PVC piping system. Contrary to
concrete, as a material, PVC is far easier to work with and access in Peru. In addition, it is less
costly (by around 50-60 soles) than creating a steel mold and then filling it with concrete to
create the base. Along with the reduced height, this would theoretically make the filter weigh
less and thus add to the ease in transportability. The use of the main PVC base and piping system
also eliminates the need for any further steel constructions and adds to the simplicity of the
design. As a result, the design aims to be replicable and easy to comprehend and translate to
Peruvian teams/households.
An additional change to the filter system is the modification of the diffuser basin. Instead
of welding and forming one from galvanized sheet metal, the diffuser basing is made using
aluminum10’ diameter cake pans and an aluminum extension using available scrap metal. This
should reduce cost and need for unnecessary resources.
The filter will also receive an additional layer of corn product which has been shown to
act as an effective water purification substance on its own. Whether it is effective as an addition
to a BSF has not been studied. However, the potential that comes from these studies as well as
the general properties that Peruvian Purple corn in particular provides, makes the addition to be a
promising one. The predicted effects are an increase in water quality and sustainability (in terms
of reducing food waste and incorporating Andean cosmovisions through the use of this ancestral
corn).
4.4 Nature-Based Solutions, Corn, & Indigeneity
4.4.1 Exploring Natural Alternatives
The term Nature Based Solutions (NbS) was popularized in 2016 and is defined as
“actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems that address
societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and
biodiversity benefits” (32). At its core, it acknowledges that Nature can be a part of the answer to
protect natural resources and offer a path towards sustainable practices. It promotes Nature as a
means to provide solutions to the challenges we face regarding sustainability.
For Indigenous peoples, NbS is not anything new; rather, the relationship between
biodiversity, natural resources, and human well-being is something that has been recognized for
centuries under the concept of traditional knowledge. Indigenous people’s knowledge systems
are inherently anti-capitalist and honor the interdependence of all life forms (32). This is where
the root of success lies for sustainable management of their resources. NbS can be redefined
from the Indigenous perspective to be seen as living WITH and ALONGSIDE nature, not above
or below it. Nature is not to be manipulated only to obtain economic gain. Above all,
non-economic and intangible benefits such as culture, identity, and spirituality are related to
nature and the solutions need to respond to nature based solutions (32).
When the land and its resources are used and enjoyed in a traditional way that doesn’t
seek to destroy and take apart naturally existing relationships and ties, it signifies the application
of knowledge that was created over centuries. This knowledge is framed in a very cosmogonic
vision of respect for life. Much like the Andean cosmovisions, nature is viewed as sacred. As
such, it is imperative that the definition and use of NbS should not be centered around
business-oriented solutions that perpetuate the separation between nature, culture, and
indigenous people’s rights. On a similar note, solutions should also not be extractive or
appropriative in the sense that indigenous people’s voices and efforts should not be excluded
from the picture. Indigenous peoples and the right to their knowledge, practices, and points of
view are key to sustainably managing the Earth’s resources.
Although widely used in the literature concerning indigenous studies, the term
“traditional culture” is broad, and may hence embody various meanings and be subject to
personal uses and interpretations. For the purposes of this project, this term specifically refers to
groups of indigenous people who have managed to largely maintain their ancient ways of living,
up to the present day, despite the varying degrees of contact with so-called complex societies. It
should not, however, be assumed that new knowledge cannot be incorporated into the culture.
The definition also implies that the acquired knowledge is systematically passed on from
generation to generation, from individual to individual, without being essentially lost in time.
Combined with western scientific-based models, indigenous ecological knowledge is expected to
play a vital role in the management of the most biologically diverse areas of the globe(10,5/8/9).
4.4.2 Corn & Water Purification
Corn, or Zea Mays, is a commonly grown crop plant that has been historically used for
many things in the past. General cultivation of maize generates large amounts of corn cobs as
agricultural waste. The local cultivators consume immature corn cobs. But the large quantity of
mature corn cob waste remains as such, because even animals avoid consumption of corn cobs
due to the threat of choking. As a result, cultivators resort to burning of the corn cobs for fuel
which however contributes to air pollution and consequently global warming.
Owing to their rigidity and high porous structure corn cobs possess adsorption properties
(5,9-11). In previous studies, it has been seen that detergents, colored dyes, salts, suspended
particles, oil, grease and even some heavy metals like lead, chromium get adsorbed onto the
surface of corn cobs (5,12-1). Thus, it is theoretically possible to separate about 70-80% of
contaminants from waste water at household level itself, by connecting the drain pipe to a
chamber having various layers of corn cobs (5,14-17). In addition, corn cob waste can be
converted into activated charcoal thus taking a step towards biomass utilization and bio resource
recycling (5,18).The charcoal, when prepared, has appreciably high surface area and is a
promising adsorbent for pollution control (5,19-20). In addition, corn is able to provide treatment
for water that is contaminated with heavy metals.
In order to use corn cobs for water filtration, they must be sun dried for over a week. The
corn cobs can be used for building a filter in three different forms such as: longitudinal sections
of dried corn cobs, small pieces of corn cobs, and powdered corn cobs
The dried corn cobs can be longitudinally cut into two halves using a hammer or knife.
Smaller sized cobs can be collected and broken into further small sizes. Corn cobs can also be
powdered by grinding them mechanically. However, corn in this form alone can only produce an
effluent that is fit for ground water recharge, gardening, flushing, or other indoor purposes. A
filter of just corn could thus be considered as an effective way of decreasing consumption from
Municipal points and water costs, without decreasing total water use in a household.
4.4.3 Peruvian Purple Corn
Purple corn (Zea mays L.), which belongs to the Kculli race, has been cultivated in the
Peruvian Andean region since approximately 900 B.C. and is domestically used for infusing
color into traditional beverages and desserts especially unfermented chichas and mazamorras,
which are maize and tapioca flour jellies (11,1). The use of Maiz Morado dates back to pre-Inka
periods as a spiritual ingredient in the production of chicha, a ceremonial alcoholic drink.
Women were specifically chosen, endowed with sacredness, and put in charge of weaving and
making food. Chicha is made for offerings in sacred places (often local farms) in order to give
back to the earth for its generosity in the recent harvest. Overall, this corn is viewed as a very
sacred being critical to many corn narratives that exist in the Andean regions of Latin America.
Because of its high anthocyanin content, Peruvian Purple corn has been explored as a
great health agent. Anthocyanins, an important group of phenolic compounds and water-soluble
pigments, are well known for their potential health benefits according to various in vivo studies
and some clinical trials (11,3/4). Most human health benefits associated with purple corn have
been mainly attributed to their high anthocyanin contents. Several in vitro and in vivo studies
with purple corn have reported anthocyanin-linked functional properties such as antioxidant,
anti- inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, and anti-hyperglycemic activity (11,8/9/10).
The antimicrobial potential of purple corn has not been studied extensively. Other studies
have pointed out that a certain purple corn hybrid from China showed a high in vitro
antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella Enteritidis due to its high
anthocyanin content and composition (34). Other plant-based foods rich in anthocyanins such as
berries have also shown antimicrobial properties against some pathogenic Gram-negative
bacteria (11,16). These studies were mainly focused on the anthocyanin- linked free phenolic
fraction; however, the potential antimicrobial activity of the cell wall-bound phenolic fraction
from purple corn has been studied only recently (with published reports set to come out in Peru
in 2022).
5. EXPERIMENTAL PLAN & METHODS
5.1 Build
5.1.1 Overall Build
 303cm

180cm

50cm

ndl~ \WI r
-----
100cm

M&cm
ftltraUonNncl

75cm

[Figure 6. Modified BSF Build Schematic]

Figure 6 illustrates the design used for this project and Table 2 summarizes the design
specifications. The filter is constructed using a 91 cm tall, 12” diameter schedule 40 PVC
drainage pipe. The pipe, when cut to its length, is sanded down manually on both ends using a
belt sander and sealed at the bottom with a custom-made schedule 40 cap. The cap itself consists
of a large outer disk and an inner ring to seal the bottom.
A nominal 12.7mm diameter PVC standpipe rises through the sand filtration media and
exits the filter base at a depth of 10 cm below the surface of the filtration layer (in order to avoid
disturbance of the biolayer). The positioning was adapted in consultation with the
aforementioned NGOs in order to decrease the length of the external outlet pipe in an effort to
reduce its exposure to damage and to minimize water pressure at the fitting where it passes
through the filter wall. The outlet pipe itself is supported with plastic and rubber gaskets. The
outlet pipe segments are connected using PVC glue, threaded, and slip socket elbows to allow for
tighter seals. The diffuser basin is another custom made piece out of 10” diameter, 3” deep
aluminum cake pans using an aluminum truncated cone extension. The basin itself has 2mm
holes spaced 1.5cm apart drilled in a grid like pattern at the bottom of the pan.
The filter has a reservoir depth of around 18 cm and a reservoir volume (that lies above
the standing water level) of around 13 L. The treatment sand filtration depth is 54.5 cm and the
water treatment capacity is around 16L (15.7).
[Table 2. Filter Schematic Dimension Specifications]
Dimension Description Size

Internal Diameter 30.3 cm

External Diameter 31.5 cm

Internal Height 90 cm

Total Filter Volume 64 L

Drainage Layer Depth 7.5 cm

Drainage Layer Volume 5.4 L

Separation Layer Depth 5 cm

Separation Layer volume 39.2 L

Filtration Sand Depth 54.5 cm

Filtration Sand Volume 39.2 L

Water Volume in the Filtration Layer 15.7 L

Standing Water over Sand 5 cm

Available water reservoir depth 18 cm

Available reservoir volume 16 L

Filter weight (Estimated) 10 kg

Diffuser Basin Depth 13 cm

Basin hole size 2 mm

 Basin hole spacing 1.5 cm

5.1.2 Tools & Machines

Table 3 lists the tools used for the filter construction and assembly.
[Table 3. Tools for Construction & Assembly]
Belt Sander C-Clamps Electric Drill

Tape Measure Drill Bits (2 & 3 mm) Circular sawing machine

Sand paper (120 grit) PVC solvent cement Thread Cutting Die (opt)

Threaded-seal Tape Clear silicone sealant Wash Basin

Measuring stick 1m Large Compass Stop watch

Filter Body Sieves for appropriate grain 5 & 7 L Buckets (5 each)

sizes

Milling Machine Bandsaw Welding Set-up

5.1.3 Materials for Construction

Table 4 lists the materials used for building four filters.
[Table 4. Filter Components]
Part Units

½ ” PVC, 11cm in length (inlet) 8

½ “ Slip socket end Caps 8

½ “ Slip socket tee 4

½ “ PVC 51 cm length (vertical segment) 4

½ “ PVC slip socket elbow 12

½ “ PVC 10cm Length (horizontal Segment) 4

½ “ Universal PVC Union 4cm Length 4

½ “ Galvanized Nipple 4cm length 4

Silicone Gaskets OD 4cm, ID 2.2 cm 12

Plastic Gaskets OD 4cm, ID 2.2 cm 12

½ “ Galvanized Threaded Elbow 4

 ½ “ PVC 13.5 cm Length (vertical exterior) 8

½” PVC 6cm Length (horizontal exterior) 4

Plywood 4mm Thick 14”x14” sheet 4

5.1.4 Materials for Installation

Table 5 lists the materials used for the installation of one filter.
[Table 5.Materials for Filter Installation]
Filter Body 3.6 L of washed 6mm gravel

5.4 L of washed 12mm gravel 40 L of washed 0.7 mm sand

Interior pipe assembly Exterior pipe assembly

Diffuser Basin 7L Bucket

Bucket Lid Rubber/Plastic Gaskets

PVC Solvent Cement Clear Silicone Sealant

Thread Seal Tape Plywood Lid

5.2 Experimental Set-Up

For this project, four base filters were built using the design outlined above. All filters
were built to have similar construction and few discrepancies from each other. Among those
four, one filter serves as the control with no corn product added. The other three filters
incorporate corn products at various degrees. Filter 2 incorporates the husk material 7cm below
the surface of the biolayer. Nothing is done to the corn husks themselves; they are simply lain
over the exposed surface area as an additional layer (35). Since husks can very easily break apart
into small particles, they are not physically modified in order to avoid clogging. Filter 3
incorporates corn cobs and seeds. Both corn cobs and corn seeds in maize show very similar
porosity and adosbrency levels (only differing by 6%) and are thus used equally in a mix to
conserve resources. Corn seeds are very lightly ground to expose more surface area. Corn cobs
are cut into uniform 5 inch lengths and then split in half before layering a 3.5” layer 7cm below
the surface of the biolayer. Filter 4 incorporates both the husks and the cobs/seeds with the husks
being the layer sitting above the cobs/seeds. Preparation of both media does not differ.
Since the primary focus for the water output is water quality, a narrower focus was
established to be bacterial contamination. When testing the presence of living organisms, it is
recommended that water be sourced from a fresh resource to circumvent the intervention of
chlorine or fluoride. For solely mechanical experiments (e.g. flowrate or turbidity), water from
the tap is adequate. In order to test each of these filters, a ‘basic waste-water’ was created in lab
using 6L of deionized water, a Hach BOD buffer pillow, and cultured E. coli strains. E. coli
strains were first grown on HardyCHROM ECC Media agar plates (meant for growing E. coli) at
35 degrees celsius until relatively uniform colonies were formed. For each batch of 6L of water,
20 colonies were transferred into the water and left to stand alone for 30 minutes. This uniform
water was created in order to reduce the influence of uncontrollable variables that would have
arisen from more variable sources of wastewater. The Crum river, a river close to the base where
the project was conducted, would’ve added multiple variables and interactions that would make
it hard to isolate a successful variable. The simplicity is necessary in this project as it is a
preliminary study meant to establish i) a baseline working BSF construction and ii) whether or
not the independent variable at hand, the levels of corn product, will provide any extra efficiency.
In order to examine the efficiency with turbidity, a similar control water was made using
½ tsp of corn starch with 6 L of regular tap water. The turbidity of each sample was recorded
using a HACH DR900 Colorimeter. Values for the control water were to be established at around
90-110 NTU.
Flow rate and head loss were observed. However, the hydraulics of the filter, despite
being a primary goal in water filtration design, were not addressed for the sake of simplicity in a
preliminary study.
Due to the lack of availability of husk material, corn plants using seeds imported from
Peru were grown using on-campus greenhouse facilities. These corn plants were planted on the
26th of February and were grown in conjunction with filter construction and development.
Throughout the process, the growing process, corn narrative, and Andean cosmovisions were
shared with close companions on campus in an effort to engage them with the sustainability that
drives indigeneity.
5.3 Lab Techniques & Methods
5.3.1 Filter Construction & Set-Up
Filtration media is essential to the BioSand Filter performance. Media should be sourced
from a local quarry. Recently crushed rock is recommended so that it is free of debris, clay, and
bacterial contaminants. Preparation of the filtration media requires four sieve sizes: 12 mm ( 1⁄2
inch), 6 mm ( 1⁄4 inch), 1 mm (0.04 inch), and 0.7 mm (0.03 inch). Piles of each size of media
should be made from the collected rock material.
For this project, media was sourced in 80 lb bags from a local construction company. A
set of seven sieves were used with varying intermittent sizes as shown in fig X. Filter material
was manually sieved through each of these and separated by size until enough of each of the
three needed grain sizes were achieved. Once all filter media was separated, it was then washed
with tap water using a large black basin before being left out to dry.
A common failure mode during the preparation of the filter is neglecting to clean the
media. Absence of washing media can cause small particles to fill the spaces between the sand
particles, causing the flow rate of the filter to be significantly slower than desired.
Custom parts were made with the assistance of the shop manager and various machinery
such as the SHARP Mill Drill Machine, belt sanders, general welding setups, and the DOALL
Bandsaw. Attempts were always made to use scrap/leftover material in order to cut back down
on the costs and sustainability footprint.
5.3.2 For Data Acquisition
In order to obtain data regarding the coliform count, a membrane filtration technique was
on each sample prior to entering the filter and after exiting the filter. The membrane filtration
technique used was the Hach MEthod 8074 for counting coliforms, total, Fecal and E. coli. For
samples with high levels of bacteria, dilution is necessary to achieve around 20-200 bacteria
colonies growing on the membrane filter.
Since E. coli is the only bacteria being used, a test for total coliforms will be accurate
enough. The steps are simplified as follows:
1. Invert one m-Endo broth 2-3 times before pouring the contents equally over an absorbent pad.
2. Set up the membrane filtration apparatus. Use sterile forceps to put a membrane filter in the
assembly. The grid side of the filter should be facing upwards.
3. Obtain 350 ml of the sample at hand and invert for 30 seconds.
4. Pour the sample into the filtration apparatus and apply the vacuum until the funnel is empty.
5. Rinse the funnel with 20-30 ml of sterile buffered dilution water. Apply the vacuum. Repeat 2
more times.
6. Stop the vacuum when the funnel is empty. Remove the funnel and then use sterile forceps to
carefully lift the membrane filter.
7. Place the membrane filter on the absorbent pad. Let the filter bend and fall equally across the
pad to minimize air bubbles.
8. Place the lid on the petri dish and invert the dish.
9. Incubate the inverted dish at 35 degrees celsius for 22-24 hours.
10. Remove the petri dish and use the microscope to count the number of bacterial colonies on the
membrane filter.
Results are interpreted as the number of colonies in a 100 ml sample. The determination
of that number comes from taking the number of coliforms counted and dividing it by the mL
sample volume before then multiplying it by 100.
Table 6. Materials Necessary for Membrane Filtration
Description Quantity

m-Endo Broth Ampule 1

Sterile buffered dilution water 1 package of 500 ml bottles

0.45 micron membrane filter 1 set

Petri dish with absorbent pad 47mm 1 set

Filtration apparatus with aspirator/pump 1

Forceps 1

Microscope 1
 Pipettes (for dilution) 1

Incubator 1
Data regarding turbidity was much more linear to collect. Samples were tested using the
Hach DR900 Colorimeter by filling the appropriate test tube and initiating the correct program
on the device. Samples were taken in seconds.
The output flow of the filter was measured only for the sake of identifying the flow rate;
not to examine it as a part of this study. When conducting experimental tests of the BSF’s
performance regarding flowrate, the flowrate must be measured at the same level of head each
time. Using a marker, mark a line on the inside of the filter to indicate the water level where the
output flowrate measurement will take place. Measuring the output flowrate requires a 0.5 L
beaker and a stopwatch. The following lists procedures for measuring the flowrate:

1. 5 gallons of water is poured into the filter.

2. Once the water level in the BSF reaches the level indicated by the marked line, the beaker
is placed at the output nozzle of the filter and the stopwatch is started.
3. Once the water level in the beaker reaches the 0.5 L mark, the stopwatch is stopped and
the time required to fill the beaker is recorded.
4. An additional 1-2 L of water is poured into the BSF and steps 2 and 3 are repeated again
to. The whole process is completed three times; resulting in three measurements of time
required to fill a 0.5 L beaker.
5. These time measurements are averaged and converted to a flowrate measurement in L/hr
by the following conversion:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 [ 𝐿 ] = 1800/h𝑟 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑙 0.5𝐿 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑟)

6. RESULTS
6.1 Water Quality
It should be noted that results here are collected without the presence of the biolayer. Due
to various time constraints that arose from construction and assembly hurdles, the biolayer was
not given enough time to form and be accounted for in this study. As such, the focus is now on
the effects of modifying the granular filtration mechanics behind a BSF with the addition of corn
products.
Statistical results were achieved using the scipy.stats.ttest function in Python.
6.1.1 Coliform Count
Table 7. Coliform Counts and Averages for Each Filter Across 8 Trials: The Before, After, and %
Reductions
FILTER 1
(Control) FILTER 2 FILTER 3 FILTER 4
Trial Before After % Red Before After % Red Before After % Red Before After % Red
1 67 20 70.15 63 12 80.95 58 6 89.65 67 15 77.61
2 70 20 71.43 73 21 71.23 76 8 89.47 59 7 88.13
3 86 24 72.10 90 23 74.44 63 10 84.12 68 13 80.88
4 63 18 71.42 71 14 80.28 69 7 89.85 74 15 79.72
5 75 21 72.00 83 16 80.72 77 8 89.61 71 10 85.91
6 59 17 71.19 76 15 80.26 80 9 88.75 69 11 84.06
7 81 22 72.84 57 11 80.70 79 7 91.14 83 13 84.34
8 71 20 71.83 64 13 79.69 83 11 86.75 77 13 83.12
Average 71.5 20.25 71.62 72.125 14 80.54 73.125 8.25 88.67 71 11.25 84.17

Table 8. T-Statistic and P-Values for Conducted T-Tests for Total Coliform
Filter Comparison T-Statistic p-Value

F1-F2 -23.38 6.63E-08

F1-F3 -19.96 0.000000198

F1-F4 -38.1 2.237E-09

F2-F3 -8.45 0.0000639

F2-F4 -7.94 0.0000955

F3-F4 4.721 0.002154

6.1.2 Turbidity
Table 9. Turbidity and Averages for Each Filter Across 6 Trials: The Before, After, and %
Reductions
FILTER 1 FILTE FILTE FILTE
(Control) R2 R3 R4
Trial Before After % Red Before After % Red Before After % Red Before After % Red
1 91 27 70.33 93 38 59.14 95 16 83.16 94 15 84.04
2 92 25 72.83 92 36 60.87 96 15 84.37 94 14 85.11
3 91 26 71.43 91 35 61.54 93 17 81.72 93 14 84.94
4 93 27 70.97 92 35 61.96 92 15 83.70 92 15 83.70
5 94 28 70.21 92 37 59.78 93 15 83.87 95 16 83.16
6 92 26 71.74 94 39 58.51 93 14 84.94 92 13 85.87
Average 92.16 26.5 71.25 92.33 36.66 60.30 95 16 83.16 94 15 84.042

Table 10. T-Statistic and P-Values for Conducted T-Tests for Turbidity
 Filter Comparison T-Statistic p-Value

F1-F2 17.77 0.000010355

F1-F3 -24.48 0.000010355

F1-F4 -33.55 4.4195E-07

F2-F3 -26.59 0.000001404

F2-F4 -32.818 4.93623E-07

F3-F4 -1.5596 0.17958

5.1.3 Miscellaneous Filter Characteristics

Table 11. Initial Observed Flow rate (in L/hr)
Filter 1 Filter 2 Filter 3 Filter 4

46 49 42 46

6.2 Feasibility
6.2.1 Financial Costs
With an exchange rate of 3.28 soles (s/.) to 1 USD, the unadjusted cost for producing
each filter comes out to be s./355.11. When adjusted to the localized cost of materials in Peru, the
cost per filter decreases to s./198.47.
6.2.2 Time Consumption & Labor
The total construction & assembly time needed to complete all four filters came out to be
over 115 hrs the span of 7 weeks. Construction was completed with between two people (one of
which is the shop manager) while assembly was completed by only one person.
7. DISCUSSION
7.1 Design Results: Water Quality
The results for the control filter indicate a solid degree of success in the overall design of
the filter for addressing water quality with reductions in both parameters averaging to 72%.
Across the board, the averages of the other modified filters demonstrate that there is an
improvement in coliform count regardless of the combination of added corn products. Regarding
turbidity, initial results demonstrate similar improvements. However, results indicate that filter 2,
the filter with just husks, seems to inhibit filtration to some degree. This inhibition is also seen in
the flowrate as it had the slowest flow rate observed of the three filters. Already, this is indicative
of how the addition of husks could possibly be an unnecessary addition into the BSF.
Thus, in terms of initial effectiveness, the filter with the most improvement, based on the
fact that the priority parameter is total coliform count, would be filter 3 , just the mix of cob and
seeds. This could be attributed to the fact that cob adsorbency is much higher and more efficient
than that of husks (18,3). While nothing definite can be said about the particulars of using
Peruvian Purple corn and its initial effects on filter effectiveness, it seems that the addition of
some kind of corn product did affect results. Filter 4 came in next in terms of demonstrating the
most improvement. This filter had a combination of cob/seeds and husks. This could be
attributed to the fact that it incorporated some amount of husks directly over the cob/seed layer
which acted to inhibit the filter’s performance. Filter 3, just the husks, demonstrated the least
improvement which further supports the conjecture that husks are detrimental to the filter’s
effectiveness.
In terms of a statistical analysis, the base null hypothesis is established to be that there is
no difference between the filters being compared. After running two-sample t-tests between each
of the three variations of filters and the control, the calculated p-values dictated a baseline of
significant difference across the board for both coliforms and turbidity. This confirms the initial
claim that the addition of corn product does affect the outcome of the filter to a degree. Similar
results were achieved between the filters themselves for coliform count and turbidity. This
affirms that the reason there are differences in levels of improvement is due to the variation of
media. To put it more simply, the corn and the specific kind of corn product adde does affect the
filter improvement.
When further examining the results for turbidity, there was no significant difference
observed between filters ¾ (with a p value of 0.17958 ). This further supports the conjecture that
the presence of the husks is not necessary. While each corn plant has its differences, despite how
thicker the husks for Peruvian purple corn were in comparison to other varieties other studies, the
absorbency potential appears to still be inferior to that of corn seeds/cobs (which, in other
studies, have shown to be around the same porosity and to be more effectively adsorbent than
husks) (38). For larger particles like silt, which was tested in turbidity, the husks alone were not
able to remove nearly as much as cobs/seeds could do alone. Even when they were added in the
4th filter for a compounded effort, the average improvement was 1-2%. This is due the relative
thickness/size to the corn/cob layers as well as its potential to break off and clog the filter. Husks
should still therefore be explored for their potential as biochemically active extracts due to the
fact that they are very high in anthocyanin, phenolic acids, and flavonoids derivatives (all of
which have been shown to have antimicrobial and bacterial properties).
It is important to remember that the biolayer could not be incorporated into this study.
Whether or not the addition of these materials could hinder, replace, or augment the effectiveness
of the design and filtration of the filter is something that could not be explored.
7.2 Design Cost
The total cost per filter came to be around 355.11 soles (s./). Using the current exchange
rate of s./3.28 to 1 USD, that comes out to around 108 USD. While 355.11 s./ does not seem like
a sizable amount in terms of USD, 355.11 is a good portion of income for many of the target
users in Peru. This cost implies the need for more of an initial investment for users that might
prove to be more of a social hurdle than a financial one (that could be mitigated with the
assistance of outside funding through non-profits. This first cost still proves to be less than the
estimated cost to build a concrete BSF (~ s./830). While this cost is to be split among
communities, since concrete BSF are larger and meant to serve more people, the goal of this
study was to give each household more independent and individual control over their water
management.
However, when taking into consideration the adjusted costs of materials in Peru, the cost
can come down to around s./198.47 which is far more feasible. This number, along with the
initial calculated number, is still a ballpark estimate because of the fact that custom parts are
made using relatively expensive machinery available at Swarthmore College. Thus, while certain
materials are cheaper and easier to access, the same does not apply for the machinery that
enabled the creation of a custom bottom lid or diffuser basin.
The items that reduced the cost the most for construction in Peru were all the PVC
materials used. While the most costly thing to obtain in the US was the PVC base pipe, in Peru, it
is an item far more available and cheaper to obtain (in agreement with the consulted NGOs).
7.3 Design Feasibility
In terms of the amount of time spent for construction, a total of around ~117 hours were
spent across 7 weeks. While four filters were built, it was still much longer than the anticipated
1-2 weeks of construction time. In addition, due to outside complications, there were times
where no progress was made in a week at all. Complications directly related to the project and
construction also arose (see section 7.4). In addition, these filters were constructed by two people
and assembled by one. Realistically, the construction and implementation of these filters would
be done by a team which would more evenly distribute the labor and shorten the overall time
until completion.
The overall design also proved to be simple with its PVC construction. Regardless of
how long it took to make these four filters, it would have taken considerably longer and would
have taken more resources to construct a steel mold from scratch. The design still maintains the
ease of use that comes with regular BSF while also incorporating materials that are easy and
cheap to acquire. While the use of these filters was not tested with Peruvian populations, as they
could not feasibly be shipped for this project,
7.4 Design Challenges & Flaws
Within the construction and assembly of these four filters, various challenges arose. The
most complicated processes involved making the custom parts for the filter’s custom design.
This involved making endcaps for the large filter base. While these are sold by manufacturers,
they are relatively expensive to buy and source in the US. Thus, creating one manually by hand
without using a mold meant dealing with a limited amount of flat PVC material to work with,
having to sand down edges to create smooth surfaces, being left with gaps and curves that lead to
sealing issues, and dealing with uneven measurements. The biggest issues was that the PVC
pipes were not exactly ‘circular’. They were slightly deformed due to a variety of stresses and
made it hard to use the milling machine on hand (which relied on accurate shapes and
measurements to cut out pieces).
The second part that was difficult to make was the diffuser basin. Initially, the idea was to
use galvanized sheet metal to mold and make a custom basin. However, after discussing with the
shop manager, a different approach was taken. An attempt was made to source an aluminum pan
with the exact diameter and depth that was needed for the basin. However, this proved to be
impossible and thus 3” deep, 10” wide aluminum cake pans were used as a base. An aluminum
truncated cone element was created to close the gap in both height and diameter. This in itself
also presented challenges in that the measurements to make the truncated cone relied on a large,
handmade compass jig (since there was no compass big enough to make the proper sketches).
Without an automated metal roller, the cone elements had to be manually rolled and proved to be
an additional challenge to both builders as they had no experience rolling cones. The final
challenge relating to the basins was welding the molded cone piece directly on top of the
aluminum pans. This process took a little over a week to complete all four basins and resulted in
many trials/errors.
In addition to the custom elements, the sourcing of both the large PVC pipe and filter
media took a relatively longer time than it should have. In an ideal scenario, there would have
been more time to source these things, to anticipate the challenges, restrictions, and bumps in the
road that the project experienced. There was simply not enough time, machines, or enough of the
shop-manager to go around.
7.5 Things Not Addressed
There were many things not addressed with these filters. The primary issue being that the
biolayer could not be incorporated. The biolayer is a crucial component for a BSF and the main
reason why the control filter only managed to remove ~70% of coliform. Usually, the
incorporation of the biolayer results in an effectiveness of around 98-99%. Whether the addition
of the corn products positively or negatively affects the efficiency of the filter is yet to be
determined. However, the fact that the corn could demonstrate such preliminary improvements
says quite a bit about its potential for more immediate use of a BSF. The biolayer in a BSF takes
around 3-4 weeks to properly form, thus leaving the user with 2-3 weeks of ‘vulnerability’ which
could be bridged by the addition of the corn.
In terms of the corn itself, the various antimicrobial and antibacterial properties could not
find a use within the filter itself. Various studies cite the possibilities of making extracts from
corn products which begs the question of whether treating the filter material with extracts from
Peruvian Purple corn would enhance the filter’s capabilities, and for how long, or reduce the
need for a biolayer to begin with. Aside from these properties, the long-term effect of the corn
incorporation could not be studied. Usually, BSFs need to be cleaned after 2-months of use
(which is also contingent on how often it is used). However, by adding corn product/organic
material, one increases the chance for rotting and clogging overtime. This would theoretically
shorten the time span of usefulness and might prove to be more of a hassle than it is worth than
by just using the control filter.
Since the primary focus was particle removal and not filter-run time, the hydraulics
working behind the filter were also not addressed. This is important because the grain size of the
filter media affects the rate of flow which affects the capacity and the usefulness of the filter.
Faster rates of flow imply the filter is not cleaning the water as effectively. Slower rates imply
the opposite but at the cost of more time which may prove to be a deal breaker for households
looking to make an investment in this kind of project.
6.6 Further Adaptations/Testing
Since this was very much a preliminary study, there are a variety of future avenues in
which to take this project. The first being to test other food products commonly eaten in Peru and
their applicability to the modified BSF. This would help further reduce food waste and further
engage populations and communities in Peru with water purification systems. An example of a
food item that demonstrates similar properties to that of corn would be avocados (6).
Additionally, this filter should eventually be tested with more complex and realistic water
samples that mirror household water from rural and urban Peru. While the use of the lab
generated water did allow for all the conclusions above to be made, it is still only an abstraction
of the kinds of contaminants that are found in Peruvian water. Furthermore, the most repeated,
and perhaps most important, venture would be to bring the biolayer back to life.
There are also plenty of filter modifications to be explored which include changing and
modifying the grain size of the filter media, changing the orientation and the height of the filter,
and modifying the filter to treat heavy metals.
8. CONCLUSION
Peru, much like many communities in South America, struggles with water scarcity as a
pluralistic issue that affects the livelihoods of so many people. Not having the ability and the
right to manage and access water has proven to be incredibly costly and deadly to various
communities that are often forgotten by colonialist states. While other methods for household
water treatment do exist, they are not feasible in the long term for individual household water
management. As such, the modified design of the existing concrete BioSand Water filter was
created and modified with the addition of corn products to address three main goals outlined in
section 4.2. Overall, the constructed filter sufficiently met at least two of these established goals.
The most effective filter was able to reduce the coliform count of water samples by 89% and was
able to reduce turbidity NTU by 83%. The design is also a very simple and cost effective one
with a total cost that is very feasible for Peruvian homes. The only goal not sufficiently met is
whether or not this could be sustainably incorporated and accepted into Peruvian homes. This, in
addition with the various future ventures that this preliminary study generated, provides more
than enough reason to pursue the potential for the incorporation of Maiz Morado (Peruvian
Purple corn) into BSF as well as the modification for more small, household filters to be studied
in Peru.
11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Alicia Medina Hoyos for her guidance and insight on Peruvian
Purple Corn, Professor McGarity for his general guidance throughout this project, Professor
Siddiqui for lending me the sieves necessary to sort the media, and James Johnson for the
assistance in the construction of these four filters. I would also like to thank the two NGOs I
worked with; FICUS and LosSinAgua. I also have my friends, family, and supporters to thank
for validating my work and efforts along the way.
10. REFERENCES
(see Notes doc with sources notes) Will finish once recovered from the second shot of the
COVID vaccine